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The muscular system allows movement and necessary functions such as circulation, digestion, and breathing. It is made up of muscles and connective tissue, such as tendons. The muscular system also helps provide support and shape. In the body, muscles have primary functions to provide motion, maintain posture, and generate heat.

Historical Aspect
    Curare was the first known muscle relaxant which was used by South American Indians to immobilize wild animals. Hence the term curariform has been applied to the action of this group of drugs. 
    In year 1958, a plant alkaloid alcuronium was introduced but there were difficulties in reversing the action of this drug.
    Succinylcholine was first used in 1906. However, its paralyzing property was discovered in year 1949.
    Pancuronium was introduced in 1964.
 

Cutaneous muscle

The cutaneous muscle of abdomen and pelvis is the continuation of cutaneous muscle of thorax. This has been described under the muscles of thorax.

Abdominal fascia

Beneath the skin in the abdominal region, there are two layers of fascia, the superficial and deep, similar to those of the fascia of thoracic region.

The superficial fascia is next to skin. It is fused dorsally with the thoracolumbar fascia. Cranially it is continuous with the superficial fascia of shoulder and arm and caudally with that of the gluteal region. In the inguinal region it forms part of fascia of penis in male and of mammary glands in female animals. At the flank, it continues as fascia of thigh region.

The deep fascia forms the abdominal tunic. It is especially well developed as a thick sheet of tunic in the ventral and the adjacent lateral parts of the abdominal floor. It extends cranially over the ribs and external intercostal and the caudal digitations of the serratus thoracis muscles. Caudally it is attached to the external angle of the ilium and thoracolumbar fascia. The suspensory ligament of prepuce in males and that of the mammary glands (udder) in females is an extension of this tunic. It strongly supports the abdominal muscles to bear the weight of abdominal viscera.

Site of incision: Cut the skin over the back and loin region by making cranio caudal straight incision along the proximal part of 1st rib and the lateral margin of transverse process of lumbar vertebrae up to wing of sacrum and reflect the skin to mid dorsal aspect of back and loin.

Site of incision

Make a mid-lateral and mid-medial longitudinal incision on forelimb from elbow joint to 3rd digit. Joins the above incisions transversally on cranial aspect of elbow joint and 3rd phalanx, respectively. Remove the skin on dorsolateral aspect of limb

Site of incision: Make a mid-lateral and mid-medial longitudinal incision on hind-limb from stifle joint to 3rd digit. Joins, the above incisions transversally on cranial aspect at stifle joint and 3rd phalanx, respectively. Remove the skin on dorsolateral aspect of limb.

Site of Incision

Make an incision around the eyeball at the margin of orbit.Then remove the supraorbital process by cutting dorsal and ventral end to access inside the orbit. Remove all the attachments of eyeball from osseous orbit through carefull dissection. Then remove all the extraoccular and periorbital fat to expose the muscles of eyeball.

Site of incision- Make a mid-lateral and mid-medial longitudinal incision on forelimb from elbow joint to 3rd digit. Join the above incisions transversally on caudal aspect at elbow joint above and 3rd phalanx below, respectively. Remove the skin on palmero-medial aspect of limb.

Site of incision: Make a mid-lateral and mid-medial longitudinal incision on hindlimb from stiffle joint to 3rd digit. Joins the above incisions transversally on caudal aspect at stiffle joint above and 3rd phalanx below, respectively. Remove the skin on plantero-medial aspect of limb.

The muscles of fore limb (Fig. 5-3 A and B) are distributed in different regions of fore limb as muscles of shoulder girdle, shoulder, arm and those of forearm and manus. By means of the muscles of shoulder girdle the forelimb is attached with the trunk of the body by synsarcosis and bears the weight of the body. The rest of the groups of muscles act on different joints of the fore limb as extensors or flexors of these joints. The group of muscles acting on these joints originates on the bone of the proximal segment and insert on the bone of distal segment of the concerned joint.

Muscles of shoulder girdle

The muscles of shoulder girdle have been described with the muscles of thorax.

Muscles of shoulder

The muscles of shoulder arise on the scapula, act on shoulder joint and end on the humerus. These muscles are in two groups as the lateral group of muscles and the medial group of muscles.

The muscles of the head (Fig. 2-3 A) are described in four groups viz (1) superficial muscles including the cutaneous muscle. The other muscles in this group of muscles are the muscles of lips, cheeks, nostrils, eyelids and external ear. (2) the orbital muscles (3) the mandibular muscles and (4) the hyoid muscles.

The cutaneous muscle on the head of the ox is well developed and extensive. In most of the regions of the head it is intimately adhered to the skin. The superficial fascia forms a continuous layer beneath the cutaneous muscle in this region except the natural orifices like nostrils, mouth, eyes and the external ear. The deep fascia forms a continuous layer particularly on the temporal, buccal, and the pharyngeal parts of the head. A part of the cutaneous muscle on the frontal region is called the frontalis muscle. The muscle fibres of this muscle blend with the muscles of the eyelids and the contraction of fibres of this muscle causes elevation of the superior eyelid and forms wrinkles to the skin on forehead.

The fascia covering the hind limb is the superficial and deep fascia. The superficial fascia is very scanty lies beneath the skin. It has the same general disposition as in other regions of the body. The deep fascia is in the form of a thick strong sheet covering the superficial layer of muscles over the medial aspect of the hind limb. From this sheet extend several septa that pass between different muscles or muscle groups in the thigh region. The deep fascia of the leg region continues cranially with the fascia of the thoracolumbar region. Caudally it is attached to the aponeurotic tendon of insertion of sartorius and gracilis muscles. The part of the deep fascia that continues on the lateral aspect of the thigh is the fascia lata which is continuous with the gluteal fascia dorsally.

The muscles of the hind limb (Fig. 6-3 A and B) are arranged into different regional, positional as well as functional groups. The muscles of hip and thigh region are arranged in the lateral, medial and cranial groups. The muscles of leg and foot are arranged in dorsolateral and plantar groups. The dorsolateral muscles are generally the extensors of tarsus and digits while the plantar muscles are the flexors of tarsus and digits.

Site of incision: Make an incision from distal end of cranial margin of stifle joint to coxal tuber and extend it dorsally up to mid dorsal line of the body. Make another incision at mid caudal of thigh from stifle region to tuber ischii and extend it to mid dorsal up to the base of the tail and then connects the distal ends of both previous incisions and reflect the skin up to mid dorsal line of the body.

Site of incision: Abduct the hind limb well apart and remove the skin covering the medial aspect of thigh. To obtain this make an incision longitudinally along the entire length of pelvic symphysis. From both ends of this incision make vertical incision up to medial aspect of stifle joint and joins distal end of these vertical incision together and remove the skin to expose the muscles of medial aspect of thigh region. To expose deeper muscles incise the vertebral attachment of biceps femoris, reflect it caudally by incising muscle close to stifle than reflect middle gluteus muscle dorsocranially and observe the deeper layer of muscles.

Site of incision-Make a rostro-caudal incision along the ventral border of horizontal ramus of mandible then extend cranio-dorsally along caudal margin of nostrils up to middorsal line of face. From the caudal end of 1st incision make another incision dorsally up to base of the ear then passes cranially along the ventral aspect of eye up to mid dorsal line of face. Reflect the skin carefully from ventral to dorsal, carefully remove the muscle zygomaticus, malaris and nasolabialis as these are firmly attached to skin.

Site of incision

Remove the skin of intermandibular space.Then remove one of the rami of mandible by disarticulating temporo-mandibular joint at caudal end and cut the ramus just behind the mental foramen.

Cutaneous muscle

In the cervical region of ox, the cutaneus muscle, cutaneus colli is poorly developed. It is in the form of a narrow strip on the ventral part of the neck. It arises from the ventral median connective tissue strip of the superficial fascia and extends cranially covering the cervical part of the deep fascia. The fibres of this muscle fan out dorsolaterally and form the aponeurosis with the cervical fascia and join the cutaneus facei.

Fascia

The major groups of muscles of the cervical region are covered by the thick superficial layer of fascia. The fascia is abundant and well developed in the cervical region of the ox. The fascia of the neck is in two layers, the superficial and deep. The superficial fascia is attached to the skin, whereas the deep fascia is again in two parts, the superficial and deep parts. The superficial part covers the superficial structures in the neck viz. the trapezius and brachiocephalicus muscles in the dorsolateral aspect and the jugular canal with jugular vein, and the rhomboideus muscles on the ventrolateral aspect of the neck. The superficial parts of the deep layer of cervical fascia of two sides meet at the median line both, dorsally and ventrally. The deep part of the deep fascia is attached to the vertebrae and the longus colli muscle on either side at the median line and covers the trachea, oesophagus, carotid artery etc before joining ventrally.

Site of incision: Make a midventral incision on the neck from larynx up to thoracic inlet then make ventrodorsal incision from both ends of this incision up to mid dorsal aspect of neck region.

Site of incision

Remove the skin flap of pectoral region to expose the pectoral muscles.

Site of incision: Make a transverse incision below the anus between lateral margins of tuber ischia. Then from each end of this incision make an oblique incision caudo-cranially so that these join midventrally each other between the thighs. Remove the triangular flap of skin to expose the region.

Site of incision: Make a straight dorso-ventral incision through skin from the summit of dorsal vertebral spine to the cranioventral aspect of shoulder joint. Extend it up to the cranial margin of shoulder joint, then caudo-ventrally up to caudal most part of elbow joint. Make another ventrodorsal straight incision from caudal most point of elbow joint to the summit of vertebral spine then reflect the skin flap from ventral to dorsal up to mid dorsal line of the body. Remove the facia to expose the various muscles of this region.

Site of incision: Detach the limb from the trunk by cutting various muscles viz; pectoral muscles, serratus ventralis, latissimus dorsi, brachiocephalicus, omotransversarius, trapezius, rhomboideus and long head of triceps.

Site of incision: Remove the abdominal viscera to expose the sublumber region.

Site of incision: Make two incisions at mid-lateral aspect at base of the tail join them dorso-ventrally and reflect the skin caudally up the 4-5 inches.

Site of incision: Make a dorsoventral incision along caudal border of last rib up to mid ventral region of abdomen and another incision along the coxal tuber up to mid ventral region of abdomen. Joins the above two incision mid ventrally and reflect the skin up to mid dorsal aspect of lumber region.

Site of incision: Make a midventral incision on the sternum from cranial to caudal than from both ends of this incision make cranial incisions along the caudal border of shoulder and arm region to mid dorsal aspect of back and along last rib to mid dorsal aspect of back, respectively. Reflect the skin flap from ventral aspect to mid dorsal region of back.

Cutaneous muscle

The cutaneous muscle of the thoracic region is a part of the cutaneous muscle of the trunk. It arises from the interbrachial fascia on the medial surface of the arm and elbow and the lateral aspect of the arm and shoulder. It extends as a broad sheet between the shoulder and arm cranially and the stifle and thigh caudally and then upward to the middle of the dorsum and the tuber coxae.

Fascia of thorax

The fascia of the thoracic region is the caudal continuation of cervical fascia. It is in two layers, the superficial and deep. The superficial fascia is continuous with that of the skin and the cutaneous muscle. The deep fascia forms a well developed sheath for aponeurosis with the longissimus muscle. It is attached medially to the supraspinous ligament and the summits of the spinous processes of the thoracic vertebrae while laterally it is attached to the lateral surface of the ribs. From here it continues ventrolaterally and passes medial to the scapula under the rhomboideus thoracis muscle.

A branch of anatomy that deals with muscles and their accessory structures is called as myology and the body system concerned with myology is called muscular system. The muscular system is composed of specialized cells called muscle fibres because of their shape in the form of fibre or spindle. The plasma of these cells contains myofibrils which are contractile elements that cause contraction of muscles in a definite manner under the influence of a stimulus which is a unique property of muscles. These cells together constitute the distinctive muscular tissue.

Classification of muscles

Based on their morphological and functional characteristics, there are three types of muscles in the body.

Smooth muscle: The muscular tissue in this type of muscles is constituted by masses of spindle shaped cells and they occur mainly in the walls of hollow visceral organs including glands, the vessels, eye ball and hair follicles. These are nonstriated muscles. Contraction in these muscles is weak but sustained and mostly consistent and rhythmic. The action of this muscle is involuntary i.e. not under the will.

Cardiac muscle: The muscle fibres of this muscle are arranged in irregular masses and they form cross striations. The ends of some fibres come in contact with the sides of others forming a kind of syncytium. This is a striated muscle and its action is involuntary. This muscle occurs only in the wall of the heart and the immediate proximal ends of the major blood vessels like aorta, venacava and the pulmonary veins.

Key Points

• The main objective of managing open fractures is to neutralize further damage to the surrounding tissue while executing prompt, stable osteosynthesis and immobilization.

• Discomfort management should be considered because musculoskeletal diseases can cause severe discomfort.

Degenerative Myopathies

It is a degenerative disease of the musculature. Endocrine imbalances (hyperadrenocorticism, hypothyroidism, and hyperthyroidism), hypokalemia in cats, ischemic myonecrosis in recumbent cattle, post-exercise rhabdomyolysis, chemical agents, poisonous plants, and drug-induced degenerative conditions are some of the possible associations with it.

Somites are derived from paraxial mesoderm and they are located lateral to the developing notochord and neural tube. During the third week of gestation in domestic animals, the outlines of somites first become visible and in the fifth week of gestation the somite formation is completed. Somites differentiate into sclerotome, myotome and dermatome. They form skeletal, muscular and dermal elements i.e, vertebral column, muscles and dermis respectively.

The connective tissue, cartilage and bone all differentiate from mesenchyme which arises chiefly from mesodermal somites and lateral layer of somatic mesoderm while connective tissue of alimentary canal and lower respiratory tract is derived from splanchnic mesoderm. Mesenchyme is a spongy meshwork composed of branching cells spaces between which are filled by ground substance. The supporting tissues, connective tissue, cartilage and bone are derivatives of mesenchyme in which ground substance is gelly like, stiff and firm respectively.

Mushrooms are most ancient, best known and greatly admired fleshy macrofungi. Mushrooms are delicacies, much sought after and greatly valued foods. Wild mushrooms are mostly found in forests, tree trunks, pastures, lawns and road side during winter season and appear at surprising speed. Mushroom hunting or gathering is a popular hobby in Western countries. The wild mushrooms may be edible or unpalatable or poisonous. Poisoning by wild mushrooms is common and may be fatal or produce merely mild gastrointestinal disturbance or slight allergic reaction. The term toad stool is popularly reserved for inedible or poisonous mushrooms, but this classification has no scientific basis. This alarming term keeps many people away from these foods. It is important that every mushroom intended for eating be accurately identified. Mushrooms vary in colour, size, shape, growth habit, yielding ability and other characteristics.

STRUCTURE: Mushrooms are the fleshy fungi which constitute a major group of lower plant kingdom. Mushroom is the conspicuous umbrella-shaped fruiting body (sporophore) of certain fungi of the order Agaricales in the class Basidiomycetes but also of some other groups. Popularly, the term mushroom is used to identify the edible sporophores. The edible reproductive part consists of a stem and a cap. Gills found on the underside of the cap, are arranged like spokes in a wheel. The gills bear multiple spores which start new fungi. The sporophore emerges from an extensive underground network of fine thread like white growth known as mycelium. The mushroom, fruit body produced basidiospores at the tip of club like structures, called basidia, which are arranged along the gills of the mushroom. Beneath the mushroom, in the soil, is the mold colony itself, consisting of a mat of intercoiled hyphae, sometimes several feet in diameter. The mushrooms first appear as white tiny ball consisting of short stem (stipe) and a cap (pileus) which begins to open up like an umbrella. The delicate membrane or Veil (velum) enveloping the cap tears off, if allowed to develop fully, and lamellae (gills) radiating from the stalk into the cap become visible. These gills become darkened as the basidiospores (seeds) develop into millions and fall in the ground for starting their life cycle once again for second generation of mushrooms.

1. Introduction

Mushrooms represent a highly specialized group of fungi, mostly basidiomycetes, with production of fruiting bodies bearing the spores for continued propogation. The fruiting bodies vary greatly in shape, size, color, texture, structure and aroma (Rajarathnam et al., 1998). They are endowed with the unique ability to biodegrade cellulosic wastes, including lignin, and biotransform into edible fruiting bodies (Rajarathnam et al., 1992, 1998, Rajarathnam and Zakia Bano, 1990). Their chemistry is also varied comprising characteristic polysaccharides, phenolics, proteins, amino acids, peptides, lectins, fatty acids, minerals, and so on (Rajarathnam et al., 1998). The wide spectrum of compounds have endowed the mushroom species with a spectrum of biofunctional activities of medicinal importance and accordingly their role in human health are implicated through studies on chemical, cell culture and animal feeding experiments. Vast literature available on this subject is condensed for presentation here.
Fifty nine medicinal species are reported from Diaoluoshan Nature Reserve in Hainan Province, China (Li et al., 2003). A health food made from luminescent mushrooms (Mycena chlorophos) is described. The luminescent parts that emit light in the carpophore of the mushrooms are dried without thermal decomposition and pulverized (Sugimoto, 2006). Consideration is given to the health promoting properties of 3 types of Asian fungi, namely, shiitake (Lentinus edodes), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum) and maitake (Grifola frondosa). Properties considered include beneficial components (e.g polysaccharides, vitamins, amino acids) and effects on the immune system (Anon, 1997). Auricularia auricula (kikurage or tree-ear) and Tremella fuciformis (shirokikurage or white jelly-leaf) are widely used in Chinese cuisine. Chemical structures of some of the polysaccharides from A. auricula and T. fuciformis, in relation to their medicinal and nutritional effects are described (Misaki and Kakuta, 1995).

1. INTRODUCTION

Mushrooms are edible fungi of commercial importance and their cultivation has emerged as a promising agro-based land-independent enterprise. There are about 20 varieties of mushrooms being cultivated throughout the world for food. In India, only white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus J.E. Lange Imbach), oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp. [Fr.] P. Kumm) and paddy straw mushroom (Volvariella volvacea [Bul.] Singer) are grown commercially. Of these, white button mushroom contributes ~90% of the total production. Mushrooms have been recognized as an alternate source of good quality protein and produce the highest quantity of protein per unit area from agro-wastes. Besides, they provide potentiality for generating employment, improving economic status of growers, help in checking pollution and earn foreign exchange.

Out of the total production about 45% of mushrooms produced are consumed in the fresh form while the other 55% are processed, with 5% in dehydrated form and 50% in canned form. This is because their shelf-life in the fresh form is very short and hence mushrooms are traded in the world market mostly in the processed form. Fruiting bodies (reproductive phase) of Agaricus are appreciated not only for texture and flavour but also for their chemical and nutritional characteristics.

Sciarid(mushroom flies): Bradysia paupera, Lycoriella auripila: Sciaridae

The larvae feed on the mycelial attachments and restrict the growth of the spawn. The maggots also feed on the developing mushrooms or pinheads and thus cause loss in yield. They also bore the developing mushrooms and render them hollow.

1.1. Mushroom

Fruiting body of fungus appears above ground and contains spores.

Fungi are network of fine microscopic threads collectively known as mycelium.

Fungi are the part of the plant kingdom and don’t contain chlorophyll and root system.

Mushroom comes under sub division Basidiomycotina, order – Agaricales.

Melons (Cucumis melo) are annuals with climbing, creeping or trailing vines of length up to three meters. The desert types quench thirst and add to the nutrient content of main diet. The non-desert types are used as vegetables. Muskmelon (Cucumis melo., 2n=2x=24) encompasses the netted, salmon -flesh cantaloupe, the smooth – skinned green fleshed ‘Honey Dew’, the wrinkled, white – fleshed, ‘Golden Beauty’ and several other dessert melons in USA.

Origin: Not known with certainty but, 40 or more wild species of Cucumis are found to occur in the tropics and subtropics of Africa. Wild species of Cucumis occur in Africa and it is likely that it originated in African continent. It does not appear to have been known to the ancient Egyptians, not to the Greeks and seemed to have reached Europe towards the decline of Roman Empire. Although melon was introduced into Asia at a comparatively later date there are undoubtedly well developed secondary centers of origin of C. melo in India, China and then Southern USSR. In India Oriental pickling melon (C. melo var conomon) and snap melon (C. melo var momordica) are unique and have considerable variability in Western Ghats of India. They are popular desert and preserving melons cultivated in Warm humid tropical condition of South India. It is also considered that China as primary center of origin and Indo-Burma as secondary center of origin. It has been introduced to Europe and from Europe to the USA by the early travelers. At present muskmelon is being cultivated throughout the world under tropical and subtropical climatic conditions. Polymorphism in leaf, flower, fruit shape and colour (Kirkbride, 1993), allowed the classification of horticulturally important melons into seven groups.

Scientific name: Abelmoschus moschatus Medik.
Family: Malvaceae
Abelmoschus moschatusMedik., commonly known as ambrette, annual hibiscus, or musk mallow, is a tropical plant species belonging to the Malvaceae family. Native to India, Southeast Asia, and Africa, this herbaceous plant has been cultivated for centuries for its medicinal, culinary, and fragrant properties. It is an annual or biennial plant that grows up to 2 meters in height, with hairy, palmate leaves and showy, yellow flowers with a purple center. The plant's seeds, leaves, and flowers emit a strong, musky fragrance used in perfumery and traditional medicine. Abelmoschus moschatus is a warm-season crop that thrives in tropical and subtropical regions, requiring well-drained soil and full sun to partial shade. The plant has been used in traditional medicine for its anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antifungal properties, and its leaves and flowers are used as a vegetable and in salads. In contrast, the seeds are used as a spice. The plant's essential oil is also used in perfumes, cosmetics, and aromatherapy products, making it a valuable crop for small-scale farmers, providing income through the sale of seeds, leaves, and essential oil.
Origin and distribution
Abelmoschus moschatus, a tropical plant species, is native to India and widely cultivated in Southern China, Vietnam, Nepal, Tropical Asia, South East Asia, and parts of the Pacific. It is also found in the tropical regions of Africa, Australia, and the Americas.

Melon or muskmelon (Cucumis melo L., 2n = 2x = 24, family Cucurbitaceae, mostly andromonoecious, cross-pollinated as well as self-pollinated) has latest global production close to 30 million tons where top ten producing countries are China (16.0 million tons), Turkey (1.8 million tons), Iran (1.6 million tons), Egypt (1.1 million tons), India (1.0 million tons), Kazakhstan (0.9 million tons), USA (0.8 million tons), Spain (0.7 million tons), Italy (0.6 million tons), Guatemala (0.6 million tons). India produced 1.2 million tons melons from 54000 ha acreage during 2017-18 giving a productivity of 22 tons/ha (MAFW, 2018).

US melons encompass the netted, salmon-flesh cantaloupe; the smooth-skinned green fleshed ‘Honey Dew’, the wrinkled-skinned, white-fleshed ‘Golden Beauty’ and several other dessert melons. Other forms with different fruit characters (white-fleshed, green-fleshed, having striped thin skin and juicy) are commonly found in India and in Orient as indigenous land-race cultivars. These are getting displaced by the cultivar types as cantaloupe, Madhuras and Galia due to their long shelf life.

Melon is mainly cultivated for the consumption of the fruits which can be harvested immature; in this case, the fruit is not sweet and can be eaten raw, cooked or pickled. In most cases, the fruit is harvested at maturity with high sugar content (mainly sucrose). Fruit is mainly eaten raw; marginal uses are cubes canned in syrup, in “fruits confits”, candies, ice-creams, biscuits and also in cosmetics. Locally, seeds can also be consumed (Pitrat, 2008).

Melons are annual plants that have up to three meters of climbing, creeping, or trailing vines. Several of them are consumed as dessert fruits while a few varieties/types are used for vegetable purposes. Generally, the fruits of commercial varieties are sweet, juicy, delicious with good nutritional and medicinal properties and a daily intake of 120-150 g can help in weight loss, better eye and skin health (Shivapriya et al., 2021).

Currently, muskmelon is being cultivated throughout the world, especially under tropical and subtropical climatic conditions. In India, muskmelon is grown in 54,000 ha with a production of 1.23 million tons (NHB, 2018). The estimated national seed requirement per year is about 27 tons with a value of about Rs. 27 crores. The crop is cultivated mainly in rabi season (November to February sowings), thus limiting its availability in the market during summer. Rarely, melons are cultivated for the off-season market, and those fetch a premium price. The total value of muskmelon fruits in the domestic market is estimated as Rs.1231 crores.

Muskmelon, Cucumis melo under the family Cucurbitaceae (Chromosome number: 2n = 2× = 24) is a highly relished crop because of its attractive flavour, sweet taste and refreshing effect. It is an important crop of Africa, Middle East, Asia, Southeast Asia, Japan, USA, South and Central America, France, Spain, Israel and many eastern European countries. Mature fruits are eaten fresh as a dessert fruit, canned or used for syrup or jam. Muskmelon is quite rich in ß carotene, vitamin B9, vitamin C and minerals like potassium and low in calorie content.
Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
The genus Cucumis, which includes cucumber (Cucumis sativus) and melon (Cucumis melo), has numerous wild African species, and it has therefore been assumed that melon originated in tropical Africa in eastern region, south of Sahara Desert. This proposition is supported by the presence of true wild melons which can still be found in some African countries. Some botanists consider melons native to the Levant and Egypt, while others place their origin in Iran, India, Afghanistan or Central Asia. Sebastian et al (2010) reported that the wild progenitor of C. melo occurs in India, and they confirmed that the Southeast Asian Cucumis hystrix is the closest relative of cucumber and most surprisingly, the closest relative of melon, Cucumis picrocarpus was from Australia. The wild forms of muskmelon reported from India are feral escapes derived from local cultivars.

The initial symptom of Alternaria brassiciola appears as small, dark colored spots which enlarge rapidly to form circular lesions. Under humid conditions a bluish velvety fungal growth is seen in the centre of these spots. Spots caused by Alternaria brassicae are almost similar to those produce by Alternaria brassicicola but are comparatively smaller and lighter in colour. When many spots are formed on the leaves, the leaves turn yellow and dry prematurely. Formation of pods and seeds are adversely affected.

Alternaria Blight
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Symptom first appear on the lower leaves as small circular brown necrotic spots which slowly increase in size.
• Many concentric spots coalesce to cover large patches showing blightening and defoliation in severe cases.
• Circular to linear, dark brown lesions also develop on stems and pods, which are elongated at later stage.
• Infected pods produce small, discolored and shriveled seeds( Fig.2).
Etiology
Scientific Classification
Kingdom : Fungi
Phylum : Ascomycota
Class : Dothideomycetes

Introduction

Agriculture is the foundation of India’s economy, as it provides food to people, feed to cattle, raw materials to primary and secondary industries, contributes upto 19 percent of GDP and employs 54.6 percent of the workforce (Kirti and Prasad, 2016). Due to diverse soil and climate conditions, vast varieties of crops such as cereals, pulses, spices , millets, oilseeds, flowers and fruits are being grown in India. Among these crops grown, India is among the leading producers of pulses, cereals and spices in the world (Mishra et al., 2021). India is the fourth largest oilseed economy in the world. Among oilseeds, there are nine crops that are the primary sources of oils in the country, out of which seven are edible oils (soybean, rapeseed-mustard , groundnut, sunflower, sesame, niger and safflower) and two are non-edible (linseed and castor).

To isolate a streptomycin resistant mutant of E.coli by Direct selection using Gradient Plate Method.

Introduction

Zylbalskii devised this technique.

A mutation is any change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA. These changes are heritable. Although most mutations are harmful to the organism, a small percentage is beneficial under certain environmental conditions. Mutation can occur during chromosome duplication and they may be spontaneous of they may be induced by mutagenic agent. In this experiment, we select for a mutation causing streptomycin resistance in E. coli. Resistant mutants will be detected directly using thy gradient plate method.

Principle

Microbiologist developed a highly efficient method for isolation of antibiotic resistant mutant. The gradient is said as gradient of antibiotic formed on an agar plate. A gene imparting resistant toward an antibiotic is present in plasmid or chromosome. The occurrence of mutant with different level of streptomycin resistant involves mutation of gene with unequal potential. This means that under certain cells degree of mutation is more while few shows less mutation. Some cells show intermediate resistant while others show completes resistant. The resistant in cell against streptomycin of this type, while in case of penicillin resistant increases step arise & so resistant mutant of high concentration of penicillin cannot be isolated/ obtained. While it is possible with streptomycin obtaining high resistance to penicillin stepwise & so this stepwise increase in resistance involves mutation of gene with equal potential. This theory of mutation through multi step procedure. The gene direct the organism to produce an enzyme, which inactivates an antibiotic & thus resistance to antibiotic, is observed in case of cells. Resistance of antibiotic is a plasmid-mediated resistance.