eChapters

Split-plot design is particularly useful when certain biological treatments cannot conveniently be applied to small experimental units. This chapter explains how large experimental plots can be divided into smaller sub-plots to accommodate subsidiary treatments. Main-plot treatments are randomly allocated to larger units, while sub-plot treatments are independently allocated within them. The design allows researchers to study main effects, sub-plot effects, and interactions, although greater precision is generally obtained for sub-plot comparisons than for main-plot comparisons. Examples include wood preservation and nursery experiments involving sowing methods and seasons. The chapter also explains the two error terms required for appropriate analysis of split-plot experiments.

Series of experiments are conducted at different locations, times, or combinations of locations and years to evaluate the spatial and temporal performance of treatments. Such experiments are especially important in forestry and agricultural research when conclusions are intended to apply across wider geographical or environmental conditions. This chapter explains combined analysis of a series of experiments after individual experiments have first been analysed according to their respective designs. Particular attention is given to testing the homogeneity of error variances, including Bartlett’s test. When variances are homogeneous, pooled analysis can assess treatment effects, location or year effects, and treatment-by-location or treatment-by-year interactions, thereby evaluating consistency of treatment responses.

Augmented designs are useful when a large number of standard varieties or treatments are available for replication but new or promising materials are available only in limited quantities. This chapter introduces augmented designs as modifications of standard experimental designs in which additional, usually unreplicated, entries are incorporated alongside replicated standard treatments. Applications include testing new varieties, seedlings, medicinal plants, growth regulators, seedling carriers, and progeny under forestry and agricultural conditions. The chapter explains the principles of augmented designs and their applications in experimental research. It also discusses augmented Completely Randomized Design, including its layout, analysis of variance, and comparison of replicated varieties and unreplicated seedlings.

Agriculture faces increasing pressure from population growth, climate change, resource scarcity, land degradation, water shortages, and growing food demand. This chapter examines the major global challenges affecting agricultural productivity and food security. Climate variability, extreme weather events, declining natural resources, and changing pest and disease patterns create substantial risks for farming systems. The chapter discusses sustainable and climate-smart agricultural approaches for improving resilience and resource-use efficiency. It also highlights the contribution of artificial intelligence, precision agriculture, biotechnology, remote sensing, and digital technologies in addressing these challenges. Policy support, research investment, institutional cooperation, and equitable access to technology are emphasized for sustainable agricultural development

Water is one of the most critical resources in horticultural production, directly influencing plant growth, flowering, fruit development, and quality. This chapter introduces principles of irrigation scheduling, water requirements, soil–water relationships, and efficient water application. Surface, sprinkler, drip, micro-irrigation, fertigation, and other modern systems are discussed in relation to crop type and environmental conditions. The chapter emphasizes irrigation efficiency, root-zone moisture management, water quality, salinity, drainage, and conservation. Proper irrigation scheduling reduces water losses and prevents both drought stress and excessive wetness. Modern technologies such as sensors, automated irrigation, and precision fertigation are also considered important tools for sustainable horticultural water management.

Natural-fibre-reinforced green composites represent an important alternative to conventional synthetic-fibre composites. This chapter examines renewable fibres such as hemp, jute, flax, and sisal and their integration with bio-based polymer matrices. The discussion covers material composition, processing methods, environmental considerations, sustainability, applications, advantages, limitations, and current research developments. Natural fibres offer low density, renewability, biodegradability, and cost advantages, although hydrophilicity, variability, and processing limitations can affect composite performance. Surface treatments and appropriate fabrication methods are therefore important for improving mechanical, thermal, and durability characteristics. Applications in automotive, construction, packaging, and biomedical sectors demonstrate the growing potential of these sustainable composite materials.

The development of green nanocomposites requires more than replacing conventional materials with renewable alternatives; it also requires responsible sourcing, efficient resource utilization, and consideration of the complete material life cycle. This chapter examines green and eco-friendly nanocomposites from the perspective of sustainable material selection and circular economy principles. It discusses strategies for obtaining renewable raw materials, reducing environmental impacts, improving resource efficiency, and designing materials for reuse, recycling, and recovery. Applications of green nanocomposites are also considered in relation to sustainability objectives. By connecting material development with circular economy strategies, the chapter provides a framework for developing nanocomposites that combine functional performance with reduced environmental burden.

Carnation is one of the world's most important commercial cut flowers and is extensively produced under protected conditions for domestic and export markets. This chapter examines its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics, types and commercially important varieties. It describes protected cultivation, greenhouse design, climate management, soil, propagation, planting, irrigation, fertigation, pinching, disbudding, staking and growth regulation. Major pests and diseases, harvesting, grading, postharvest handling, vase life and yield are also discussed. The chapter incorporates modern cultivars, disease-resistant varieties and genetically modified colour developments, making it valuable for contemporary commercial carnation production and floriculture education

Chrysanthemum is an economically important flower crop cultivated extensively for cut flowers, loose flowers and ornamental purposes. This chapter presents its origin, taxonomy, genetics, botanical features and commercially important varieties. Production technologies include propagation, nursery management, planting, spacing, nutrient management, irrigation, pinching, disbudding, photoperiodic manipulation and protected cultivation. Major pests and diseases and their management are described along with harvesting, grading, postharvest treatment and yield. The chapter emphasizes the importance of crop regulation and environmental management for producing uniform, marketable stems. It provides practical guidance for growers and students studying commercial chrysanthemum production and floriculture. under diverse Indian production conditions.

Lilium is a high-value bulbous cut flower known for large, attractive and fragrant flowers and extensive international demand. This chapter examines its taxonomy, origin, genetics, botanical description and major hybrid groups, including Asiatic and Oriental lilies. It explains bulb preparation, storage, planting, climate, soil, greenhouse management, nutrition, irrigation and crop regulation. Pest and disease management, harvesting, grading, postharvest treatment and yield are also presented. Special attention is given to commercial standards for Oriental and LA Hybrid lilies, including stem length, flower number, bunching and presentation. The chapter provides a comprehensive foundation for modern commercial lily production.

Filler flowers play an essential role in floral arrangements by providing volume, texture, colour balance and supporting elements around major cut flowers. This chapter presents several commercially useful filler crops and their production technologies. It covers crop establishment, climate, soil, propagation, nutrient management, irrigation, crop regulation, pest and disease management, harvesting, drying and postharvest handling. Crops such as Ammi and other seasonal fillers are discussed from a commercial production perspective. The chapter also considers yield, stem quality and market requirements, demonstrating how filler crops can diversify farm income and create profitable opportunities within modern floriculture enterprises.

Clinical dermatological examination provides the foundation for recognizing and investigating skin disorders in veterinary patients. This chapter focuses on systematic assessment of skin lesions, their morphology, distribution and associated changes. Examination includes identification of papules, pustules, crusts, alopecia, lichenification and other lesions. Diagnostic procedures such as skin scraping, acetate tape impression, hair plucking for trichography, Wood's lamp examination and impression smears help determine underlying causes. Microscopic examination assists in detecting mites and other organisms. Careful documentation of lesion distribution and characteristics helps differentiate infectious, parasitic and other dermatological conditions and supports selection of appropriate diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.

Blood transfusion is an important supportive therapy for animals with severe anaemia, blood loss and other conditions requiring restoration of circulating blood components. This chapter presents practical principles of blood transfusion, including blood groups, donor selection, blood collection, compatibility testing and administration. Cross-matching is important for reducing the risk of transfusion reactions. The chapter also discusses monitoring of patients during transfusion and recognition of common clinical signs associated with transfusion reactions. Proper collection, storage, handling and administration of blood products are essential for safe and effective therapy. The practical procedures help veterinary students understand transfusion medicine and patient management.

Udder health, foot health and heat-stress management are major components of dairy herd productivity and animal welfare. This chapter addresses prevention, examination and management of mastitis, including milking hygiene, teat dipping, dry cow therapy, diagnostic testing and appropriate treatment. Foot health is emphasized because neglected feet can result in lameness, reduced milk production, impaired reproduction and increased culling. Heat stress management includes environmental and shed-based interventions to reduce excessive solar and thermal load. The chapter integrates practical management strategies for maintaining udder integrity, sound locomotion and thermal comfort, thereby supporting productivity and overall health of dairy animals.

Introduction

Brood stock management is an essential component of fish farming since the success of aquaculture industry mainly depends on quality of brood stock in order to ensure the production of top quality offspring. Their health condition is also important from culture point of view, which in turn increases the fish production. Unfortunately, in India, less attention is given to the brood stock management during non-breeding seasons. The pond aquaculture is also becoming over utilized due to high stocking beyond the carrying capacity, addition of huge quantities of chemicals, drugs, fertilizers and supplementary feeds etc. Physical injury due to rough handling, temperature fluctuations, extremes in oxygen levels can also work in a cumulative way and produce stress and make the fish susceptible to variety of diseases. Environmental deterioration, which occurs due to dumping of pesticides and chemicals alongwith metabolic waste products, left out feed materials and organic load of the pond bottom regularly come in contact with certain vital organs and tissues of fish. All such factors can cause deterioration of fish health and magnify the risk of outbreak of diseases. Disease outbreaks are one of the stumbling blocks in the development of aquaculture industry affecting both the economic development and socio-economic revenue from this sector. Today, there is no availability of exact figure on loss due to diseases in fish farming. The phenomenon is more common in carp Industry, and mortalities due to disease outbreaks cause major management problems and economic loss every year.

Introduction

The major potential areas for inland aquaculture have already been explored in India. Additional production can only be achieved through successful manipulation of available resources that influence the productivity of various aquaculture systems. This can be achieved through maintenance of adequate levels of nutrients in the pond environment. Pond management in fish culture is mainly concerned with fertilization requirements and strategies with better management practices (BMP) of pond soil and water quality. BMP could be achieved through adoption of advanced technology, computer based diognostic/decision tools, software packages for quick, accurate, authetic data management.

R - enamel can : The acid resistant, gold coloured enamel treated can are called R enamel cans. It is used for canning of acidic food which have soluble colouring pigments.
R factor : It is a group of genes present in some bacteria that provide a basis for resistance to antibiotics and can be transferred from cell to cell by conjugation.
R value : R value is a measure of resistance to the flow of heat through a given thickness of a material (insulation) with higher numbers indicating better insulating properties.

B.T.U.: It stands for British thermal unit. The heat required to raise the temperature of one pond of the water through 1^° F is called BTU.
Baby back ribs: Meaty pork ribs cut from the lower back rib section.

Bacitracin: A polypeptide antibiotic isolated from a bacillus (Bacillus subtilis or B. licheniformis) and usually used against gram-positive bacteria.

Back Bacon / Canadian bacon: Bacon cut from the loin that has little fat and is cut into round or oblong slices.

B horizon: i) A soil horizon that formed below an A horizon, E horizon, or O horizon, dominated by obliteration of all or much of the original rock structure and showing one or more of the following: a) illuvial concentration of silicate clay, iron, aluminium, humus, carbonates, gypsum, or silica, alone or in combination; b) evidence of removal of carbonates; c) residual concentration of sesquioxides; d) coatings of sesquioxides that make the horizon conspicuously lower in value, higher in chroma, or redder in hue than the overlying or underlying horizons without apparent illuviation of iron; e) alteration that forms silicate clay or liberates oxides, or both, that forms granular, blocky, or prismatic structure if volume changes accompany changes in moisture content; or f) brittleness. ii) A soil horizon usually beneath the a horizon that is characterized by one or more of the following: a) A concentration of silicate clays, iron and aluminium oxides, and humus, alone or in combination; b) a blocky or prismatic structure, and  c) coatings of iron and aluminium oxides that give darker, stronger or redder colour.

E horizon: A mineral soil horizon in which the main feature is loss of silicate clay, iron, aluminum, or some combination of these, leaving a concentration of sand and silt particles of quartz or other resistant materials. 

Earth Summit: International conference held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 to discuss issues concerning climate change, world poverty, environment and development, the worlds forest and biodiversity.

Ecocentric value: The value of ecological entities irrespective of their usefulness to humans. 

R₁, R₂, R₃: The symbols used to designate first, second and third irradiation generation.

Race: i) A genetic subdivision of a species, with more or less distinct characteristics when grown in a particular environment. Sometimes used to denote a portion of a cline. Differences among races may or may not be adaptive; differences among ecotypes are presumed to be adaptive. Hence, ‘race’ is a more general term than ecotype. ii) A genetically and often geographically distinct mating group within a species; also a group of pathogens that infect a given set of plant varieties.

ABSTRACT

This paper provides an overview on existing IP protection and registration systems of India and adds information culled from publicly available sources pertaining to modernization efforts of Government of India towards establishment of foolproof IP protection in accordance with international treaties, conventions and bilateral and multilateral agreements.

India over several millenniums has been the treasure land of biological wealth, intellectual knowledge and spiritual wisdom. During both pre and post Vedic periods, arts, science and technology had flourished well in various fields. Indian agriculture to some extent is much traditional and dates back to about 10,000 years. India with its traditional crop varieties and crop production technologies was able to feed its population and also exporting some selected produces to other continents. All the Indian villages had been the self sufficient, self sustained and self reliant units. The development of modern agricultural production was achieved by creating large scale specialized farm production units, increased mechanization and use of chemical inputs.

While setting up a garden or landscaping an area, the natural floristic wealth is ignored very often. But many of those flora are much adapted to prevailing soil and climatic conditions of the area. Plants with attractive flowers or foliage could be retained to maintain the natural appearance as well as to reduce cost of landscaping.Very familiar plants of our surroundings having good ornamental value are discussed in this chapter.

Goanese Ipecacuanha 
Naregamia alata commonly known as Goanese Ipecacuanha is a member of family Meliaceae. It is known as Tinparni in Hindi, Triparnika in Sanskrit, Nilanarakam in Malayalam, Nilanreagam in Tamil and Nelanaringa in Kannada. Common name was derived from its use of roots in treatment of malaria. Vernacular name, Nilanarakam originated from its morphological resemblance to members of Rutaceae. 

Normal Solution in Analytical Chemistry

A normal solution is that one that contains one equivalent weight expressed  in grams (one gram equivalent weight) to be dissolved substance per litre of solution, or one gram-milliequivalent weight per millilitre.

In the case of acid a 1N solution contains 1.008 gram of replaceable hydrogen per litre of solution. A 1N solution of a base is one that contains 17.008 of hydroxyl per litre. A 1N solution of a precipitating agent contains a weight of precipitating ion equivalent to 1.008 hydrogen. The quantity of pure reagent necessary per litre of 1N solution of a precipitating solution is calculated by dividing the gram molecular weight by the valency of the precipitating ion. In case of normal solution of oxidising and reducing agents, the amount is calculated by dividing the gram molecular weight by the total valency change in the ion concerned.

Estimation of Phosphorus in Feeds, Fodders and Faeces
(Titrimetric method of AOAC, 1965)
Principle

Metaphosphates and pyrophosphates are converted to the ortho-phosphate, which is treated at 65-70ºC with excess of molybdate in the presence of nitric acid. When acid solutions of phosphates are heated with ammonium molybdate, the phosphoric acid is precipitated as yellow ammonium phosphomolybdate (NH₄)₃ PO₄ (Mo03)12 2HNO₃.H₂O. Impurities like molybdic oxide, if happened to be formed any, goes into solution. The yellow precipitate formed reacts quantitatively with standard alkali, the excess of which is back titrated with acid.

3.1 Cereals

1.    List of weeds in kharif season crops
    
2.    Weed management techniques in cereals
    
    Maize
    Pearl millet / Sorghum
    Ragi
    
3.    Weed management techniques in Pulses
        
    Greengram / Blackgram
    Pigeonpea
    Cowpea
    Cluster bean
    Rajmash
    
4.    Weed management techniques in Oilseeds
        
    Sesame Til
    Major weeds of kharif season crops
    
5.    Non-crop lands weeds and their management
    
    1. Parthenium hysterophorus
    2. Saccharum spontaneum
    3. Lantana camara

1.       Introduction

2.    Lipid Storage in Fish
    
3.      Factors Influencing Nature of Lipids in Fish
    
4.    Composition of Fish Oils
    4.1    Nature and composition of fatty acids
    4.2     Triacyl glycerols
    4.3     Phospholipids
    4.4     Diacyl glycerol ethers
    4.5     Wax esters
    4.6     Hydrocarbons
    4.7     Sterols
    
5.    Autoxidation of Fish Lipids
        
    5.1    Mechanism of autoxidation
        
    5.2     Factors influencing lipid autoxidation
        
    5.3     Control and prevention of autoxidation
    
6.    Lipid Autolysis
    
7.    Rancidity Problem in Fish
    7.1     Indices of oxidative rancidity
    
References

Pesticides are used to control plant growth (herbicides), insects (insecticides), worms  (vermicides), bacteria (bacteriocides), fungi (fungicides), and other organisms. Almost without exception, pesticides are used to benefit humans by the control of unwanted species of plants (e.g. weeds in a lawn), disease-causing bacteria (e.g., Pneumococcus, the causative agent of pneumonia), disease-carrying insects (e.g. malarial or yellow fever mosquitoes) or in controlling destruction of agricultural products by disease-causing organisms (e.g., corn-borers, the virus of anthurium blight). Although they are by and large mostly beneficial, pesticides used both properly and improperly are also “resources out of place”, that is pollutants, that are subject to normal ecological processes.

HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH

The evolution of man took place about one million years ago in response to changes in the physical environment. We learnt gradually to adapt different modes of life to varying environments and migrated different parts of the world. Human activities have had their impact on the environment, which was depending on the number of people living in  the area and  their level  of economic development. Per capita consumption of food, energy and other resources in developed countries is larger and its impact on the environment is much greater than equal number of persons living in developing countries in Africa or Asia. Therefore, the distribution of population needs to be examined in detail.

The Global Environmental Issues

 
Expansion of the scale of human activity in recent years has put so much strain on the natural environment of this planet that in some cases nature can no longer recover. The nature’s ability though recovers damage or harmful effects in one part of the world do not stop in the very area and keeps going beyond national borders and become environmental problems on a global scale, but in a limited manner.

INTRODUCTION

Inspite of recent technological developments which have helped to increase agricultural production in many countries, growth of plants and animals continue to depend to a large extent on the weather conditions. Each plant has its own climatic requirements for growth and development and any large scale deviation from it exert negative influence.

Growth of plants is most sensitive to temperature just above a threshold value and near the maximum value, where growth normally stops. Therefore, periods of extreme temperature i. e. low temperatures below the threshold value and high temperatures above the maxima are hazardous to plant development and growth. Extreme temperature conditions during cold spells cause stress and frost; high temperatures lead to heat stress, and both affect agricultural production. Snow and ice storms in late spring or early autumn are very hazardous to many temperate crops.

Similarly extremes of moisture conditions namely dry desiccating winds, drought episodes and low moisture conditions as well as very humid atmospheric conditions including wet spells tend to affect agriculture. High soil moisture situations of water logging and flooding associated with heavy rainfall and tropical storms have adverse effect on plant growth and development since they influence the rate of transpiration, leaf area expansion and ultimately plant productivity. Drastic changes in rainfall variability can have very significant impact, particularly in climatically marginal zones such as arid, semi-arid and sub-humid areas where incidence of widespread drought is frequent. Dry desiccating and strong winds reduce agricultural production as a result of very high evapotranspiration rates. It also causes mechanical damage to plant with weak stems by lodging such as the sugarcane and the banana.

INTRODUCTION

Any crop has its own optimal requirements or selective response to the environmental factors such as rainfall/ soil moisture supply, day/night air temperature, soil temperature, duration of sunshine and its intensity. The growth and development of a plant which ultimately governs the agricultural productivity of a region, is closely related with climatic factors. Weather phenomenon has a profound influence on crop growth stage. A moderate wind or a light rain, when the crop growth is near to harvest, may do more damage than even heavy rain and high wind in the vegetative phase. So land use planning by matching crop growth with weather parameters forms a basis for successful agriculture (Samra, 2003) in a particular region. In order to achieve sustainable agricultural productivity in the 21^st century, the climate and weather systems are being recognized as critical agenda and input.

INTRODUCTION

Several biophysical factors govern the agricultural productivity of a region. Among the key biophysical factors, weather and more particularly rainfall has the over riding impact on agricultural productivity since rainfall is a primary source of water and the first requirement for raising any crop. This element influences various dynamics of crop growth and development and accounts from nearly two thirds of variation in agricultural productivity. The amount of rainfall at a particular place is important; an equal important factor is its temporal distribution, which is uneven, uncertain and erratic in most part of the country. Breaks in monsoon are common phenomenon during the monsoon period. The analysis of rainfall characteristics such as occurrence and distribution of dry or wet spell is essentially required for successful crop planning, development of befitting agro techniques, recommendation of suitable crop variety, designing of water harvesting ponds, earthen dams and other soil conservation structures. It is also an established fact that the crop development will be affected if the dry spell coincides with sensitive phonological stage of the crop and sometimes beneficial if it coincides with the ripening stage. Hence for the purpose of crop planning and to carry out the agricultural practices, it is important to know the sequence of dry and wet periods. An attempt has been made in this paper to analyse the rainfall in standard meteorological week as well as monthly basis at different probability levels for Lembucherra by using computer based forecasting technique.

Introduction

The tropical evergreen forests of the Sahyadris or the Malnad region of Karnataka is one of the richest plant areas (“hot spots”) on earth and crucial to the oxygen supply of the world. More than 30,000 varieties of wildlife and plants and over 8,000 said to unique are reported to lie here. Unless reckless deforestation is halted soon, some scientists fear that within the next 100 years this virgin forest could become an arid wilderness.

Agriculture is one of the major age-old occupations of human beings providing food to the people and also supplies raw materials to a number of agro based industries. However the expansion of agricultural fields in the dense woody forest areas has brought about many environmental problems and thereby degraded the quality of environment in ecologically most sensitive areas like Uttar Kannada District. In India, agricultural practices are primarily based on the traditional system of intensive subsistence forming. It is also observed that more and more available area (forest) has been brought under cultivations to feed the population which has been growing at an alarming rate. The agricultural expansion and population growth, in forest areas of Uttar Kannada Districts have degraded the quality of environment.

Abstract

The Cauvery delta is a major bird-foot shaped delta with its apex located east of Tiruchirappalli with the mother channel Cauvery flowing along Thanjavur– Kumbakonam – Kaveripoompattinam. The distributary drainages are radiating over an arc towards east from its apex with a fan shape and finally debouch into the sea from south of Tiruthuraipoondi in the south to Kaveripoompattinam in the north. All these distributary drainages are now seen as palaeochannels including the mother channel Cauvery, which is now called as “Palam Cauvery”. The present day flow of Cauvery river is confined to the northernmost rim of the delta as river Coleroon. On the basis of the archaeological, epigraphic and historical data analysed earlier and the14C dating carried out recently, the present authors infer that the age of the delta may vary from 2300 Y.B.P. ( Years Before Present) to 750 Y.B.P. and the age of the palaeochannels are also younging from 2300 Y.B.P. in the south to 750 Y.B.P. in the north. In the southern part of the Cauvery delta, the Mio-Pliocene Sandstone of Pattukottai-Mannargudi area is undergoing upliftment along N-S faults. On the basis of the rapid land progradation during 6085±233 Y.B.P. - 1020±80 Y.B.P. in Vedaranniyam coast, it is visualized that the Mio-Pliocene Sandstone must be undergoing upliftment significantly since 6100 Y.B.P. onwards. On the basis of the occurrence of older palaeochannels in the south, the gradual younging palaeochannels towards the north and the land emergence in the south of the Cauvery delta in Pattukottai – Mannargudi area, it is concluded that the distributary drainages of river Cauvery would have become sequentially defunct / shifted from south to north and finally the mother channel Cauvery also would have been pushed towards north to reach the present tract of Coleroon river. The thinner palaeochannels in the south and the gradual wider palaeochannels in the north of the delta further indicate that as the land was already undergoing emergence in the south even before river Cauvery has entered into Thanjavur plains, the river could not comfortably spread its distributaries in the south. Hence, the southern distributaries, after a brief flow, would have started drying sequentially from south to north during 2300–750 Y.B.P. thereby the floodwater of each of the southern distributary channel would have been pushed to its successive northern counterpart, i.e. the southern distributary (say 1), pushing its water to its immediate northern counterpart (say 2), then the combined flow of 1 and 2 pushing the water to 3 and so on. The anomalous eyed drainage and its modifications during the last 50–60 years and compressed meanders in Coleroon river, deflected drainages in Palam Cauvery, truncation and punctuation of beach ridges by the E – W faults along the N – S coast and such faults acting as pathways for the sub parallel creeks indicate vibrant Late Holocene geological history predominated by the tectonic movements in Cauvery delta.

Groundwater exists at many places beneath the surface of the earth. It is normally hidden from view but, on occasion, can be seen flowing from springs and wells or seeping into tunnels. Certain properties of the various geologic materials control the ability of groundwater to enter into, move through, be stored in, or be extracted from the ground. Therefore, an understanding of geology is necessary in order to gain an understanding of groundwater found within a particular area of investigation. A basic part of the study of the geology of an area includes the preparation of a map showing surfacial exposures of each rock type. Interpretation of the map facilitates the study of the underground configuration, characteristics, and physical properties of these materials. This, in turn, enables the evaluation of groundwater storage, movement, and yield, as well as the identification of areas of ground water quality problems, recharge, and extraction.

The fundamental unit of a geologic study is the geologic formation. A formation has been defined as any assemblage of rocks, which have some character in common, whether of origin, age, or composition. In this sense, the term “rock” is defined as any naturally occurring part of the earth’s crust, made up of aggregate of minerals and includes hard, dense granite, lava ash, clay, sand, and even loose-uncohesive soil.

Application of the principal of geomorphology provides information, which will be of value in predicating the geometry of aquifers. On weathering and erosion, many geological formations develop landforms that are distinctive in respect of slope continuity of outcrops and symmetry of valley flanks. The surface topographic features of bedrocks can some times be extrapolated to reasonable depths to predict the thickness of alluvium or aeolian sands occurring as valley fill deposits, by treating slope profile as mathematical curves for which equations similar to regression equations can be found (Doornkamp and King, 1971).

The influence of tectonic movements and resultant structural features on landform is of paramount importance for hydrogeomorphologists. The control of structure on landforms and hydrogeological processes are being discussed here. The structural geology concerns with the features such as uniclinal or inclined beds, folds, faults and joints. Of these the structural features like faults, fractures, joints etc appear as linear feature.

Linear features on the surface of the earth have attracted the attention of geologists for over one hundred years. This interest has grown most rapidly since the introduction of aerial photographs into geological studies. Geologists have recently proven that various structural features perceived in remotely sensed images are reliable indicators of geologic resources (Caran et al, 1982). These structures have been used in many applications: petroleum and mineral exploration (Blanchet, 1957); nuclear energy facility siting (Seay, 1979); geothermal assessments (Woodruff et al, 1982); and water resource investigations (Lattman and Parizek, 1964). Lattman and Parizek (1964) established a relationship between the occurrence of groundwater and fracture traces for carbonate aquifers, and in particular zones of localized weathering and increased permeability and porosity underlying these structures.

Water is a primary source of life and sustains all human activities such as domestic needs, agriculture, industries etc. The allocation and management of water resources is becoming a difficult task due to increasing demands, decreasing supply and diminishing quality. This calls for judicious use of water resources. The geomorphology describes the environment in which the hydrological processes operate. A strong mutual correlation exists between geomorphological variables and hydrological characteristics. Such relationship can be applied to both surface and groundwater regime. Thus the linking of geomorphological parameters with hydrological characteristics of the basin provides a simple way to understand the hydrogeomorphological behaviour of different basins and particularly of un-gauged basins.

During the last few years various applications of hydrogeomorphology with reference to the Geographic Information System (GIS) and various other techniques have emerged as an extensively effective tool for analyzing and prioritizing natural resource management alternatives. Because natural resource management problems are spatial in nature the GIS technology provides a tool for defining the extent of the problem, and facilitates the design and implementation of alternative management strategies. The GIS is used to estimate the hydrogeomorphological parameters of the watershed, which can be used in watershed planning and management at micro and macro levels. The results of the study can be utilized to infer the hydrological features like runoff potential, infiltration and groundwater recharge of the region. Some of the applications of hydrogeomorphological studies are described below:

Genetic Basis of Heterosis

There are three theories to explain the genetic basis of heterosis: (1) dominance hypothesis, (2) over-dominance hypothesis and (3) epistasis.

Dominance Hypothesis

Davenport (1908) first proposed this hypothesis and he considered that heterosis is a consequence of action and interaction of favourable dominant genes brought together in a hybrid. Bruce, Keeble and Pellew explained it in 1910. This hypothesis suggests that at each locus the dominant allele have favourable effect, while recessive allele has unfavourable effect. In heterozygous state, deleterious effects of recessive alleles are masked by their dominant alleles. Thus, heterosis results from masking of harmful effects of recessive alleles by their dominant alleles. The harmful effects of recessive alleles, which becomes homozygous due to inbreeding. Therefore, according to dominance hypothesis, heterosis is not the result of heterozygosity; it is the result of prevention of expression of harmful recessive allele by their dominant alleles (Fig.1). In this hypothesis, there are two objections (i) the first objection relates to the failure in isolation of homozygous lines for all the dominant genes, and (ii) the second objection is directed at the symmetrical distribution in F₂. Both the objections are discussed below:

Goat is the 1st domesticated animal in the ancient age and has been considered to be the Poor Man’s Cow Goat’s meat is lean & has low fat and the demand for goat’s meat is increasing, with rising prices. Goats usually give birth to twins & triplets. Goat is a multi functional animal and plays a significant role in the economy and nutrition of landless, small and marginal farmers in the country. Goat rearing is an enterprise which has been practiced by a large section of population in rural areas. It can efficiently survive on available shrubs and trees in adverse harsh environment in low fertility lands where no other crop can be grown. In pastoral and agricultural subsistence societies in India, goats are kept as a source of additional income for their meat, hair fiber, and dairy, or as a pet. Goats are also used in ceremonial feastings and for the payment of social dues. According to FAO (2008) goat milk production in India were 4 million metric tons, Bangladesh 2.16 million metric tons and the Sudan 1.47 million metric tons over much of the world. Goats are among the main meat-producing animals in India, whose meat (chevon) is one of the choicest meats and has huge domestic demand (Shalander Kumar, 2007). Goat rearing is an enterprise which has been practiced by a large section of population in rural areas. Goats can efficiently survive on available shrubs and trees in adverse harsh environment in low fertility lands where no other crop can be grown. (Oberoi et al., 199I) reported that in variable cost, expenditure on labour was the major component of cost and was 81% under goat farming.

1. INTRODUCTION

Plants produce an array of natural products, the secondary metabolites, which play a variety of roles such as pollinator attractants e.g. pigments and scents and defense molecules against attacks by animals and microorganisms. These substances are very much important as a source of pharmaceuticals, fragrances, agrochemicals and food additives. Great efforts have been made by the chemical industry to mimic and synthesise these compounds. However little success has been achieved and plants still remain the major source of these vital compounds (Wink, 1990). In the late 1970s plant cell culture was thought to be an alternative or additional way of producing these compounds (Alfermann and Peterson, 1995). The low yields obtained with cultured cells and inferior to the amounts present in intact plants, provided a major drawback to their commercial exploitation. The plant derived pharmaceuticals represent a large market value; about 25% of today’s pharmaceuticals contain at least one active ingredient of plant origin. So only a minute fraction of the enormous biosynthetic potential of plant cells is being exploited. The most popular analgesic drug aspirin and the most valuable anti-cancer drugs paclitaxel and vinblastine are derived solely from plant sources (Pezzuto, 1996).

Over the last 10-15 years, the successful genetic transformation of plants has been reported in about 200 species including agricultural crops, trees, ornamentals, fruits and vegetables. Such genetic modification has improved specific crop traits, such as resistance to pathogens, to herbicides and to various environmental factors including drought and floods (Bajaj and Ishimaru, 1999). Following on from this success genetic transformation of medicinal plants has been attempted, primarily to enhance the production of various pharmaceuticals, flavours and pigments. During the early 90’s it was suggested that metabolic engineering of biosynthetic networks might be achieved by application of recombinant DNA methods.

17.1 Rice

Rice culture at present dominates irrigated agriculture. About 64% of the irrigation water resources in Andhra Pradesh are used for cultivation of rice. An adequate water supply is one of the most important factors in rice production. In many parts of India including Andhra Pradesh rice plants suffer from either too much or too little water because of irregular rainfall and land topography.

Percolation losses in rice fields

Percolation losses are a function of the local soil and topographic conditions. Therefore, at any time the amount of rainfall or irrigation water entering the soil becomes greater than its water holding capacity, losses by downward movement of free water (vertical percolation) will occur. Percolation is often defined as the movement of water through saturated soils due to gravity, hydrostatic pressure or both.

Thus where the soil is heavy and the water table is close to the soil surface, percolation losses are low, about 1 – 2 mm/day. On the other hand, where the soil is light and the water table is deep, percolation losses may be high, about 8 – 15 mm/day, or more. About 50 to 60% of applied water to rice is lost by deep percolation. The percolation losses can be reduced by adopting following agronomic practices:

Measurement of soil moisture content is one of the most routinely done soil characterization. Knowledge of soil moisture is essential to understand the behaviour of soil as a medium for plant growth. Moreover, this property of soil helps to explain other processes of the soil. There are several methods of measuring soil moisture content. The most commonly used methods are gravimetric and tensiometric. The standard gravimetric method is quite accurate and simple but is time consuming, cumbersome and destructive. Furthermore, due to relatively small soil samples that are taken, the variability between replicates is great.

Gravimetric Method

Equipment needed includes zip-loc bags or aluminium moisture boxes and soil sampling tools. Soil sampling tools can be a soil probe, auger, or even a post-hole digger. Balance and scale should have accuracy to 0.1 gram. Proper sampling of the field is important to obtain a representative sample of the field. The soil sample should be collected from the field at a minimum of three locations, and the sample locations chosen should represent the entire field. Sampling from the small areas of low spots or ridges that do not represent majority of the field should be avoided. If there are major changes in soil classification within a field, the field should be divided into sub-sites and samples are collected accordingly.

We live in a knowledge economy, where ideas generated by talented people and the inventions they make are the new currency. Research and innovation are now seen as the key differentiating factors determining the market value of a product or service. The emphasis today has graduated from cost arbitrage and quality deliverables to Intellectual property (IP) creation and research and development. Intellectual or Intangible property is the creation of human mind. An intellectual property under protection by law is intellectual property right (IPR). Intellectual property is an important business asset giving significant competitive advantages. Intellectual properties are protected by giving time bound restriction to inventor, owner, author, originator, or plant breeder to use, sell, share, or distribute intellectual asset. These are exclusive rights to the owner and give ability for a lawsuit against others for infringement of IP owner. It is also a marketable asset, which can be licensed out to a third party bringing income to the business in the form of license payments and royalties. Intellectual property rights are legal rights, which result from intellectual activity in the industrial, scientific, literary and artistic fields. These rights give statutory expression to the moral and economic rights of creators in their creations. Intellectual property rights safeguard the creators and other producers of intellectual goods and services by granting them certain time-limited rights to control the use made of those productions. These rights also promote creativity, dissemination, application of their results and encourage fair-trading, which contributes to economic and social development.

Plant pathogens are known to cause yield reduction of almost 20 per cent in the principal food and cash crops worldwide (Oorke et al., 1994). These losses may be more severe when highly susceptible cultivars are widely grown in a particular region of the globe. The increased world’s population is posing a major global challenge to provide sufficient quatity of food with high quality fruits and vegetables. Nearly, 570 million US $ is now spent annually on research and development by the leading 15 agricultural Companies to combat with the important diseases of major food, fruits and vegetable crops. There are more than 150 active ingredients registered as fungicides worldwide (Mc Dougal, 1996). In the present era of intensive agriculture, fungicides play an important role in our fight against plant diseases and reduce the losses in yield and quality of farm produce. The global fungicide sale has been estimated to be $ 6.0 billion US. The cereal and vine industries of the Western European have become largest fungicide market followed by North America. However, the fungicide use is not intensive in Asia and the new world.

This article presents the historical development of fungicides, mode of their action, development of resistance to fungicides, fungicidal residue and chemical control of various diseases of horticultural and plantation crops.

India is the world’s second largest producer of fruits, of which mango, banana, citrus, guava, grape, pineapple and apple are the major ones. Apart from these, fruits like papaya, sapota, aonla, phalsa, jackfruit, ber, pomegranate in tropical and sub-tropical parts and peach, pear, almond, walnut, apricot and strawberry in the temperate parts are also grown in a sizeable area. Date palm and fig cultivation is also finding favour in some areas. The major fruit growing states are Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat.

Production of fruits in India is 44.04 million tones from an area of 3.72 million hectares. One of the bottlenecks in fruit production is the losses incurred by insect pest and diseases which necessitated the use of pesticides to curb the pest problem. Use of pesticides in India is very low 0.350–0.5 kg/hectare as compared to 7.0 kg/hectare in USA, 2.5 kg/hectare in Europe, 12 kg/hectare in Japan and 6.6 kg/hectare in Korea. Despite of low pesticide consumption in India, there is a great problem of pesticide residues vis-a-vis other countries and these residues have entered into food products and underground water because of non-prescribed use of chemical pesticides, wrong advice and supply of pesticides to farmers by vested interests, non-observance of prescribed waiting period, pre-marketing pesticide treatments during storage and transport, use of sub-standard pesticides, effluents from pesticide manufacturing units, continued use of persistent pesticides for public health programme, lack of awareness and lack of aggressive educational programmes for farmers/consumers.

Need of Analysis Technique

There are various methods to determine the concentration of a substance present in the matrix of an organic matter, these methods are very expensive, require expertise, need skilled man power, expensive chemicals and sophisticated equipments. But the volumetric analysis requires very less equipment and its level of accuracy is fairly high. It is very beneficial in the preparation of normal and molar solutions which is the back bone of all the research. Scientific venture is useless without the preparation of accurate standard solutions which is to be used in the estimation of various substances by sophisticated techniques like colorimetry, spectrophotometry, atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS), inductively coupled plasma emission spectrophotometer (ICP) etc. So the emphasis has been laid on the preparation of quick and accurate preparation of the standards. Volumetric analysis is the simplest technique by which, we can determine the concentration of a substance in solution form by titration of unknown solution against a known concentration solution. One solution is called the standard (known concentration) and other is called unknown solution. In this, reaction takes place either

1. Introduction

Present day botanic gardens have their origins from medicinal plant gardens established during the middle of the 16^th century meant for the cultivation of medicinal plants. Therefore, the roots of botany are traced from the medicine. The modern botanic gardens are considered as an ordered collection of plants, assembled primarily for scientific and educative purposes. They serve as the living repositories and offer excellent opportunities for ex-situ conservation, taxonomy, and studies on various other botanical aspects as mentioned below:

Farming system approach addresses itself to each of the farmer enterprises; inter relationship among enterprises and between the farm and environment. Thus farming system research has the objective of increasing productivity of various enterprises in the farm. Farming system approach introduces a change in farming technique for high production from a farm as a whole with the integration of all the enterprises. The farm produce other than the economic products for which the crop is grown can be better utilized for productive purposes in the farming system approach. A judicious mix of cropping system with associated enterprises like dairy, poultry, piggery, fishery, sericulture etc. suited to the given agro-climatic conditions and socio economic status of farmers would bring prosperity to the farmer.

Combination of Integrated farming system (IFS) along with organic farming so called integrated organic farming system (IOFS)appear to be the possible solution to the continuous increase of demand for food production, stability of income and improvement of nutrition for the small and marginal farmers with limited resources. Integration of different enterprises with crop activity as base will provide ways to recycle products and waste materials of one component as input through another linked component and reduce the cost of production of the products which will finally raise the total income of the farm. This becomes quite essential as crop cultivation is subjected to a high degree of risk and provides only seasonal, irregular and uncertain income and employment to the farmers. With a view to mitigate the risk and uncertainty in agriculture, IOFS serves as an informal insurance.

Production of agricultural crops, vary in response to changes of the seasons. In the recent period stable income of agricultural crops has become unstable. Redressing these by integrating crops with agro-based industries like livestock farming is essential. An integrated organic farming system applies the concept of “Low External Input Sustainable Agriculture” (LEISA) and this system develops the livestock business and the crop business in one location or area using local resources to optimize inputs. Designing a farming system to tie together principles of sustainability and productivity is complex. Organic farmers must consider how the various components of their system - rotations, pest and weed management, and soil health - will maintain both productivity and profitability. This section outlines the major principles incorporated into organic farming systems.