eChapters

Introduction

Rhizobia are Gram-negative soil bacteria , aerobic nitrogen fixers and adhere to the roots of leguminous plants. Fixed nitrogen is assimilated to proteins and is transported along the plants. A part of proteins is also released in rhizosphere region.

Requirements

1. Yeast Extract Mannitol Agar (YEMA)
2. Sterile saline
3. HgCl₂ solution (1%)
4. Ethanol (70%)
5. Root nodules of Mung bean
6. Water blanks
7. Pipettes
8. Petri plates
9. BOD Incubator

Introduction

As Rhizobia are slow growers so their enumeration by plating techniques is less recommended. Rhizobia can be enumerated in the presence of a large number of other organisms by most probable number (MPN) method. Soil containing Rhizobia is diluted in liquid and dilutions are used to inoculate roots of legumes. The presence of Rhizobia in a given experimental unit, inoculated by a given dilution, is indicated by the formation of at least one nodule on a root. Thus, the method involves the growth of legumes under conditions such that a single rhizobia cell can multiply and forms at least one nodule on the root.

Most Probable Number Method: This method permits estimation

Introduction

Biological nitrification is a two-phase process, which consists of the oxidation of ammonia-nitrogen to nitrite-nitrogen by species of genera Nitrosomonas, Nitrosospira and Nitrosogloea, and the subsequent oxidation of nitrite-nitrogen to nitrate-nitrogen by species of the genera Nitrobacter and Nitrocystis. The following equations explain the reaction.The importance of nitrifying organisms in soil is based on their capacity to produce nitrate, the major source of nitrogen assimilated by higher plants. The rate of nitrification is dependent on such factors as concentration of NH₄+, temperature, moisture, aeration and pH. Bacteria have their optimal activity at an alkaline reaction. Below pH 7.0 the process declines.

Introduction

Phosphate solubilising microorganisms include different groups of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes, which convert insoluble phosphatic compounds into soluble form. The species of Pseudomonas, Micrococcus, Bacillus, Flavobacterium, Penicillium, Fusarium, Sclerotium, Aspergillus and others have been reported to be active in bioconversion. Such bacteria and fungi can grow in media where Ca₃(PO₄) ₂, FePO₄, AlPO₄, apatite, bone meal, rock phosphate or similar insoluble phosphate compounds are the sole source of phosphate. Such microorganisms not only assimilate phosphorus but they also cause a large portion of soluble phosphate to be released in quantities in excess of their own requirements. The solubilisation is not restricted to calcium salts but iron

Introduction

Mycorrhizal fungi are ubiquitous in soils throughout the world and form symbiotic relationships with the roots of most terrestrial plants. The infection of roots of most flowering plants by symbiotic fungi and the transformation of such roots into unique morphological structures are called Mycorrhiza. Over the years it has been convincingly demonstrated that inoculation of agricultural crop plants and forest trees with mycorrhizal fungi can significantly stimulate their growth and development. Such probiotic effects are more pronounced in nutritionally poor soils which occur in very large areas of the arid and semiarid tropics.

Mycorrhiza are classified into three different classes

Introduction

Antibiotics are the substances produced by one microorganism and are required to inhibit the growth of other microorganisms. Antibiotics are used to combat infectious diseases. The antibiotic sensitivity is very significant due to development of resistance among various microorganisms.

Requirements

1. Swab
2. Nutrient agar
3. Petri plates
4. Bacterial cultures
5. Forceps
6. Antibiotic discs
7. BOD Incubator

Procedure

1. Prepare the bacterial lawn on Nutrient agar plate.

Introduction

Most of the bacteria, excepting the photosynthetic bacteria, are damaged by ultraviolet (UV) radiation. UV rays have lower energy content and are capable of producing lethal effect in cells exposed to wavelengths in the range of 200 nm to 300 nm. Nucleic acids absorb these radiations leading to formation of thymine dimers which distort the structure of DNA. Distortion in DNA brings the interferences in DNA replication and transcription. The germicidal effect of UV can be used to determine the minimum amount of exposure required to produce 100% mortality of micro-organisms.

Requirements

1. Nutrient agar medium
2. Card board
3. Incubator
4. Petri plates
5. Inoculating loop
6. Bacterial cultures

Introduction

The most important factor that influences the activity of bacterial enzymes is temperature. Most ofthe organisms grow under mesophilic conditions (at25⁰C). If the optimum temperature is increased, the rate of growth of organism is affected due to changes in protein structure which results denaturation of critical cell protein and ultimately inhibitsthe growth. If temperature is below critical temperature, then there is complete stoppage of growth as less activation energy is available for critical process to occur. However, there are certain organisms which can tolerate extreme temperatures viz.

1. Psychrophiles: Tolerate and grow at > 20⁰C temperature
2. Mesophiles: Tolerate and grow at between 20⁰C and 45⁰C temperature
3. Thermophiles: Tolerate and grow at <45⁰C temperature.

Introduction

The water potential plays an important role on growth of bacteria. If the medium has higher concentration of solute, it is said to be hypertonic. Due to this, the cytoplasm dehydrates and shrinks, resulting in inhibition of growth of bacteria. If solute concentration is less, the medium is hypotonic and hence maximum osmotic pressure on the cell.

Requirements

1. Cultures of E.coli and Bacillus
2. Nutrient agar
3. Sodium Chloride (stock solution at 5 M concentration)
4. Inoculating loop
5. BOD incubator

Procedure

Introduction

The pH (hydrogen ion concentration) of the environment provides the maximum effect on the growth of bacteria. Each organism grows at its optimal pH. Due to variation in other factors such as temperature, osmotic pressure etc marked changes in pH have also been observed.

Requirements

1. Erlenmeyer flasks (100 ml)
2. Culture of E. coli
3. Pipettes
4. Spectrophotometer
5. pH meter

Procedure

Introduction

Various organic orthophosphoric mono-and di-esters in soils are hydrolyzed when incubated with toluene-treated or irradiated soils, indicative of phosphatase activity. Assays have been identified, based on the rates of release of orthophosphate. Phosphatase activities of field soils showed little or no variation with season but were influenced by the cropping system and nature of the plant cover. Activities generally increased after the addition of inorganic and organic fertilizers to soils. However, inhibition of phosphatase by phosphatic fertilizers and by liming of soils (application of ca and Mg) has been reported. Phosphatase activities were directly related to the organic-P of soils but were not consistently related to available-P contents.

Phosphatases have been used to describe a broad group of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of both esters and anhydrides. These are classified into five categories

Introduction

Urea is one of the common fertilizers used as a source of nitrogen. It has nitrogen in amide form (-NH₂) and this form of nitrogen is not utilized by plants. So it has to be hydrolysed. The enzyme, urease hydrolyses the urea to ammonia and ammoniacal nitrogen is taken up by plants or further nitrified.

The measurement of activity of this enzyme in soil is important from soil fertility point of view. There are two methods for determination of the urease activity of soils.

• First involves the measurement of end products of urea hydrolysis. i.e., NH₃ or CO₂.

Introduction

All biological reactions in soil are catalyzed by enzymes. Soil enzyme activities are believed to indicate the extent of specific processes in soil and in some cases, can act as indicators of soil fertility. Biological oxidation of organic compounds is generally a dehydrogenation process and there are many dehydrogenases that carry out the following reaction:

XH₂ is an organic compound and is a hydrogen donor and A is a hydrogen acceptor. These systems are integral part of the microorganisms, so dehydrogenase activity can be correlated with active population.

Principle

Measurement of dehydrogenase activity involves determination of Triphenyl formazan (TPF) produced by the reduction of Triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC). TTC is a redox indicator, a yellow coloured water soluble salt which possesses the property of being easily transformed into, methanol soluble formazan (intensely coloured, water insoluble) by reduction. 

Introduction

The enzyme nitrogenase is produced in all N₂-fixing systems. The activity of nitrogenase enzyme relates to the biological nitrogen fixation, which can be determined directly by measurement of fixation product, ammonia and the further products of its assimilation. The activity can also be measured indirectly by measuring the ability of nitrogenase to reduce the number of substrates other than N₂. Substrates such as nitrous oxide (N₂O), azide ion (N₃^- ), cyanide (CN^-) and isocyanide (NC^-) are reduced and the requirements for ATP and reductant are similar to those of N₂ fixation. The reduction of protons to molecular hydrogen has been used to measure the nitrogenase activity.

Dilworth (1966) and Schollhorn and Burris (1966&1967) observed the inhibitory effect of Acetylene (C₂H₂) on N₂ fixation by extracts of Clostridium pasteurianum. Dilworth (1966) further observed by mass spectrometry that the C₂H₂ was reduced to C₂H₄. Both gases are readily measured at very low concentrations by gas chromatographic techniques.

Introduction

The major biogenic gases, which contribute to global warming, are carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. Out of these, methane is the most important gas because its thermal absorption is 30 times greater than carbon dioxide, though its atmospheric concentration is about 200 times less than carbon dioxide. Atmospheric measurements of greenhouse gases indicate that methane concentration had increased by 1 per cent annually to 1.7 ppm (by volume) during the last decade. The steady increase of atmospheric methane concentration in the past 200 years has attracted much attention.

Flooded rice soils provide an optimum environment for methane production and emission. Flooding a soil creates essential redox potential, anaerobic decomposition of organic matter and stabilizes the soil pH near neutral, thus makes the congenial environment for methane emission.

Rice is the world’s most important food crop

Introduction

Demonstration of biological nitrogen fixation is usually accomplished by estimating the total nitrogen through use of some modification of the Kjeldahl procedure. This technique is accurate and reliable whenever a medium initially low in nitrogen is employed.

Principle

The dried organism is digested with sulphuric acid. Organic and nitrate nitrogen is converted to ammonium sulphate and the ammonia gas is distilled into boric acid forming ammonium borate making weak boric acid alkaline. The ammonium borate is back titrated with standard sulphuric acid until the reaction mixture changes its colour from green to pink due to formation of ammonium sulphate. The standard acid used in back titration of ammonium borate is a measure of nitrogen content of the organism.

Introduction

The soil microbial biomass is an important component of the soil organic matter that regulates the transformation and storage of nutrients. It is a labile component of the soil organic fraction containing 1 to 3% of the soil carbon and up to 5% of the total soil N. The microbiologically mediated processes affect ecosystem functions associated with nutrient cycling, soil fertility, global C change and soil organic matter turnover. The size and activity of the soil microbial biomass must be assessed to fully understand nutrient flux in managed and natural ecosystems.

Soil microbial biomass estimations are useful in investigations that compare temporal nutrient fluctuations along natural and perturbed gradients. The effect of tillage, crop rotations and soil type on organic carbon and nutrient turnover can be assessed by following nutrient pools and activity associated with the soil microbial biomass.

Introduction

The balance between soil organic matter (SOM) levels and nutrient cycling are the key to sustained productivity of agricultural system. Both are closely related through microbially driven mobilisation/immobilisation processes. Three major models have been recognised for C pool viz. Labile C, non-labile C and recalcitrant. The models have been characterised on the bases of their half-life period. The labile C includes oxidisable C (with KMnO4), microbial biomass C (soil carbohydrates) and soil fauna exudates (polysaccharides). Its half-life period is from a few hours to a few days. The non-labile C includes aggregate C and its turn over time is from a few months to a few years while the recalcitrant (stabilised C) includes humic fractions and charcoal C having the turn over time of hundred years. Thus fractionation of SOM is carried out on the bases of humic substances, dissolved organic C, natural C13 abundance, microbial biomass C and ease of oxidation of C. The latter method provides qualitative characterisation of soil C.

Introduction

Organic matter in sediment consists of carbon and nutrients in the form of carbohydrates, proteins, fats and nucleic acids. Bacteria quickly eat the less resistant molecules, such as nucleic acids and many of the proteins. Sediment organic matter is derived from plant/animal detritus, bacteria or plankton formed in situ. Total organic carbon refers to the amount of organic matter preserved within sediment.

Materials

1. Sample
2. Crucibles
3. Furnace

Procedure

Take 1.0 g of sample in a crucible whose empty weight is already recorded. Place this crucible in a furnace. Switch on the furnace and set the temperature at 550°C. Keep the samples for 3 hours

Introduction

Sugars are commonly found in the form of biopolymers. Cellulose, a biopolymer of glucose is the predominant constituent of plant tissues, and may be shortly described as the structural bases of vegetable world. In this case, the glucose moieties are strung together by P-glycosidase linkages, which form the linear chain, making it resistant to chemical attack. Hemicellulose consists of short, highly branched, chains of sugars. It contains five carbon sugars (usually D-Xylose and L-Arabinose) and six carbon sugars (D-Galactose, D-Glucose and D-Mannose) and uronic acid. Its branched nature renders hemicellulose amorphous and relatively easy to hydrolyse to its constituent sugars. Lignin is a biopolymer rich in phenolic components, which provide structural integrity to plants. Acid and neutral detergent fraction methods (ADF and NDF) involve the gravimetric determination of residue previously treated with acid and neutral detergent solutions. These methods determine the insoluble fraction and their individual components. NDF represents the total plant fibre or cell wall including hemicellulose

Introduction

In recent years, the boom in industrialization has revolutionised the countries but has also added much of sufferings. There is tremendous increase in the water and air pollution. Large amounts of effluents from industries containing organic substances of different nature are discharged and enter the aquatic systems resulting in water pollution. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is the amount of dissolved oxygen required by the aerobic microflora to oxidise the organic matter of dirty water. Increased organic matter results in more oxygen requirements by microorganisms to oxidise it and it results in enhancement of BOD of water. As the BOD of water rises, due to decrease in dissolved oxygen (DO), there is increase in death of fish due to suffocation. Determination of biological oxygen demand (BOD) only is insufficient to give a clear picture of organic content of water bodies and the presence of toxic chemicals in the sample so the chemical oxygen

Introduction

Both beneficiary and deleterious microorganisms are present in food. Beneficiary microbes are used for the preparation of a number of dairy and meat products and are called Probiotics, whereas deleterious microbes can cause food poisoning. The quantitative analysis of food products is necessary to find out the presence of types of microorganisms.

Requirements

1. Food sample
2. Mechanical blender
3. Sterilised distilled water
4. Steilised distilled water blanks (9 ml)
5. Petri plates
6. Sterile Pipettes (1 ml)
7. Eiosin Methylene Blue agar medium
8. Incubator
9. Colony counter
10. Marker

Procedure

1. Weigh 1 g of well blended

Introduction

Bacteriological examination of milk indicates the hygienic condition of the milk i.e., quality of milk in relation to the health of consumer. Two main objectives of carrying out bacteriological examination are to evaluate the degree of cleanliness in the vicinity of production and handling of milk; and secondly to check the presence of infectious microorganism. Generally, number of bacteria present per milliliter is taken as an index in the routine examination of milk as other tests for identification and differentiation of pathogenic and non-pathogenic microorganisms are time consuming and expensive.

Direct Microscopic Count (DMC) consists of examining stained films of measured volume of milk or milk product, dried on a glass slide under a compound microscope. This method enables rapid estimation of total population of bacteria of a milk sample with relatively more accuracy as compared to other methods.

Introduction

Standard Plate Count (SPC) is used for determination of population of viable microbes. Enumeration procedures are based on the assumption that microbial cells present in a sample mixed with an agar medium form visible separated colonies. The bacterial colonies developed on the plates are counted. Each colony is presumed to have developed from one bacterium or clump of bacterial cells. Therefore, the results are expressed in colony counts per /ml of sample or colony forming units per /ml (cfu /ml). Total number of colonies counted on the plate multiplied by the dilution factor represents the number of viable organisms in a sample. SPC is a useful method for evaluating the microbiological quality at various stages of processing. It is also helpful in detecting the source of contamination in the product.

Introduction

Dye reduction tests show the comparative activity of the bacteria in milk, therefore are considered as rough indicator of the number of bacteria per millilitre of milk. These tests find wide application in dairy industry especially in grading of milk for manufacturing purposes. The small amount of equipment, materials and simplicity of method permit simultaneous testing of several samples. Since it combines speed and adaptability, this test may be used in milk plants, receiving stations, condensing plants, cheese factories and similar establishments to rapidly grade incoming milk.

Principle

It is based on the observation that the colour imparted to milk by a small amount of methylene blue disappears in a time, the length of which is dependant largely upon the number of microorganisms

Introduction

Resazurin has high tinctorial value (related to colour), imparting characteristic blue colour. Resazurin test gives us indirect information concerning bacterial content and /or activity. Resazurin is also sensitive to the reducing action of leucocytes. The results of this test are comparatively less affected by antibiotic residues in milk than methylene blue reduction test.

Principle

Reduction of dye is indicated by a gradual colour change through various shades of purple and mauve to full pink, at which point the resazurin completely changes to resorufin.

Introduction

Due to inherent composition (high moisture and nutrients) of meat, it is highly perishable in nature. Hence, preservation of meat is essential to maintain its fresh quality. This is accomplished by various preservative techniques based on the principles of temperature control, moisture control and direct microbial inhibition.

Temperature Control

1. Chilling/Refrigeration

In this method, meat is stored at refrigeration temperature of 2 to 5°C. Chilling of animal carcasses is also carried out during ageing process, cutting transit, retail display and even in consumer household before ultimate use. Relative humidity during chilling is kept about 90%. The fresh meat has shelf life of 5-7 days at refrigerated temperature

1. Father of agronomy is -Peter Decresenzi.
2. Dr. Biwant Rajis the founder of Relay cropping.
3. The Indian Institute of Farming System Research is located at - Modipuram, Meerut, U.P.
4. Scientific study of mixed cropping was firstly done by -La-Flitze (1928).
5. Relay cropping concept was derived from -Relay race.
6. Natural Resource Management is an example of Sustainable Agriculture.
7. Cropping System is a component of -Farming System.

1.Agronomy is derived from Greek word.
2.Indigenous plough cuts ‘V-shape furrow’.
3.Indigenous plough is a primary tillage implement.
4.The ploughing depth of chisel plough is 60-70 cm.
5.Hoe is an example of secondary tillage implement.
6.Tillage improves soil aeration.

1.The fine earth covering land surface acts as a reservoir of nutrients and water Soil.
2.The word ‘Soil’ is derived from Latin.
3. Study of origin, classification, morphology of soil is known as Pedology.
4. The study of soils in relation to crop growth Edaphology.
5. The father of Soil Science Dokuchalev.

1. Who was the first Entomologist to the Government of India? Lionel de Niceville.
2. Who succeeded Lefroy and devoted his attention mainly to insect taxonomy and built up an excellent library and a valuable insect collection? T.B. Fletcher.
3. When was the Zoological Survey of India started in the Indian Museum at Calcutta? 1916.
4. Who was the first Plant Protection Adviser to Government of India? Dr. Hem Singh Pruthi.

1. Leading cut flower exporter in the world is Netherlands.
2. Concept of lawn was developed in England.
3. In which garden, arrangement of rocks is main feature Japanese garden.
4. Shrubs or trees planted at regular intervals on boundry for fencing Hedges.
5. The green carpet for the landscape maintained by growing and mowing grasses. Lawn.
6. Thorny fencing plant used as a hedge Inga dulcus.

Canine domestication is an age-old practice which started with guard for humans and other animals, dogs being the favorite companion animals. They have many positive social effects on lives of their owners including enhanced emotional sense and companionship and even reduction of anxiety and mental disorders. Though dogs have proven good for human health, it should be kept in mind that are prone to many disorders and infectious diseases. Healthy life of dogs is attributed to healthy lifestyle, good feeding practices and regular medical care. In addition, an equally important practice is vaccination. Since dogs live in close proximity to human beings and their environment, regular check on their immunity becomes essential, especially when kept as indoor pets. Their illnesses vary from minor issues like dental tartar to fatal diseases like tumors and rabies. Depending upon lifestyle patterns and subsequent body parameters, many predisposing factors increases the susceptibility of dogs to various diseases.

Mammary tumors are either of benign or malignant types. Benign tumors are defined as mass or lump of cells unable to invade the neighboring tissue/ organ and less likely to re-grow after removal. However, malignant tumors are the tumors which have the ability to invade other tissues/ organs and tend to re-grow even after surgical removal. Malignant tumors grow at faster rate as compared to benign tumors. Nearly, 40-50% of canine mammary tumors (CMTs) are malignant.

CMTs can be classified on the basis of morphologic features, tissue of origin (epithelial, myoepithelial or mesenchymal tissue) or prognosis. The World Health Organization (WHO) classification of canine and feline mammary tumors has categorized CMT into three major categories i) malignant, ii) benign and iii) unclassified tumors. On the basis of histological characteristics, the mammary tumors have been classified into fibroadenomas, adenomas, solid carcinomas (with transformed epithelial cells), tubular adenocarcinomas (with tubule like arrangements), papillary adenocarcinomas (having papillary like projections), anaplastic carcinomas (with highly pleomorphic cells), sarcomas (involvement of connective tissue) and malignant tumors (Fig. 2). Fibroadenomas and adenomas are the types of benign mammary tumors the former contains some connective tissues component in between, and carcinomas, adenocarcinomas and sarcomas come under malignant tumors.

Human breast cancer (HBC) is a common malady concomitant with a massive death rate throughout the world. It has been reported that around 1.7 million women are globally identified with breast neoplasia, and out of this, half a million female dies from this terrible disease (Torre et al., 2015). Due to the shocking impacts of breast cancer, prevention, and therapeutic interventions have become a priority-based objective for many researchers to understand the biology of breast cancer disease during its progression and development.

Important Points to Remember

• The active factor of soil formation is : Climate
• Black soils (Vertisols) are formed mainly from the weathering of: Basalts
• Which soils have the highest cation exchange capacity : Black soils
• Plants wilt when soil water content goes below: 15 bar
• Available phosphorus in fertilizer is the fraction: Water soluble + Citrate soluble P

Important Points to be Remember

• Total number of essential nutrient elements required for plant growth -17
• Man made cereal – Triticale
• Father of India’s green revolution – Dr M.S. Swaminathan
• Na, Ve, Ni, Si, Co, Se and I - Beneficial nutrients
• Is added to prevent nitrogen losses from FYM decomposition-SSP

Important Points to be Remember

• Lysosome was discovered by – Duve (1955)
• The term chromosome was first named by – Waldayer
• Power house of the cell – Mitochondria
• Two lines different for a single locus is called – Isogenic line
• Ploidy level in seeds – Embryo – 2n, Endosperm – 3n

Important Points to be Remember

• Father of Indian plant pathology – E.J.Butler
• Father of Plant virology – Beijerinck
• Wheat rust is associated with Indian scientist – K.C.Mehta
• Kresek phase of rice is due to – Bacterial leaf blight
• Bakanae disease of rice is also known as – Foot rot and Foolish seedling disease

Important Points

Factors for Insects Abundance

• More number of species: In the animal kingdom more than 85 per cent of the species belongs to insect group. Total number of insects described so far is more than 9 lakhs.
• Large number of individuals in a single species: e.g., Locust swarm comprising of 109 number of individuals, occupying large area.
• Great variety of habitats: Insects thrive well under varied conditions.
• Long geological history: Insects were known to occupy this earth for more than 350 million years, which is a good track record. This has given the insects’ great variety of adoptions under different conditions.

Important Points to Remember

• The word ‘Extension’ is derived from Latin roots ‘ex’ and ‘tensio’.
• The use of the term ‘Extension’ originated in England in 1866 with a system of University extension which was taken up first by Cambridge and then Oxford Universities.
• James Stuart is considered as father of University Extension.
• Dr. K.N. Singh is known as father of Extension in India.
• Agricultural extension operates within a broader knowledge system that includes research and agricultural education.

Important Points

• A farmer with limited funds may operate in a range of increasing returns to capital is however, not an irrational producer.
• A firm is a particular business firm.
• A higher rate of accumulation of capital relative to the rate of population growth adds to the real stock of capital of a nation.
• A profit maximizing farmer will maximize the output for given level of outlay.
• An isolation curve is negatively inclined.

Important Points to Remember

• Statistics is a branch of mathematics that deals with the data collection, examination, description, and display of numerical data masses.
• Statistics is used in various aspects of life, like in robotics, data science, business, weather forecasting, sports, and much more.
• An ambiguous term. It often denotes the arithmetic mean, but it can also denote the median, the mode, the geometric mean, and weighted means, among other things. Beware if something reports “the average” without making it clear which average.
• The geometric mean of n numbers {x1, x2, x3, …, xn} is the nth root of their product: (x1×x2×x3× … ×xn)^1/n.
• The samples are one of the sub-set of the population, whereas a population is an overall set of things or individuals of a specified group.

Important Points to Remember

Apple

• Botanical name: Malus x domestica Borkh.
• Family: Rosaceae
• 2n: 34
• Origin: Asia Minor to Western Himalayas

Important Points to Remember

Cauliflower

• Botanical name: Brassica oleraceae var. botrytis
• Family: Crucifereae
• 2n = 18
• Type of vegetable: Leafy vegetable
• Origin: Mediterranean region

Important Points to Remember

ROSE

• Botanical name: Rosa spp.
• Family: Rosaceae
• 2n = 14
• Origin: North Hemisphere (Himalyas)
• Flower colour: Red (commonly)

Important Points to Remember

• The term Biochemistry (biosG = life) was first introduced by a German chemist Carl Neuberg in 1903. Biochemistry may be defined as a science concerned with the chemical nature and chemical behavior of the living matter.
• Major organic molecules present in the living beings are: carbohydrates, proteins (of course, including enzymes), lipids and nucleic acids.
• Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature. They are primarily composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
• The name carbohydrate literally means ‘hydrates of carbon’. The simplest carbohydrates are the monosaccharides that have the general formula (CH2O)n where n is 3 or more.
• Carbohydrates may be defined as polyhydroxyaldehydes or ketones or compounds which produce them on hydrolysis. The term ‘sugar’ is applied to carbohydrates soluble in water and sweet to taste.

Important Points to Remember

• Microbiology is the study of living organisms of microscopic size majority of which are too small to be observed with naked eye, include bacteria, fungi, algae and protozoa and the infectious agents at the borderline of life that are called viruses.
• However, a few members of some microbial groups like algae and fungi are clearly visible without the aid of microscope.
• It is concerned with their form, structure, reproduction, physiology, metabolism and classification. It includes the study of their distribution in nature, their relationship to each other and other living organisms, their effects on human beings and on other animals and plants, their abilities to make physical and chemical changes in our environment and their reactions to physical and chemical agents.
• Most microorganisms are unicellular in which all the life processes are performed by a single cell. All living cells contain protoplasm which is a colloidal organic complex consisting of largely proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.
• The major groups of microorganisms include Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic microorganisms.

Important Points to Remember

• The word “biotechnology” was first coined in 1917 by a Hungarian agricultural engineer, Karl Ereky. He used it to describe a system for raising pigs on sugar beets as their primary food source. He defined Biotechnology as “all lines of work by which products are produced from raw materials with the aid of living things”. He defined such a new terminology since most of the industries use mechanical devices - machines - to make things, biotechnology uses living organisms to make products of economic value.
• Many different scientific fields are responsible for emergence of this biological revolution. They are biochemistry, molecular biology, microbiology, physiology, computer science and what not?
• Hence, a newer, refined, definition of biotechnology was offered by U.S. Office of Technology Assessment: “Any technique that uses living organisms to make or modify products, to improve plants or animals, or to develop microorganisms for specific purposes.”
• The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity defines biotechnology as: “Any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use.”
• Schleiden and Schwann proposed cell theory in 1838.