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Viral diseases causing problems to the routine performance of the wild animals are caused substantially by many viral agents also

Natural areas in tropical and sub tropical climates are more likely to enhance development of parasitic loads because of the fact that there are variations in climates of these areas in addition to the variations in the type of vegetations and species of wild fauna.

ìMetabolic Diseasesî mean the diseases that occur due to the ìimbalance between the rate of input of dietary nutrients and the ìoutput of productsî (product like new born, milk for young one etc.) and lead to the occurrence of metabolic derangements in the affected wild animal species.

Colic is a general term that implies abdominal pain and is one of the major causes of death in animals including elephants, camelids etc.

Felid medicine needs to be well understood by the veterinarians in zoos or in any other captive wild animal places. Severe toxic reactions occur by usage of paracetamol in felids. Methaemoglobinaemia is the toxic sign noticed in felids. Hence, the zoo veterinarian can use either meloxicam or ketoprofen, in general. Tetracyclines are the drugs of choice for Ehrlichia canis and Rickettsia rickettsii in feline as well as in canine medicine.

All lagomorphs (meaning ìhare-shapedî) are small to medium-sized terrestrial herbivores. They superficially resemble rodents and in older classifications were even included in the order Rodentia, as both possess a set of continuously growing incisor teeth. It is now recognized that these two orders have long separate evolutionary histories.

Due to the paucity of clinical data, therapeutic management measures available with domestic animal-practice needs to be extrapolated for due usage in case of captive wild animals reared in zoos, zoological parks and zoological gardens.

Rescue of any wild animal during the occurrence of natural disaster regardless of the habitat / topography is totally difference when compared with any domestic animal species. The person engaging in the rescue activities of wild fauna in regions exposed to natural disasters or calamities need to understand about the general classification of wild fauna as a first step.

Use of modern reproductive biotechnologies or assisted reproductive techniques (ART) include in general artificial insemination, embryo transfer/sexing, in vitro fertilization, gamete/embryo micromanipulation, semen sexing, genome resource banking, and somatic cell nuclear transfer (cloning) in conservation programs for endangered mammalian species. The biotechnologies of these kinds generally permit more and more offspring to be obtained from selected parents to ensure genetic diversity and may reduce the interval between generations.

The metabolic rate of reptiles is lower than for mammals and birds, and consequently the k constant in determining energy expenditure, nutritional requirements and even calculating allometric drug doses are related to the equation: Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) = K(Wkg0.75) = Kcal/day, where K is the energy constant = 10 in reptiles and Wkg is the animalís weight in kilograms.

Birds are extremely vulnerable to handling (even injection related events) stress and hence, chemically immobilize for a detailed clinical examination or intensive sampling procedures).

Management of zoo and exotic animals in zoos are carried out in different ways. In the management of zoo, various cadres of personnel get employed and often, a team-approach is highly required and however, veterinarian is one of the important cadres in the zoo related personnel and veterinary interventions are highly required for management of feeding, housing, breeding and health of various species of wild fauna belonging to multiple taxonomical groups.

The aim of any good zoo should be to recreate the habitat from which the animal came as accurately as possible, with enough space to move around and enough stimulation so that they can behave naturally. Monkey cages should have plenty of branches for them to swing from and bird cages should have enough room so that they can fly. Some zoos hide the lionís or tigerís food so that they have to use their senses to explore and find it.

Captive breeding programme is generally considered as a process of breeding animals in controlled environments within well-defined settings, such as wildlife reserves, zoos and other commercial/noncommercialconservation facilities.Use of modern reproductive biotechnologies or assisted reproductive techniques (ART) include in general artificial insemination, embryo transfer/sexing, in vitro fertilization, gamete/embryo micromanipulation, semen sexing, genome resource banking, and somatic cell nuclear transfer (cloning) in conservation programs for endangered mammalian species.

Veterinarians, biologists, field assistants, hunters, and other individuals who work directly with wildlife have an increased risk of acquiring these diseases directly from animal hosts or their ectoparasites. Plague, tularemia, and leptospirosis have been acquired in the handling and skinning of rodents, rabbits, and carnivores.

In the wildlife conservation and management, restraint and handling of wild/zoo and exotic animals play a prominent role. Zoo veterinarian has to deal with animal handling on a regular basis for various purposes like routine health checkup, research purpose (assisted reproductive techniques, blood collection for genetic health analysis, radio-collaring), or for conservation and management purposes (capture of problematic animals, translocation. introduction and reintroduction) and for the marking of animals. So, proper management called for good restraint in wildlife.

Chemical restraint is a form of animal restraint technique in which a drug or a chemical is used to restrict the movement (walking, running, aggression) of an animal or sometimes just to sedate or to calm down the animal. Chemical restraint is a safe and effective capture method when applied correctly and with due precaution.

Chemical immobilization of elephants needs an understanding of itís special features as a priority. Lungs are adhered to the chest wall by fibrous tissue and there is no pleural space. This fact must be taken into consideration when the elephant is cast or put into positions that may inhibit respiration.The trunk of the elephant is a vital organ. An injured or paralyzed trunk is a serious problem; if it cannot be corrected, the elephant will starve.

Once the animal is darted, immobilized animal should be under the expert care of an experienced wildlife veterinarian. The veterinarian needs to monitor the complete immobilization process and should know what to do if something goes wrong. Keep the darted animal in sight and allow the drug to act completely which may generally take 5- 25 minutes depending on the species, sex, drug used, and body condition of animal. Any noise or excitement may cause immobilized animal to wake up or take flight which may make animal search difficult.

Visiting the zoo should be understood in terms of conservation by all and it is to be remembered that the zoo is a captive wild animal place wherein the public and particularly the children have ample opportunities to see the various species of wild fauna which includes not only the native species of wild mammals, reptiles, aves, amphibians, butterflies etc. but the exotic speciess of wild animals also in general.

Wildlife Sanctuary is a natural habitat, owned by the government or private agency, that safeguards particular species of birds and animals to make sure that viable population of the wildlife and their habitats are maintained.

The ability to inject a drug into a free ranging animal using a remote injection system is a main stay of zoo and wild life medicine and the accepted and routine procedures of today for anesthetizing free ranging, dangerous, or hyper excitable animals are to be well understood for the proper preventive medical procedures, medical treatment, surgery, or scientific study. However, all these were earlier existing only as a dream, until remote injection-based gadgets like darts, blow pipes and distant drug-delivery gadgets like pistol and rifle were duly developed, in conjunction with safer injectable anesthetics.

Amounts up to 5 ml of blood can be safely drawn from the auricular marginal vein, using a 23- to 25-gauge needle (or) a 23-gauge butterfly attached to a syringe or tube. The jugular vein should be avoided for blood collection if the rabbit suffers from a respiratory problem or shows respiratory distress. It may become cyanotic during the procedure. Alternate sites for blood collection are the cephalic and the lateral saphenous veins. (Their locations are the same as in dogs and cats. These veins are fragile, and a hematoma is easily formed).

A veterolegal post mortem examination should be done by written order from the Police or the District Magistrate.

Before examination carefully read the police report.

Clinical examination of animals regardless of domestic or wild ones is of utmost significance during the assessment of health status in animals. Prior to collecting samples, it is important to determine the capabilities and submission criteria of the laboratory receiving the samples.

Hard tongue due to fibrous tissue proliferation (termed as wooden tongue) is a characteristic feature.

Swab and smear from abscess and tissue samples including tongue and lymphnodes.

Cereals are cultivated grasses grown for their edible starchy grains. Larger grains used as staple food – Rice, wheat, maize, barley, oats etc.

Barley is believed to be originated from Asia and Ethiopia. Its Sanskrit name ‘Yava’ is mentioned in ‘Veda’ and use of barley in religious ceremonies has been described which shows that barley has been grown in India since ancient times. It is widely believed that the ‘Near-East region’ is the probable place of origin of barley around 8000 BC (Harlan, 1968). There are two theories regarding the origin of barley. 

The ancient wisdom of the Indians about the value of pulses in human nutrition is perhaps, responsible to an extent for the widespread vegetarianism in our country. The staple pulse component in combination with cereals in our diet emanates from this recognition, Modern nutritionists also substantiate that this combination is superior to either pulse or cereal alone.

Lentil is one of the oldest nutritious rabi pulse crop. The whole or splitted seeds are used in preparing dal and delicious namkin commonly called dalmoth. The splitted seeds are also used in making soup and porridge. Green pods are used as vegetables. The leaves and stalks are used as cattle feed.

Pea (Pisum sativum L.), the famous plant in which G.H. Mendel worked out Mendel Laws and Genetic Principles, is a noble and aristocratic vegetable. The crop is cultivated for its tender and immature pods for use as vegetable and mature dry pods for use as a pulse. In both cases, seeds are separated and used as vegetable or pulse.

Rapeseed and mustard are termed in different names in different places. Sarson and toria (lahi) are generally termed as rape seeds. Rai, raya or laha are termed as mustard. Rape seed and mustard belongs to the species Brassica of the family Cruciferae. It is an annual plant or biennial herbs. Rape seed and mustard are the major rabi oilseed crops of India.

Sunflower was introduced as an oil seed crop in India in 1967. The crop is now widely cultivated in all parts of India and in any type of situation. Sunflower belongs to Compositae family and the cultivated species is Helianthus annus spp. macrocarpus. Apart from the edible oil species, there are non-oily types, other edible forms and ornaments. Helianthus tuberosus gives the edible tubers.

Indian canes probably originated in the moist parts of North Eastern India from some plants closely related to Saccharum spontaneum (Barber, 1931). Brandes (1956) concluded that tropical cane might have originated in some of the larger islands of Oceania countries most probably in New Guinea, where various forms of thick, tall tropical canes have been grown from ancient times. Parthasarathy (1946) believed that India is the original home of Saccharum officinarum.

The Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative (SSI) aims at providing practical options to the farmers in improving the productivity of land, water and labour, all at the same time. SSI is also expected to reduce the overall pressure on water resources and contribute to the recovery of ecosystems. Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative is an innovative method of sugarcane production using less seeds, less water and optimum utilization of fertilizers and land to achieve more yields.

Jaggery making is a simple process comprising crushing of sugarcane for juice extraction, filtration and boiling of juice for concentration and then cooling and solidifying to give jiggery blocks.

Mints are a group of perennial herbaceous plants, belonging to the family Lamiaceae: Labiatae, which yield essential oil on distillation. The various species of mints which are commercially cultivated in different parts of the world are: Japanese mint or corn mint or field mint (Mentha arvensis subsp haplocalyx Briquet var. Piperscens Holmes var. Javanica), peppermint (M. Piperita L.) spearmint or garden mint or lamb mint (M. spicata L.) and bergamot mint or orange mint (M. citrata Ehrh.)

It is a perennial grass about 2 to 3m tall with profuse tillering habit having linear lanceolate leaves. The inflorescence is a highly branched terminal panicle.

Origin: The origin is India

It is a tufted aromatic perennial herb with fibrous roots, erect over 2 m tall, with smooth leaves and bearing a large inflorescence.

Origin: The origin of citronella is Sri Lanka

They are short duration crops. Fodder is available for use in short period, e.g., cowpea and soybean can be harvested within 50-60 days of sowing. Being short duration crops, they can fit well in the gaps between two crops or seasons as catch crop.

Origin is generally accepted that the genetic/evolutionary origin of lucerne is in the near east center of Vavilof and that the species developed in Asia Minor, Iran and the highlands of Turkmenistan. All these areas have cold winters and hot dry summers. The soil is well drained with an approximately neutral pH and has subsoils with deposits of calcium (lime). Sinskaya, a Russian, asserts that lucerne originated in two areas and that there was a second development in central Asia.

Maize is an ideal forage crop grown throughout the country. It is quick growing, high yielding and provides palatable and nutritious forage which can be fed at any stage of growth without any risk to animals. Maize produces good quality herbaceous fodder with high digestibility. On an average, it contains 9-10% crude protein, 60-64% neutral detergent fibre, 38-41% acid detergent fibre, 28-30% cellulose and 23-25% hemi cellulose on dry matter basis when harvested at milk to early-dough stage. It can be fed as green or dry and makes excellent silage.

Oats originated in the Mediterranean region and from there it spread to most of the countries of the world like U.S.A., Russia, Canada, Poland, Australia, France and Germany.

Predominantly, an agrarian society is mostly dependent on the farm sector. Agriculture plays an important role in Indian economy notwithstanding its shrinkage in share in the gross domestic product (GDP) of the country being 55.4% in 1950-’51 and 17.4% in 2018-’19 (Tripathy, 2019). Still the agriculture and allied sector is providing employment to 54 percent of the Indian population.

The competitive relations among the cultivated crop species perform a relation and these are pronounced during the early growth period of the crops and during later phases. The crop’s performance is reflected into the yield output. Intercropping research so far conducted is based on the experimental layout of either replacement or additive series.

Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy in different developing countries and it is not only nourishing the population, but also contributing a major share in country’s gross domestic product (GDP). During the second half of the twentieth century and after, modern agriculture encouraged intensive cropping with high cost and consumption of fossil-fuel based energy. Yield enhancement was achieved by adoption of modern technologies, but that was at the cost of ecological unbalance.

During recent time, world agriculture is in search of sustainability in farming. However, it is tedious job for the developing countries because of poor input management and degradation of resources, ever-growing human population and increasing demand for food and livestock feed, and shrinkage of land and other natural resources.

Agriculture is an important factor for human civilization as it not only provides food, feed for the livestock, fibre, fuel and industrial raw material but also supports the livelihood of a wide range of world population. Besides, it shows its prominent presence in the economy of the developing countries. Being a developing country, agriculture is the largest sector in India where about 54% of the population is engaged. The growth of agriculture in India during last seven and half decades (after independence) is quite remarkable in terms of sufficient food-grains production as well as in achieving self-sufficiency in food production. The task to achieve it was not so easy.

Worldwide, agriculture contributes a lot for mankind by providing food and feed for human beings and livestock, respectively. The countries where agriculture plays a vital role, it has enough importance in the economy of the country as well as gross domestic product (GDP).