eChapters

Introduction

The Greek names Theos and Broma mean “Gods” and “Food,” respectively. Cocoa consumption is in temperate countries. Cocoa is a beverage crop introduced for cultivation in India in the early 1965. The cocoa plant is a perennial dicotyledonous which has been under cultivation since pre-historic times. shade-loving and evergreen trees. It is native to the Amazon valley of South America and is now cultivated largely in Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, Indonesia, Peru, Sierra Leon Cameroon, Equator, West Indies and Malaysia. In India, cocoa is mainly grown in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and. It is a rich source of fat (37%) and protein (7%). It also produces theobromin. Cocoa is used in manufacturing chocolate, cocoa powder, cocoa butter and other nutritious foods.

Introduction

It is considered as Kalpavriksha as it provides the basic necessities of life. Coco- Spanish word meaning monkey face (probably refers to the three scars on the base of the shell resembling two eyes and a nose on a monkey’s face). World Vietnam, India, Guyana, Jamaica, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Malaysia, Fiji, etc. Vietnam has the highest productivity. In India, coconut is mainly grown in Kerala, which stands first in India in both area and production of coconut, while productivity is highest in Tamil Nadu.

• World Coconut Germplasm (WCG) is located at Sipoghat, Andaman Nicobar Islands
• Coconut Development Board (CDB) is located at Cochin, Kerala
• CDB comes under Ministry of Agriculture established at Kochi in 1981, Kerala

Introduction

Coffee is the second important beverage, ranking second among traded commodities. Its dried beans are roasted, ground, and brewed to make a stimulating and refreshing beverage. Arabica coffee originated in Ethiopia, from a place called Caffa. The word “coffee” is derived from a place called “Caffa.” Here it occurs naturally in the forest between 1,400 to 1,800 feet of elevation. Nearly 80 percent of the world’s coffee is produced by Coffea Arabica. Robusta coffee is thought to have originated in Central Africa (Congo and Zaire). Arabica coffee was introduced in 1670 by Muslim pilgrim Baba Budan. He brought seven seeds from Yemen and cultivated them in Chikmagalur, Karnataka. The original seeds he brought were probably Mokka seeds. Robusta coffee was introduced from the Indochina region at the close of the 19^th century for planting in the states of lower elevations. World: Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia, Indonesia, India, Ethiopia, Peru, Mexico, Guatemala and Honduras. It is also growing in India in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa.

Introduction

Oil palm is recognized as the highest and cheapest edible oil-yielding crop. Palm oil is extracted from the fruit’s fleshy mesocarp, which contains 45-55 percent oil. The crop is unique in producing 2 distinct types of oil palm oil and palm kernel oil, which are used for culinary and industrial purposes. Being rich in beta carotene, palm oil contributes substantially to the nutritional and energy requirements of the masses. It is also grown in India Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Mizorum, Orissa.

Introduction

The palmyrah is believed to be a native of tropical Africa. It grows extensively in drier parts of India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia and Indonesia. It is recognised as the state tree of Tamil Nadu in 1978, recognising its importance. It has been estimated that there are about 8.6 crores of Palmyra palms existing in India, of which 5.02 crores of palms are alone spread over Tamil Nadu and the remaining 3.58 crores of palms are in Andra Pradesh.

Introduction

The rubber tree is the most important commercial source of natural rubber, an industrial raw material of strategic importance, recovered from its latex. Hevea was first used as a source of rubber by the French. The name rubber is derived from the quality of material in rubbing pencial marks. It was introduced to tropical Asia in 1876 through Kew Garden in the UK with seeds brought from Brazil by Sir Henry Wickham. It is now distributed in the tropical regions of Asia, Africa and America. The major rubber-growing countries are Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, Cote d’Ivoire, China and India Thailand has the maximum area under rubber, but China has taken the credit for maximum rubber production. India is the second largest producer and consumer of natural rubber in the world. In India, rubber is grown over an area of 7.57 lakh hectares with a production of 12.57 lakh tonnes, 9% of the total world natural rubber output. In India, Kerala is the predominant rubber-growing state. International Rubber Research and Development Board (IRRDB), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

• Association of Natural Rubber Producing Countries (ANRPC), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
• Rubber Research Institute of India (RRII-1955) is located at Kottayam, Kerala

Introduction

Tea is the most popular and cheapest beverage consumed by two-thirds of the world population. The stimulative effect of tea is due to the presence of caffeine (1.25–4.5 %). Panthothenic acid, caffeine and theophylline present in tea stimulate the nerves and are good for the heart. Tea is grown in 50 countries, predominantly in Asia, Africa and Europe. Of the major tea producers, India, China, Sri Lanka, Kenya, Russia and Indonesia contribute the maximum share to global production. Though the share of India in global tea production has declined over the years, it still retains its status as the largest tea producer with 30 % of world output (2,780 million kg). India can also boast of producing many varieties of tea. Well-known varieties like Darjeeling, Assam and Nilgiris are well-known for their distinctive characters. Assam (24.86 %), West Bengal (15.20 %), Tamil Nadu (6.28 %) and Kerala (2.28 %) are major tea producing states in the country.

Pollination is one of the most essential ecosystem services which is effectual for crop productivity, biodiversity and human livelihood. Pollination is the process of transferring pollens from anther to stigma for plant reproduction and has direct impact on crop productivity. Conservation and management of pollinators is still ignored in the agriculture development program by the policy makers. In agricultural ecosystem, many agricultural crops are dependent on insects for their pollination, and assisted pollination may have to be done when natural pollination is insufficient in order to reduce potential yield loss (Klein et al., 2007). About 80% of the world’s flowering plant species are dedicated to animal pollination, mostly by insects (FAO, 2007). In 2005, globally, pollinators’ pollination services economic value was estimated to be about €153 billion (Gallai et al., 2009). The United Nations also reported that the economics of ecosystems and biodiversity by insect pollination was valued at £134 billion.

Introduction

Pollination is a process in which pollen grains are transferred from male gametes to the female gamete, thereby enabling fertilization and reproduction through growth of the pollen tube and eventual release of sperm. Fertilization is the union of the egg and sperm. In plants, this may happen after pollination; however, pollination doesn’t always result in fertilization. Fertilization occurs when the pollen grains germinate on the stigma and grow in the style. Reproduction is the process to produce offspring by fusion of male and female gametes, which simply means that the sperms of the pollen unite with the ovules in the ovary of the flower and subsequently produce seed. Flowers may facilitate out-crossing (fusion of sperm and eggs from different individuals in a population) or allow selfing (fusion of sperm and egg from the same flower). Some flowers produce diasporas without fertilization (parthenocarpy).

Pollination is a vital and key component of ecosystem services which is provided by pollinators. FAO, 2007 reported that 80 per cent of plant species rely for pollination on pollinators, which is dominated by insects. Among the insect pollinators, solitary and social bees dominate both managed and natural ecosystems. No other groups of insects are more beneficial to humans than bees. Many plants have evolved intricate relationships with many insect pollinators and without their presence, majority of plant species would not reproduce and maintain their genetic diversity (Daily et al., 1997). In natural ecosystem, insect pollination plays a pivotal role to maintain and conserve the plant biodiversity. On a global scale, the total annual value of insect pollination services has been estimated at USD 217 billion (Sciencedaily, 2008). United Nations reported that the economics of ecosystems and biodiversity by insect pollination was valued at £134 billion.

The Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) is not a disease; it is multi-factorial syndrome which causes massive losses of honey bee in the USA and elsewhere. It is recorded that in European honey bee (Apis mellifera). The adult worker bee population of the colony demean through catastrophic effects of CCD. The dwindling of adult worker bees in colonies and the lack of noticeable symptoms leads to the nebulous label of CCD. In this syndrome, dead worker bees cannot be found in the colony and their vicinity of bee hive, and stored food (honey and pollen) are not touched by robbers bees and combs remain as such for several weeks even after the collapse. Some scientists; Aizen and Harder, also reported this disorder is not universal and, in fact, global populations of honey bee (A. mellifera) populations are increasing. In the spring of 2007, beekeepers in the US reported a rare kind of bee colony disease where they die off and numerous colonies left their hives and disappeared without a trace. The plight of honey bee in USA has caused concern and attracted great attention of scientists to delve and provide explanations of this mystery and preventive measures. In US, it is also christened “Honey bee AIDS” by some popular media. Indeed, honey bee colonies can die in many ways and CCD is just one of them. Finally, since both honey bee host and pathogens are genetically diverse, the symptoms and causes of colony losses may well be different in varrious regions.

Pollination is a keystone process in both human managed and natural terrestrial ecosystems. Pollinators are an input of crop cultivation and associated biodiversity, and provide an essential ecosystem service to both natural and agro- ecosystems. In agro-ecosystems, management of pollinators can maximize the pollination and thereby enhance the crop productivity and yield quality. Pollination is the best example of mutualism between plant species and their pollinators which results into intricate relationships between plant and animal - the reduction or loss of either affecting the survival of both.

Approximately 80 per cent of all flowering plant species are dedicated to pollination by animals and mostly by insects. The negative impact of pollinator deficit is strongly felt in reduction of fruit set seed productivity and agricultural biodiversity. The role of pollinators is transfer of pollen from anther to stigma of the same species to ensure reproduction, seed set, fruit set development and multiplication of plants, both in agro ecosystems and natural ecosystems.

Agricultural biodiversity is known as crop genetic resources, although agroecosystems hold a wide diversity of other organisms that contribute toward their productivity and sustainability. Amongst these pollinators play the massive role in crop pollination and thus ensure that fruit or seeds are formed. Over 3 decades ago, the international community began to emphasize on the importance of pollinators. In agro-ecosystems, pollinators are essential for agriculture, horticultural and forage production as well as the production of seed for many root and fiber crops. Pollinators such as bees, birds and bats affect 35 per cent of the world’s crop production, increasing outputs of 87 of the leading food crops worldwide, plus many plant-derived medicines in our pharmacies (Klein et al., 2007). Food security, food diversity, human nutrition and plant diversity all rely strongly on animal pollinators. Pollination is an essential ecosystem service that enables plant reproduction and food production. The pollinators’ abundance and diversity play pivotal role for enhancement of the productivity, quality and maintenance of natural resources of plant biodiversity. The diminution of pollination abundance and their diversity certainly affect productivity, quality and plant biodiversity.

Pollinators are organisms that help to transfer pollen from anther to stigma of the same species for fertilization and thereby produce seeds and fruits. Pollinators belong to diverse groups viz. insects, birds, reptiles, mammals, etc. Insects; bees butterflies, moths, wasps, flies, some types of beetles. Out of insect pollinators, bees are most important pollinator. Insect pollinators are critical to the production of many crops and play pivotal role to maintain the biodiversity. The decline in honeybee and other pollinator populations have more attention of scientific and public concern globally as well as in India. A number of factors have been observed as potential contributors to these declines and no single factor has been identified as the cause. The available science suggests that multiple factors responsible for population depletion and extinction, including loss of habitat and food sources, diseases, viruses, pests, and pesticide exposure. It is also known that certain pesticides can pose an immediate or “acute” threat to the insect pollinators and bees. In order to protect pollinators, the labels of pesticides that pose such risks should specify detailed directions of application to reduce potential exposure.

In agro-ecosystem, many agricultural and horticultural crops are dependent on insects for their pollination; their degree of interdependence varies species to species. Some plant species depend primarily on a single pollinator’s species or genus, whereas some plant species accept diverse pollinators. About to 80 per cent of flowering plants’ pollination determined for pollinators (FA0, 2007) and out of that most of the floras depend on insect pollinators for pollination and pollinators depend on flora for their food. Bees are considered as most important pollinator due to their diversity, credential ability and effective pollinators of many plant species. Most of the crops pollination need was met by wild pollinators living within the farming landscape (Kevan and Phillips, 2001). Therefore, pollinators play paramount role in ecosystem through enhance the crop productivity and conserving biodiversity. On the above service of pollinators is priceless and natural endowment, but the society we live in, always categorized and measured in terms of financial value. In 2005, globally, insect pollination services economic value was estimated to be about €153 billion (Gallai et al., 2009). The United Nations also reported that the economics of ecosystems and biodiversity by insect pollination was valued at £134 billion. The assisted pollination may have to be done when natural pollination is insufficient in order to reduce potential yield loss (Klein et al., 2007).

Pollinators provide an essential ecosystem service, namely pollination, and it is an intricate relationship between plants and animals where reduction or loss of either will affect the survival of both. It has been established that pollinating agents are essential for survival and reproduction of several wild plant species (Kearns et al., 1998). About 80% of the world’s flowering plant species are dedicated to animal pollination, mostly by insects (FA0, 2007). Although more than 750,000 insect pollinators have been described (Grimaldi and Engel, 2005), possibly as many as 30 million more await discovery and formal description (Erwin, 2004). In 2005, globally, pollinators’ pollination services economic value was estimated to be about €153 billion (Gallai et al., 2009). The United Nations also reported that the economics of ecosystems and biodiversity by insect pollination was valued at £134 billion. The depletion of insect pollinators is due to pollinators’ habitat destruction, heavy tillage, monoculture, injudicious use of pesticides and climate change and therefore, there is the need to create awareness on conservation and pollination management. Climate change is highly affected to species interaction as well as ecosystem ecology (van-der-Putten et al., 2004; Sutherst et al., 2007). Plant-pollinator interaction in both wild and cultivated plant species is under threat (Biesmeijer et al., 2006).

Approximately 80 per cent of all flowering plant species are specialized for pollination by animals and mostly by insects. These crops account for 65 per cent of global food production, still leaving as much as 35 per cent depending on pollinating animals (Klein et al., 2007). These food crops include delicious products such as many of our tree fruits (e.g., apples, cherries, mangos, and avocados) and nuts (e.g., almonds, peanuts, macadamia nuts, and cashew nut), squashes, cucumbers, melons, citrus, and berries. In addition, many of oil seed crops benefit from bee pollination, such as mustard, coconut, canola, safflower, and many more.

The honey bee (Apis mellifera) is the most commonly used insect in agricultural crops as managed pollinator in North America and Europe, Japan, China, India and many other parts of the world as well. Farmers in the United States rent more than 2.5 million honey bee colonies every year for fulfillment of pollination deficit but today, the honey bee is threatened by colony collapse disorder (CCD). The demand for honey bees in California almond orchards rapidly increased due to increasing acreage, while on the other side, bee colonies decreased due to CCD, but that occurred during a time when honey bee colonies were not easy to procure and as a result, the cost of renting bees shot up from US$50 per hive in 2003 to US$140 per hive in 2006 (Sumner and Boriss, 2006). The rental charge increased about 3 times within 4 years.

Introduction

Hematology is the study of blood and its constituents. Blood is a specialized fluid connective tissue, which consists of plasma (55-70%) and the formed elements (30-45%) that flow all over the body in the vessels of the cardiovascular system. Plasma comprises water (90-92%), proteins (6-7%), enzymes, hormones, lipids, and organic & inorganic constituents. The three major classes of plasma proteins include albumin, globulin, and fibrinogen. The organic elements include non-protein nitrogen (NPN) compounds (like urea, uric acid, creatine, creatinine, amino acids, glutathione, and xanthine), glucose, neutral fats, phospholipids, cholesterol and others. The inorganic constituents include calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, sodium, chlorine, sulfur, iodine, iron, copper, cobalt, manganese, zinc, selenium, and molybdenum; they contribute about 1 percent of the plasma.

Blood performs various functions by its constituents. The constituents of the blood are highly dynamic, and they inter shift from their reference values very quickly in any adverse condition. This is why; studies of blood cells and complete blood count (CBC) are important for accessing general health, diagnosing various diseases, and providing prognostic information when coupled with a thorough physical examination. The blood examination is performed routinely to diagnose hematological diseases, including certain hereditary diseases of the blood, and to determine the body’s ability to respond to a hematological insult. The key parameters evaluated in the hemogram are ESR, PCV, Hb, TEC, MCV, MCHC, TLC, and DLC.

Introduction

The cardiovascular system is comprised of the heart and blood vessels (arteries, capillaries, and veins). The heart pumps blood to blood vessels which allow blood to flow throughout the body. Both heart and blood vessels are work together to keep the blood circulating, ensuring the interchange of O₂, CO₂, electrolytes, and nutrients between the blood and the tissue fluids & cells, and removing waste products from the body via the excretory system.

The purpose of the study of the cardiovascular system is aimed at understand the pathophysiology of the heart and vascular system. A physical examination, arterial blood pressure, and electrocardiography are routinely employed to examine the cardiovascular system. The physical examination of the heart includes palpation, percussion, and auscultation.

Introduction

The digestive system and its auxiliary organs main functions include digestion and the absorption of nutrients required for cell metabolic processes. Digestion is the mechanical and chemical or enzymatic breakdown of large nutritional macromolecules into simpler molecules that cells can absorb. It takes place in the aqueous milieu of the digestive system and is secreted by the salivary glands, stomach and mucosal glands, pancreas, and liver.

Digestive enzymes are secreted almost throughout the digestive tract. Salivary enzymes such as lingual lipase and α-amylase initiate the breakdown of fat and carbohydrates in the mouths of young animals (e.g., calves) and omnivores (e.g., rats, pigs, and humans).The optimum pH for oral digestion is 6.7 (6.2-7.6).

The gastric juice contains pepsinogen, HCI, and intrinsic factors. The pepsinogen enzyme is secreted by the stomach’s chief cell. Pepsinogen is converted to pepsin at acidic pH ranges of 2.0 to 3.5 and initiates the digestion of proteins in the stomach of monogastric animals. Also, the stomach’s parietal cells secrete HCI and intrinsic factors. Cyanocobalamin, is a synthetic form of vitamin B₁₂ requires an intrinsic factor in ruminants to be absorbed. The abomasum of young ruminants secretes proteolytic enzymes such as rennin or chymosin. Rennin acts on milk at a pH of 6.5.

Introduction

The main function of the respiratory system is to exchange O₂ and CO₂ between the atmosphere, blood, and cells, which are necessary for animal survival. The circulatory and respiratory systems work together to provide oxygen to cells while eliminating CO₂. O₂ consumption and CO₂ production are determined by cell metabolic activity.

Respiratory volumes or lung volumes refer to the volumes of gas in the lungs at any given point during the respiratory cycle. These volumes vary according to the animals’ physiological state, ambient factors, and health status. This is why; measurements of lung volumes are helpful in understanding the pathophysiology of the respiratory system.

Introduction

The kidneys play a vital role in maintaining water and electrolyte balance (such as chloride, potassium, calcium, hydrogen, magnesium, and phosphate ions). It also regulates the acid-base balance of the blood, arterial blood pressure, and osmotic pressure of the nd water-soluble waste products, which are removed from the bloodstream by the kidneys and excreted as urine. Normally, the kidneys receive about 22% of the cardiac output. According to Arthur Cushny (1866-1926), there are three steps involved in urine formation in the nephrons: glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion. When the kidneys are injured, their regulatory activities are disrupted, resulting in a change in the quality and quantity of urine. Urine is composed of the following components:

This is the reason why a urine analysis is a common test to evaluate the pathophysiology of the urinary system in general and the kidneys in particular, as well as to aid in the differential diagnosis of certain diseases.

Introduction

Endocrinology is the study of the endocrine system, which includes the glands and their secretions known as hormones. Hormones are essential for animal behaviour, growth and development, metabolism, lactation, reproduction, excretion, and reabsorption of inorganic ions. Therefore, if a certain hormone concentration in blood or another body fluid is detected, it provides the pathophysiology of the representative endocrine gland.

Endocrine glands, the cells or tissues they govern, and the secretory substances (hormones) they produce are investigated using a number of methodologies. They are as follows:

1. Surgical methods (e.g., hypophysectomy, gonadectomy, etc).
2. Chemical ablation or impairment (e.g., alloxan or streptozotocin agents that selectively destroy the insulin-secreting beta-cell, etc).
3. Hormone replacement therapy (e.g., estrogen during menopause to reduce the risk of bone fracture related to osteoporosis, etc).
4. Immunological neutralization of hormone activity (e.g., contraception both male and female, injection of antibodies against NGF resulting in failure of sympathetic nervous system development, etc).
5. Tissue extraction and purification (e.g., progestin is a synthetic hormone that mimics progesterone, etc.).
6. Histological-cytological studies (e.g., employment of a battery of histological stains to characterize each pituitary cell, etc).
7. Bioassays (e.g., oxytocin-induced contraction of rat uterine myometrial tissue strips, etc).

Introduction

Reproduction is the biological process that results in the formation of new progeny or individual organisms. Male and female gametes unite to form a zygote, which develops or produces offspring.

Introduction

Growth is the irreversible gain in body weight, size, length, and circumference. It is accomplished by two fundamental processes: hypertrophy (increase in tissue, cell volume and progressive accumulation of intercellular substances) and hyperplasia (growth as a result of cellular multiplication by mitotic division). Animal growth is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors.

Animal body growth and weight gain play a critical role in reproductive performance. It also acts as one of the traits to evaluate the breeding value, optimize management & feeding practices, and prepare the correct dose of therapeutic pharmaceuticals to treat animal diseases. As a result, measurement of body growth is essential for the selection of superior germplasm, feeding & housing management, health care management, and optimizing other environmental conditions that have an impact on animal growth for an economically viable animal industry.

Introduction

Climate change induces significant and long-lasting shifts in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to million years. It is believed to be the cause of long-term temperature changes, changes in rainfall patterns and volume, prolonged summer seasons, increasing sea levels, and increased frequency and intensity of floods, droughts, and heat waves, etc.

Animals are intimately and inseparately associated with their physiological and chemical environments from conception until death. As a result, climate change has an impact on animals both directly and indirectly. Since, animals have had to alter their behavioural and physiological mechanisms in order to maintain homeostasis.

Climate change has emerged as a serious threat to the livestock industry. It reduces animal productivity by lowering growth, milk yield, meat production, egg production, wool production, reproductive performance, and health. About 20 to 30 percent of plant and animal species would likely be at risk of extinction with an increase of 1.5 to 2.5°C, which will result in severe consequences for food and nutritional security in developing countries. This is why; measurements of meteorological variables are needed for effective scientific management of livestock and poultry to cope with the negative impacts of climate change while enhancing growth and productivity.