eChapters

The response of a plant to the relative length of day and night is called as

A. Photosynthesis      B. Phytochrome

C. Photoperiodism     D. Photo respiration

I. Importance of Growth and Development
• Growth is an irreversible increase in size and evaluated by mass length and height, surface area or volume.
• Growth is produced by cell division in meristem.
• Root and shoot of vascular cambium are meristematic.
• Apical meristem of root and shoot is developed during embryo development.
• Plant growth is determinate (leaves, flowers, fruits) or indeterminate (root, stem).
• Monocarpic species flowers only once and die.
• Polycarpic species after flowering return to vegetative and flower at once before drying.
• Monocarpic annuals – monocarpic species lives for only one year/one season. Eg. Marigold, cosmos etc.

Vegetables: Three conditions shoul1d be met to be called a horticultural produce as a ‘vegetable’ viz.

• Vegetables are herbaceous plants
• They mostly serve culinary purpose
• They are also used in small quantity in a raw form.

Scenario

Area

• India is the second largest producer of vegetables in the world, next to China. India’s share of the world vegetable market is around 14%.
• India produces 188.28 m tonns

Important Points to Remember

• Microbiology is the study of living organisms of microscopic size majority of which are too small to be observed with naked eye, include bacteria, fungi, algae and protozoa and the infectious agents at the borderline of life that are called viruses.
• However, a few members of some microbial groups like algae and fungi are clearly visible without the aid of microscope.
• It is concerned with their form, structure, reproduction, physiology, metabolism and classification. It includes the study of their distribution in nature, their relationship to each other and other living organisms, their effects on human beings and on other animals and plants, their abilities to make physical and chemical changes in our environment and their reactions to physical and chemical agents.
• Most microorganisms are unicellular in which all the life processes are performed by a single cell. All living cells contain protoplasm which is a colloidal organic complex consisting of largely proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.
• The major groups of microorganisms include Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic microorganisms.

Agricultural finance generally means studying, examining and analyzing the financial aspects pertaining to farm business, which is the core sector of India. The financial aspects include money matters relating to production of agricultural products and their disposal.

1. Introduction

Movement of fluids from one location to another is an important unit operation in food processing. Various types of systems are used to convey fluids based on their flow behaviour. Understanding fluid flow behaviour is therefore important for designing of fluid flow systems. The fundamental mechanism involved in fluid flow is the momentum transfer occurring in moving fluids during various unit operations (fluid flow, aeration, drying, fluidization, filtration, centrifugation, sedimentation, mixing, etc.). This chapter deals with the basic concepts of fluid flow, viscosity, pressure measurement, conservation of mass and energy, boundary layer, momentum and velocity profile of fluid flowing in a pipe, flow metering devices, and pumps.

Genetically engineered crops refer to alterations in the genetic makeup of the crop by introgression new traits such as herbicide tolerance, virus resistance, drought, flood and frost resistance, delay in maturation time of the crop and increased crop yield. They can be made resistant to pests and diseases which can significantly reduce the consumption of insecticide. Biodiversity is the feedstock for biotechnology industries. The issues relating to the Genetically Modified (GM) Foods have generated intense public debate in many parts of the world. Even though the issues under debate include the costs and benefits of the GM crops and the inherent safety concerns, the outcome of the debate differs from country to country, depending on its geographical location, strength and resilience of the farm sector, attitudes of people towards food, and so on (Anonymous, 2009). In India also, this debate has engaged the attention not only of the Government but also of the farming community and the civil society.

Research methodology is a systematic approach to solve any research problem and arrive at a conclusion that adds to the already existing fund of knowledge. The research methodology seeks to define the solution by adopting appropriate research techniques. They are generally applied during the initial stage of the study to delineate and outline the rationale for the chosen methods and their functionality and effectiveness towards achieving a decided objective. Research methodologies are an organized approach to accomplish the selected objectives. The research methodology comprises different techniques used during the experiment with surveys, tests, etc.

The chapter deals with the empirical findings and analyses in order to offer ample interpretation for a reliable conclusion to be drawn. In order to enhance and supplement the textual materials in this chapter, tables and models are frequently employed. Discussion is helpful in putting the study’s findings into proper perspective and connecting them to related research.

Table 6.1: Descriptive Statistics of Variable with respect to Minimum, Maximum, Mean, Standard Deviation of Values, Variance, and Coefficient of Variance

5.1. Precision Farming Precision farming is an emerging concept in modern agriculture. It is micro management system to arrive at improved agriculture and land management decisions that result from using information delivered by geospatial technologies. In other words it is “Digital Agriculture” involving very large scale farm level mapping, comprehensive data base creation on required resources generated through space based inputs and field observations and making a detailed plan of work for maximizing the yield and reducing the cost on inputs using the decision support system. Precision farming means to do the right thing, in the right place and in right time. It is also called site-specific management (SSM), is the management of an agricultural crop at a spatial scale smaller than the individual field. In many fields, the crop’s environment varies substantially from one part to another

1. Introduction Millets are the Nutri-cereals belonging to the Poaceae family and are classified into two major categories: major and minor, depending on their size and nutritional composition. Most millet crops are indigenous to India and are referred to as “nutri-cereals” since they contain most of the nutrients needed for the body to function properly. Millets such as Sorghum (Jowar), Pearl Millet (Bajra), and Finger Millet (Ragi) are the millets that come under the category of major millets. In contrast, the minor millets category includes Foxtail Millet (Kakun), Proso Millet (Cheena), Kodo Millet, Barnyard Millet (Sanwa), Little Millet (Kutki), Brown top millet including two pseudo millet that includes Buckwheat (Kuttu) and Amaranth (Chaulai) (Saini et al., 2021).

The organic constituents of soils or soil organic matter is the most essential components of soil consisting of plant and animal residues at various stages of decomposition, cells and tissues of living or nonliving organisms and the substances synthesized by their decomposition. Soil organic matter exerts profound effect on soil productivity as it acts as source and sink of plant nutrients especially nitrogen and sulphur. It also involves in major biochemical processes to transform or release of plant nutrients into their available forms. Thus, it plays vital role in soil fertility maintenance, through increasing cation exchange capacity and improving soil physical properties, such as bulk density, aggregation, water retention capacity and also supports all kinds of biological activities in soil. The soil organic matter mostly concerns only with dead organic fractions formed from the decomposition of original plant and animal residues using as a source of food and energy by the soil microorganisms. It can be distinguished into –

Classification means the process of ordering or grouping of objects having large number of population and wide variations into shorter one in a systematic manner with selected characteristics. Soils being the natural objects have no exception with other objects to classify them in a best possible way. Thus, soil classification refers to the systematic categorization of soils into various groups, classes or any simpler form based on the similar properties and other distinguishing characteristics. The main purposes of soil classification are to organize knowledge, easy remembering of the soil properties for each group and better understanding about the components and the relationships among individuals and various groups of soils. Various soil classification systems have been evolved during the past for categorizing the soils into various groups but the Soil Taxonomy has been now accepted as most scientific system of classification.

Nitrogen Content in Indian Soil Because of tropical and subtropical climates Indian soils have very low nitrogen content and in the majority of cultivated soil it varies from 0.02% to 0.13%. Low levels of N in Indian soil is primarily attributed to climate and secondarily to cropping. Climate plays the dominant role in determining the nitrogen content in soil through the effect of soil organic matter content. Generally heavy textured soils have higher N content than loamy or sandy soils. Other factors remaining the same, total N content in soil decreases with the increase in annual temperature at a given humidity level, on the other hand, it increases with increasing humidity level at a given annual temperature. Maximum N content in soil occurs in the surface layer of soils and decreases with depth in soil profile. The variation of distribution of N content in soil with depth is attributed by varying accumulation of organic matter in soil profile.

Historical perspective: Planting of single crops or mono-cultural agriculture—is a recent invention of the industrial agricultural complex (Hirst, 2019). While unequivocal archaeological evidence is difficult to come by, it’s believed that most agricultural field systems in the past involved some form of mixed cropping. That’s because of even botanical evidence of plant residues such as starches or phytoliths of multiple crops are discovered in an ancient fields (Hirst, 2019). Mixed cropping, also known as polyculture, or co-cultivation, is a type of agriculture that involves planting two or more crop plants simultaneously in the same field so that they grow together. The primary reason for prehistoric multi or mixed cropping probably had more to do with the needs of the farmer’s family and perhaps to avoid crop failure. It’s possible that certain plants adapted to multi-cropping over time disappeared as a result of the domestication process (Hirst 2016).

Dryland agriculture is a more vulnerable system in view of its high dependency on monsoon rains which are of aberrant nature. The risk of crop failure and poor yields always restrain farmers from investing on new technologies and input use.

Concept of resilience

Resilience is used to describe the magnitude of a disturbance that a system can withstand without crossing threshold into a new structure or dynamic. Resilience is defined as “the ability of a system and its component parts to anticipate, absorb, accommodate, or escape from unacceptable standards of living due to the effects of a hazardous event, in a timely and efficient manner”. In other words, resilience describes the capacity of communities in a given context or landscape to maintain and improve their livelihoods—despite stresses and shocks—through the sustainable management of natural resources while maintaining key ecological functions

Table 6.1: Descriptive Statistics of Variable with respect to Minimum, Maximum, Range, Mean, Standard Deviation of Values, Variance, and Coefficient of Variance

Result: Table 6.1 presents the distribution of 24 independent variables (x₁-x₂₄) and 8 independent variables (y₁-y₈) in terms of their range, mean, standard deviation and co-efficient of variance.

Revelation: The distribution pattern of variable, age, depicts that the minimum age of the respondents is 25 and maximum is 80. The mean age is 49.830 with S.D 13.954. The Coefficient of variance (CV) is 28.003 per cent which indicates that the distribution pattern of the variable is highly consistent.

The distribution pattern of variable, education, depicts that the minimum education of the respondents is 0(illiterate) and maximum is 12 (12th standard). The mean education is 7.650 with S.D 3.043. The Coefficient of variance (CV) is 39.778 per cent which indicates that the distribution pattern of the variable is fairly consistent.

The distribution pattern of variable, no. of enterprise, depicts that the minimum number of respondents is 2 and maximum is 9. The mean no. of enterprise is 3.820 with S.D 1.388. The Coefficient of variance (CV) is 36.338 per cent which indicates that the distribution pattern of the variable is fairly consistent.

1. Introduction to Organic Farming

Definition and Principles of Organic Farming

Organic farming is not merely a set of agricultural practices; it is a profound philosophy that seeks to redefine humanity’s relationship with the land. At its core, organic farming is an intricate dance with nature, a commitment to fostering biodiversity, ecological balance, and sustainability.

Defining Organic Farming

Organic farming is a departure from conventional agricultural methods that rely heavily on synthetic inputs. It is an agricultural system that embraces natural and traditional approaches to cultivation.

Food Plant Hygiene

A. I.mportance of Food Plant Hygiene:

1. Ensures the Safety and Quality of Food Products: Proper hygiene practices within food processing facilities play a critical role in safeguarding the safety and quality of food products. By adhering to stringent hygiene protocols, including thorough cleaning, sanitation, and preventive measures, facilities can effectively prevent the contamination of food products by harmful microorganisms, chemicals, or physical hazards. This helps minimize the risk of foodborne illnesses and ensures that consumers receive safe and wholesome food products. Additionally, maintaining cleanliness and hygiene in food proce

Spices are those plants, the products of which imparts strong flavour and aroma to the food. This is attributed to the presence of compounds such as volatile oils present in the plant parts. India is renowned for wide variety of spices and is designated as land of spices. Spices are indispensable ingredient in almost all Indian dishes and cuisines foreign invaders invaded India for spices in ancient times. India is figured as the largest producer, consumer and exporter of spices and spice products in the world. Turmeric and Ginger are the major rhizomatous spices of vegetable origin widely cultivating and using in India. They are known for its antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, hence using in medicines for the treatment of various ailments. Apart from these rhizomatous spices, India is also contributing a major share in the production of seed spices. Around twenty spices among sixty-three spices growing in our country are classified as seed spices. Major seed spices of India are coriander, cumin, fennel, fenugreek, dill, ajowain, celery, anise, nigella, caraway etc. These seed spices are extensively cultivated in the arid to semi-arid region of India as Rabi crop.

It is estimated that, spice production in our country increased from 67.64 lakh tonnes in 2014-15 to 106.79 lakh tonnes in 2020-21 with an annual growth rate 7.9%. There is a corresponding increase in the area of cultivation also. An increase in area from 32.24 lakh hectare to 45.28 lakh hectare was observed. Among the major spices, cumin (14.8%), garlic (14.7%), ginger (7.5%), fennel (6.8%), coriander (6.2%), fenugreek (5.8%), red chilli (4.21%) and turmeric (1.3 %), showed significant growth rate in production. The export of spices contributes around 41% of the total export earnings from all horticulture crops in the country and it ranks fourth among agricultural commodities, after marine products, non-basmati rice and basmati rice.

Need of an average

Through frequency distribution are the condensed form of raw data, but these are not sufficient for making comparison between two or more data. Therefore further condensation of frequency distribution into a single figure is made. This single f igure is always representative of the frequency distribution and such a figure is known as average.

Measure of Central Tendency

According to Croxten and Cowden “An average is a single value within the range of the data that is used to represent all the values in the series”. A statistical measure used for representing the centre of central value of a set of observations is known as “Measure of Central Tendency”. It is also called as “Measure of f irst order”.

Characteristics of an ideal Measure of Central Tendency

An ideal measure of central tendency should possess the following properties:

1) It should be rigidly defined i.e. it has a fixed and finite value

2) It should be easy to understand 3) It should be easy to calculate

4) Its calculation should be based on all the observations

5) It should be capable for further algebraic treatment

6) It should not be affected by extreme values of the observations

7) It should be least affected by fluctuations of sampling

Pineapple botanically called Annanas comosus L. is basically believed to be native to Brazil and thereafter it spread to worldwide over many centuries from its centre of origin. It is a subtropical fruit crops requiring humid climatic conditions with slightly acidic soils for its favourable growth and development. In India it reached around 1548AD. The juicy fruits are good source of Vit-A, B and C along with micronutrient Calcium. A single unit of pineapple fruits is reported to contain moisture-85%, sugar-13per cent, protein-0.6%,mineral mater-0.05%, fibre 0.3%, Ca-0.02%, phosphorus- 0.01per cent iron- 0.09.0 acids- 0.6%, Vit-A (60IU/100g), riboflavin (120mg/100g) and Vitamin-C (63mg/100g). All parts of pineapple are utilizable from delicacy of fruit for table purpose to making fabric Pina in some country like Philippine. Indeed the dry waste after juice extraction can also be used as good feed for cattle. India is such a country blessed with diverse agro climatic zones and eight classification of agro-climatic zone has been officially classified for suitability of different fruit crops based on their climatic requirement. One of those classifications is North Eastern subtropical Humid Zones which comprises of eight states namely Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura. Manipur is a land-locked state situated in the North Eastern Region of India. It is encircled by 9 hill ranges in all sides and has a small valley in the center (the capital Imphal is located in this valley). The State has 352 km long international border with Myanmar to the south-east and 502 km long border with the adjacent states of Nagaland on the North, Cachar district of Assam on the West and Chin Hills (Myanmar) and Mizoram on the South and the South-west and Surma Tract and upper Chindwin of Myanmar on the East. Manipur is next to Assam among NE states in respect of area of Pineapple cultivation. Owing to conducive soil and climate, Manipur is one of the major hubs for pineapple cultivation among the north east states where because of its popularity, it has surplus in area and production compare to other fruit crops in the state.

Plant hormone ethylene is involved in a number of physiological activities within the plant system, ranging from seed germination to fruit development. Ethylene acts as a key player in accelerating fruit ripening by regulating the activities of different enzymes, and is responsible for shortening the shelf life and associated post-harvest losses during the storage of fruit crops. However, all fruit crops have different ethylene production capacities and vary in their response to ethylene. Hence, effective management of post-harvest ethylene is imperative for addressing the global challenge of reducing fruit losses after harvesting. In recent periods, numerous technologies and compounds have been developed for the suppression of ethylene and for enhancing in-situ oxidation of ethylene or inhibiting its production at a receptor level. Among these emerging techniques, the use of sachets, fumigating agents, catalysis and composite films embedded with nanoparticles has been found to be trending, but the use of some of compounds has been limited due to health risks or consumer unacceptance. However, most of these technologies are very costly and are not affordable for marginal farmers and developing nations. In order to address these issues, long term breeding approaches for shelf-life improvement, targeting the tfs, ERFs have been involved. This manuscript fills the knowledge gap by encompassing all the recent progress made in enhancing the shelf life of fruits by managing ethylene during storage.

Introduction

Conventional agriculture is highly dependent on fossil fuel based mineral fertilizers to compensate for removal of plant nutrients by crops. Chemical fertilizers are not only in short supply but also are very costly. The preparation and use of organic manures are not being practiced in a scientific manner to harness the plant nutrients removed by plants, animals and humans.

The application of chemical fertilizers to soil alone and in an imbalanced way has resulted in deterioration of soil health and its quality. The use of chemical fertilizers has to be reduced to check the soil and water pollution and simultaneously the role of soil microorganisms has to be augmented by different ways such as greater use of biofertilizers. Moreover, the demand for organic food particularly both in developed and developing countries is on rise which opens up immense possibility to use organic manure and biofertilizers for production of foods grains, fruits, vegetables, spices, tea and coffee. Therefore, the production and the use of biofertilizers assumes greater significance and could be an excellent biological alternative to chemical fertilizers.

STARTUP India is an innovative initiative started to help people who want to start their own business. These individuals are reflective and resilient. Therefore, the government provides assistance for them to realize their concepts and expand. The Government of India introduced the ‘Startup India’ initiative on January 16, 2016, in New Delhi.

What is a Start Up?

According to the government notification, the journal number will replace the G.S.R. 364(E) dated 11 April 2018 as amended by Notification No. G.S.R. 34 (E) on 16 January 2019 by DPIIT.

Definitions

In this announcement: An entity shall be measured as a Startup

• Any entity for a period of ten years from the date of incorporation/registration, if registered as a private limited company (as defined in the Companies Act, 2013) or listed as a partnership (registered under Section 59 of the Partnership Act, 1932) or a limited liability partnership (under the Limited Liability Partnership Act, 2008) in India.

• The revenue of the entity has not exceeded one hundred crore rupees for any of the financial years since registration/registration.

• The business unit works to innovate, develop or improve products, processes or services, if there is a scalable business model with high potential for performance or value creation. But the enterprise created by revolution, by revitalization of the existing business, is not called a “start-up”.

Crops are grown with the use of plant protection chemicals to boost production, enhance quality, and lengthen shelf life. Wherein the enormous use of pesticides which are having the longer half life period led to leave the residues in the different bodies of the ecosystem. Pesticide residues refer to the residual presence of pesticide active ingredients, their metabolites, or breakdown products in various environmental components subsequent to their application, accidental release, or disposal.

Analysis of residues gives insight on the type and extent of chemical contamination in an area, as well as how long it has been there. Before governments will approve the use of pesticides, they require comprehensive testing of their efficacy, environmental impact, and toxicology. A possible risk to human health arises from the presence of chemical residues and/or breakdown products in agricultural goods. Selective sampling plans can be used to learn more about pesticide traces in the environment, how they move about, and how quickly they degrade.

Pesticide: The act defines “pesticide” as any substance or other substance or product that is used to stop, kill, repel, or control insects, rodents, fungi, weeds, and other plants and animals that humans don’t need.

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that caused the global COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019) pandemic has claimed a considerable number of lives worldwide. The unanticipated global spread of SARS CoV-2 has resulted in serious issues within the medical systems and healthcare facilities. Creating efficient vaccines against the virus, even after all of efforts, has been on high priority and is time-taking due to the frequent mutations. A critical stage in vaccine development is figuring out the potential antigen. As a ground breaking technique introduced in 2000, Reverse vaccinology (RV) reduces the required time considerably from 5–15 years to 1–2 years in identifying antigens. Various RV tools are powered by big-data analytics, artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) techniques. AI and ML models have demonstrated their potentials in expediting the identification and refinement of novel antivirals or potent vaccination candidates. By utilising datasets available through several dedicated databases, it is more beneficial in identifying current medications that inhibit the human Coronavirus and next-gen healthcare possibilities.

8.1 Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
i) Understand the concept and significance of index numbers;
ii) Identify different construction methods;
iii) Understand the importance of selecting appropriate base and current periods;
iv) Recognize the properties and tests of adequacy;
v) Recognize the challenges and limitations of index numbers;
vi) Stay informed of recent advances;
vii) Synthesize practical examples and calculations for creating index numbers.

8.2 Introduction

In this chapter, we embark on a journey through the intricate world of index numbers, a cornerstone in the realm of statistics. We will explore what index numbers are; their various types; and the methodologies employed in their construction. Delving into real-world applications, we’ll uncover how these numerical tools are pivotal in measuring economic trends, informing policy decisions, and shaping our understanding of complex data sets. By the chapter’s end, you’ll gain insights into not only the mechanics but also the profound impact of index numbers in our data-driven society.

Nutrients play a fundamental role in ensuring the health, productivity, reproduction, immunity, and overall welfare of animals. The balance and availability of macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins and fats), micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) and water are crucial for optimal physiological and metabolic processes. This chapter explores the role of nutrients in different aspects of animal health and well-being.
Macronutrients
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the primary energy source for most animals, playing a critical role in sustaining metabolic processes, maintaining body temperature, and supporting physical activity. In ruminants, carbohydrates are fermented in the rumen to produce volatile fatty acids (VFAs) such as acetate, propionate and butyrate, which serve as energy substrates.
Health: Adequate carbohydrate intake prevents energy deficits, which can lead to ketosis, fatty liver, or hypoglycemia, particularly in lactating animals. Production: Energy from carbohydrates drives milk production in dairy animals and growth in meat-producing species.
Reproduction: Insufficient carbohydrate availability can delay puberty, impair estrus cycles, and reduce fertility. Immunity: Energy deficits weaken immune responses, increasing susceptibility to infections.
Welfare: Optimal carbohydrate nutrition minimizes stress and supports natural behaviours like grazing or rumination.

This chapter explores the essential techniques used in veterinary parasitology to collect, identify, and diagnose parasitic infections. These methods are crucial for understanding general animal health, the complex relationships between parasites and their hosts and for tracking disease outbreaks, that will ultimately allow the development of effective control strategies. Whether in a research lab or a clinical setting, the techniques discussed here are widely used to detect and study parasites that impact both domestic and wild animals.
2.1 Collection of Specimens for Parasitological Examinations
Different species of parasites affects almost all parts of the host. These organisms can inhabit virtually every organ system of the host animal, from the brain and lungs to the digestive tract and skin. Therefore, a thorough examination of both living animals and post-mortem cases is essential for collecting parasites and determining cause of death (when applicable). When collecting from live animals, samples should be collected after through exanimation of the animals and following the standard procedure. The collection of correct samples, use of appropriate transport media and proper handling of specimens are crucial factors that directly influence diagnostic accuracy.
The type of specimen collected depends on the methods of identification and diagnosis. For example, diagnosis of blood parasites requires specific types of samples: peripheral blood smears for microscopic examination of hemoprotozoans, serum or plasma for ELISA and other serological tests, and unclotted whole blood for molecular diagnostic methods such as PCR and qPCR.

10.1 Introduction
Having explored the advanced analytical techniques that allow us to extract meaningful insights and build predictive models from meteorological data, we now arrive at a crucial stage in the scientific process: communication and understanding. The chapter, “Visualization of Meteorological Data,” focuses on the art and science of transforming complex numerical datasets into insightful visual representations. In a field as inherently spatial and temporal as meteorology, effective visualization is not just about making pretty pictures;it is a fundamental tool for exploration, analysis, and the clear conveyance  of information about atmospheric phenomena (Fig. 10.1).
Consider the sheer volume and multifaceted nature of meteorological data. We grapple with variables spanning three spatial dimensions (and often more when considering altitude), evolving dynamically over time, and encompassing a wide array of physical quantities – temperature, pressure, wind vectors, humidity, precipitation rates, radiation fluxes, and more. Raw numbers and statistical summaries, while essential for quantitative analysis, often fail to reveal the intricate spatial patterns, temporal evolutions, and interrelationships that characterize weather and climate. This is where visualization steps in,
acting as a bridge between the abstract world of numerical data and our intuitive human capacity for visual pattern recognition.

Throughout human history, people across the globe have sought to understand and predict the ever-changing skies. From the scorching deserts of North Africa to the lush rainforests of South America, and from the snow-capped Himalayas to the vast Australian outback, ancient cultures developed unique methods to forecast the weather. These traditional knowledge systems, often passed downthrough oral traditions and  storytelling, reflected the specific environmental contexts, mythological beliefs, and spiritual practices of each community. In ancient China, royal astronomers meticulously recorded weather patterns and planetary movements to guide agricultural planning and imperial decisionmakingIn Greece, philosophers like Aristotle and Theophrastus wrote extensively on weather signs and forecasting methods. In Africa, tribal communities observed animal migrations and plant behaviors to anticipate seasonal changes. Native American tribes used lunar cycles and star constellations to predict weather patterns, while ancient Indians studied the movements of planets and nakshatras (lunar mansions) to forecast monsoon rains.

The Enigmatic Monsoons - Welcome to a fascinating exploration of one of Earth’s most powerful and life-giving atmospheric phenomena: the Monsoons. More than just seasonal winds and rains, monsoons are intricate dance performances between land, sea, and atmosphere, shaping the climate, ecology, and very fabric of life across vast stretches of our planet, particularly the Indian subcontinent.
The word “monsoon” itself, derived from the Arabic word “mausim” meaning season, hints at the fundamental characteristic of these weather systems: a seasonal reversal of wind direction. This seemingly simple shift, however, unleashes dramatic transformations. Imagine landscapes parched and brown under the relentless summer sun suddenly bursting into vibrant green as lifesustaining rains arrive. Picture bustling cities and serene villages alike adapting their rhythms to the ebb and flow of the monsoon’s arrival and departure. This is the profound influence of the monsoons.
This chapter will delve deep into the heart of these dynamic systems. We will unravel the complex interplay of factors that lead to the birth, progression, and eventual retreat of monsoonal winds and the associated precipitation. We will journey through the scientific understanding of the mechanisms driving these large-scale atmospheric circulations, exploring the roles of differential heating of land and sea, the influence of global pressure belts, the impact of the majestic Himalayas, and the intricate dynamics of atmospheric currents like the Jet Stream.
Beyond the scientific mechanics, we will also explore the profound impact of monsoons on the regions they dominate. For billions of people, particularly in South and Southeast Asia, the monsoon is not just weather; it is life itself. It dictates agricultural cycles, influences cultural traditions, and shapes economic activities. A good monsoon can bring prosperity, while a weak or erratic one can lead to hardship and even disaster.

OVERVIEW OF PRIMARY TILLAGE EQUIPMENT
Primary tillage is the first and one of the most important steps in soil preparation for agriculture. It involves the mechanical disturbance of the soil to break it up, loosen it, and turn it over, creating optimal conditions for crop growth. The aim of primary tillage is to ready the soil for sowing by forming a seedbed, enhancing soil structure, managing weeds, incorporating crop residues, and improving water absorption. Loosening the soil also promotes aeration, which is crucial for root growth and microbial activity. The most common tools that are used for primary tillage are the mouldboard plough and the disc plough, each suited for different soil types and field conditions. These tools are designed to break and loosen the soil, ensuring proper root development and preparation for subsequent stages of cultivation.
The mouldboard plough, one of the oldest and most widely used primary tillage tools, includes several components such as a frame, shares (blades), mouldboards, landsides, and handles. The shares cut into the soil, while the mouldboards flip the soil over, creating furrows and burying crop residues. It is best for deep tillage in lighter, well-drained soils and is generally used in areas with low weed pressure. The depth and width of the cut can be adjusted to suit the soil type and crop requirements.
In contrast, the disc plough uses rotating discs to cut into the soil. Unlike the mouldboard plough, which fully turns the soil, the disc plough slices and fragments it into smaller pieces. This makes it particularly effective in dense, compacted, or rocky soils. Disc ploughs are ideal for regions with heavy, sticky soils or where crop residues are plentiful. The discs cut the soil without fully turning it, which helps reduce soil erosion and preserve moisture levels. Disc ploughs come in single-way and double-way versions, with discs mounted at different angles to improve soil penetration. Both mouldboard and disc ploughs are crucial for primary tillage, but

The discussion on the methodology has been made to understand the concept, methods and techniques, which were utilized to design the study, collect the information, analyze the data and interpret the findings for revelation of truth in hand formulation of theories. This chapter deals with the research methodology that had been adopted for the purpose of the present study. The entire discussion has been made under the following heads:
• Developing a paradigm
• Locale of research
• Pilot study
• Sampling design
• Methods of data collection
• Variables and their measurement
• Statistical tools used for analysis of data.
The research work was based in a few districts of Manipur, a small state in the North East India. The research was done in conjunction with the farmers living in the study area and was participatory in nature. This chapter presents the sampling design, nature and method of data collection and analytical tools being applied in attaining the objectives of the study.

Introduction
Eversince green revolution was introduced in 1960’s, the Indian agriculture has taken a series of transformations that resulted in paradigm shift from tradition farming to precision agriculture with an intend to address a wide array of challenges including burgeoning population, shrinking farm land, restricted water availability, imbalanced crop nutrition, multi-nutrient deficiencies, crop yield barriers and decline in soil organic matter. Agricultural scientists were looking for alternative strategy to tideover the bundle constraints with a single stop solution. Nanotechnology deals with atom-by-atom manipulations to evolve processes and products precised to overcome the farming challenges altogether that hardly possible to achieve by the traditional systems. Nanotechnology applications in agriculture include diagnostic devices for early detection of plant diseases (Chen and Hu, 2013), nano-agricultural inputs such as nano-fertilizer (Subramanian et al., 2015; yuvaraj and Subramanian., 2018; Nongbet et al., 2022; Verma et al., 2022; Mohanraj et al., 2024), nano-herbicides (Abigail and Chidhambaram, 2017; Forini et al., 2022) and nano-insecticides (Wang et al., 2022), nano-seed science, plant health management (Subramanian et al., 2016), nano-food systems (Anusuya et al., 2016; Jincy et al., 2017; Jan et al., 2023) besides environmental remediation (Rajkishore et al., 2023).
Even though the nanotechnology is being exploited in wide array of disciplines such as energy, environment, electronics, health sciences and few areas in agricultural sciences, the literature on the application of nanotechnology in plant breeding and genetics is scanty. Nanotechnology is a key component in the creation of genetically enhanced crops (Servin et al., 2015) with an increase crop yield or disease resistance (Kerry et al., 2017). Using genetic engineering or plant breeding, nano-enabled approach aids in the development of resilient and better plant genotypes (Patel et al., 2014). Plant breeding and genetic modification to create better crops frequently utilise nanotech-derived devices (nano sensors and nanoparticles) (Kumar and arora, 2020). Nanobiotechnology is to better understand the biology of various crops and the breeders may be able to increase agricultural yields or nutritional value (Sah et al., 2014). Atomically altered seeds, plant cells with silica beaks, hormone and antibiotic delivery in plants, particle farming, and iron seeding are a few examples. (Prasanna et al., 2018; Jha et al., 2013). Particle farming is the process of cultivating plants in predetermined soils to produce nanoparticles for industrial purposes. Plant production and growth are negatively impacted by abiotic stress. Salinity and drought are the two abiotic stressors that affect plants the most widely (Lavania et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2017). Nano-enabled crop improvement can be achieved through four important aspects such as (1) genome editing, (2) genetic engineering, (3) abiotic and biotic stress management and (4) plant performance.

Introduction
Detailed understanding of the gene structure and functions are achieved in respect of the genes present in the nuclear genome. The knowledge of the gene functions is being applied in plant genetics and plant breeding. The different kinds of genetic variants are well captured and explained in crop improvement programmes. The organelle genomes, namely, chloroplast and mitochondria that are present outside the nucleus have not received much attention to understand this organization, structure, functions and in utilizing their genetic endowments in many of the plant development and functions. The organelle genomes present in the cytoplasm are providing cytoplasmic effect, cytonuclear and inter genome interactions that impact plant development, plant fertility and agronomic traits expression. It is estimated that 80% of the metabolites are affected by the variations in organelle genomes. The organelle genome also influences and regulates the activity of nuclear genes. The The chloroplast genome encodes proteins that are central to plant photosynthetic activity for plant photosynthesis producing sugar and mitochondria genomes as the energy powerhouse for the cells and they are very essential to provide support to the plant functions and biomass production that is converted to the crop yield. Together, the organelle genomes have disproportionate effects on the nuclear gene functions.
These two organelle genomes that exist outside the nuclear genomes, active in synthesizing food and energy for cell functions, are not as much considered and relied upon by the plant breeders although they are basic biological machineries. This chapter on the organelle genomes is designed to present the structure and genetic endowments and functioning of the chloroplast and mitochondrial

2.1. Introduction
The present century is the century of oxidative stress (OS) that linked to several life-threatening disorders which predominantly affect public health as well as their nutritional status. Unhealthy lifestyle and eating pattern which is major concern for OS. The biological literature first used the phrase “oxidative stress (OS)” in 1970. OS can be defined as a state of imbalance condition between the high level of pro-oxidants and the low level of antioxidant scavenging capacity in the body. The normal oxidative process that occurs in cells is crucial for the existence of life and favours the death of a cell. Free radicals, which are unstable, can form when molecular oxygen breaks up into pairs. This unstable radical has a high level of reactivity and produces reactive molecular species like reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS). To resist the OS and to maintain the redox balance, cells have an inbuilt antioxidant defence capacity, comprising of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPOD) etc. But some pathogenic or environmental conditions may overpower this antioxidant defence system, allowing a portion of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) to bypass degradation and create much more reactive radicals. Increased ROS and RNS affect redox balance and damage DNA, proteins, amino acids, and fats, causing alteration of structures as well as action of cells and tissues. This will ultimately produce several pathogenetic elements associated with clinical situations and leads to the development of human aging and numerous diseases. Several dietary components such as whole grains, nuts, fruits, and vegetables are excellent sources of antioxidative vitamins, minerals, nutraceuticals or phytoceuticals that shields the human body from the harmful oxidative injury by scavenging or destruction of free radicals and also by upregulation of endogenous antioxidant defence system. Thereby long-term and sustainable OS remedies can be performed.

Introduction
Horticulture, the science and art of cultivating fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants, is a vital component of agriculture that contributes significantly to food security, economic growth, and environmental sustainability. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of horticulture, exploring its various branches, including fruit and vegetable production, floriculture, landscape design, and greenhouse management. Horticulture is unique in its integration of scientific principles, artistic design, and business acumen, making it a dynamic and multifaceted field.
The chapter begins by introducing the fundamental concepts of horticulture and its importance in modern agriculture. It delves into the specifics of fruit and vegetable production, emphasizing the techniques and practices that enhance yield and quality. Floriculture and landscape design are also discussed, highlighting the aesthetic and environmental benefits of ornamental plants. The chapter further explores post-harvest handling and storage, crucial aspects that ensure the longevity and marketability of horticultural products.
In addition to traditional practices, the chapter addresses modern horticultural techniques, such as greenhouse management, which plays a crucial role in extending growing seasons and improving crop quality. Sustainable horticultural practices are also emphasized as key strategies for addressing global challenges like climate change and food security.
Horticulture is a branch of agriculture that focuses on the cultivation, production, and management of plants, particularly fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants, and flowers. This chapter explores various aspects of horticulture, including an introduction to horticulture, fruit and vegetable production, greenhouse management, floriculture and landscape design, and post-harvest handling and storage. Horticulture plays a vital role in agriculture, encompassing the science and art of growing plants for food, aesthetics, and environmental enhancement. This chapter delves into the exciting world of horticulture, exploring the cultivation and management of fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants, and flowers. Horticulture combines scientific knowledge, practical skills, and artistic creativity to maximize plant growth, yield, and aesthetic appeal. By studying horticulture, we can gain insights into the principles and practices that contribute to successful fruit and vegetable production, greenhouse management, floriculture and landscape

Abiotic Stress Tolerance: The ability of plants to withstand and adapt to nonliving environmental stressors, such as drought, salinity, or extreme temperatures. Afforestation and Reforestation: Afforestation involves planting new forests in previously non-forested areas, while reforestation involves restoring degraded or deforested lands with trees to sequester carbon. Agrarian Society: A society characterized by agriculture as the primary means of subsistence and economic activity. Agrarian: Pertaining to the cultivation of land, agriculture, or rural life. Agribusiness: The commercial activities, including production, processing, and distribution, related to agriculture and farming. Agricultural Chemistry: A branch of chemistry that focuses on chemical processes and substances related to agriculture, including soil chemistry, fertilizer composition, and pesticide development. Agricultural Diversification: The strategy of expanding the range of crops, livestock, or other agricultural activities in a rural area to increase income and food security. Agricultural Economics: A branch of economics that focuses on the production, distribution, and consumption of agricultural goods and services, as well as the economic factors and policies that influence agricultural markets. Agricultural Extension: The application of scientific research and new technologies to agricultural practices through education and advisory services. Agricultural Innovation: The process of developing and adopting new ideas, practices, and technologies in agriculture. Agricultural Machinery: Various mechanical devices and equipment designed for use in farming, such as tractors, plows, and harvesters. Agricultural Subsidies: Financial incentives provided by governments to farmers or agricultural producers to support their production, stabilize prices, or achieve other economic or social objectives. Agriculture: The science and practice of cultivating crops, raising livestock, and managing resources for food production and other agricultural products. Agroecology: The scientific discipline that applies ecological principles to the design and management of sustainable agricultural systems, focusing on biodiversity, nutrient cycling, and reduced environmental impact.

Introduction 
The preceding chapter elucidated the concepts of potential and achievable crop production, highlighting the significant gap that often exists between a crop‘s theoretical maximum yield and what is realized in the field. While genetic potential and optimal climatic conditions define the upper limits, the vast majority of agricultural systems globally operate under less-than-ideal circumstances. Among the most pervasive and impactful constraints on crop productivity are moisture (water) and nutrient limitations. These two factors, either individually or in complex interaction, are frequently the primary drivers of the yield gap, preventing crops from expressing their full genetic potential and significantly impacting farm profitability and regional food security. Water, as the universal solvent and a direct participant in photosynthesis and countless metabolic processes, is indispensable for plant life. However, its availability in agricultural systems is highly variable and often insufficient. From the rainfed fields dependent on increasingly erratic rainfall patterns to irrigated lands facing dwindling water resources, moisture stress – encompassing both drought and, paradoxically, waterlogging – poses an immense challenge. Drought alone accounts for a substantial portion of global crop losses, directly affecting plant physiological functions, growth, and ultimately, yield. Conversely, excessive moisture can lead to anaerobic soil conditions, nutrient leaching, and root damage, equally debilitating for crop performance. Parallel to moisture, the availability and judicious management of essential plant nutrients are foundational to productive agriculture. Plants require a suite of macro- and micronutrients for healthy growth, enzymatic activity, and the synthesis of biomass. Soils, over time and with continuous cropping, often become depleted of these vital elements, necessitating external application through fertilizers or the enhancement of natural nutrient cycling processes. However, nutrient management in the field is rarely perfect. Deficiencies of

Revolutionizing skin cancer detection
The diagnostic process for skin cancer is evolving. Physicians have in the past relied upon physical exams to be followed by scanning and biopsies taking anywhere between 15 days to return results. Although most abnormalities turn out to be non-cancerous, this is distressing to patients and contributes to healthcare costs. Additionally, certain growths that turn out to be cancerous remain undiagnosed since they have not been visible.
Breakthrough startup Damae Medical is set to reverse this process. The startup has developed an advanced probe that is able to take 3D images of the skin to unveil the full extent of abnormalities in real time. This enables doctors to diagnose in an instant, enabling improved personalized treatment. When an operation is required only diseased tissue is removed to prevent unnecessary treatments and improved outcomes in patients.
The Origins in the Institut d’Optique
The beginnings of Damae Medical can be traced to Palaiseau-based Institut d’Optique where in 2013 two photonics students envisaged potential in an emerging imaging tech. Together with the inventor himself in 2014, they cofounded Damae Medical by taking an exclusive license to the core family of patents held by three partner institutions. While this contract was beneficial in launching the company to an early growth spurt, in the long run created difficulty in exercising control. This was resolved by taking an equity-forcontrol purchase in 2019 by Damae to acquire the foundational patent

This chapter is fundamental to agricultural water management, as it explains how water moves from the land surface and plants back into the atmosphere, directly influencing irrigation needs and drought impacts. Water is the lifeblood of agriculture, and its efficient management is paramount for sustainable food production. Understanding how water is lost from the soil and plants to the atmosphere is central to optimizing irrigation and assessing crop water needs. This chapter delves into the concepts of evaporation, transpiration, their combined effect as evapotranspiration, and how these relate to overall crop water use (Fig.5.1).

Definition: Evaporation is the physical process by which liquid water is converted into water vapor and transferred from the land surface (e.g., bare soil, water bodies, or wet plant surfaces) into the atmosphere. It is purely a physical process driven by solar energy and the vapor pressure gradient between the surface and the air.

1. Introduction
The term “plastic” is derived from the Greek word “Plasticos" whichmeans to be capable of molding into various sizes and shapes. Daily usedsynthetic plastics are categorized based on their physical and chemicalproperties, such as thermoplastic and thermosetting. (i) Thermoplastics: Astheir names suggest, thermoplastic polymers melt and turn into a plastic orrubbery state when exposed to heat. They have various numbers of polymericchains and are the most widely used plastics in day-to-day life. Examples ofthermoplastics are Polystyrene(PS), Polyvinylchloride (PVC), Polypropylene(PP), Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), Polyethylene (PE) etc. (Massy,2017), (Sharma et al., 2017). (ii) Thermosetting polymers: As the namesuggests, they set or harden permanently when heated (Massy, 2017). Due totheirstrong crosslinked structure, they are non-recyclable polymers. Examplesinclude Polyurethanes(PUR), Phenol formaldehyde, Melamine formaldehyde,and Polyester Resin (PR) (Sharma et al., 2017). Different polymers and theirapplications are illustrated in Fig. 1.

Flood diversion redirects part or all of an excessive flow away from a vulnerable river reach, settlement, or agricultural area. Water may be conveyed through diversion channels, floodways, canals, tunnels, spillways, or natural depressions and discharged into another river, reservoir, wetland, or safe storage area. A diversion scheme must have sufficient capacity and a dependable control structure while avoiding unacceptable flooding, erosion, sediment deposition, or environmental damage elsewhere. This chapter explains the purpose, principles, and methods of flood diversion. It covers site selection, diversion routes, hydraulic and structural components, design discharge, operational requirements, advantages, limitations, maintenance needs, and the role of diversions within integrated basin-level flood-control planning.

AI-enabled livestock technologies can improve productivity, health monitoring, animal welfare and environmental performance, but they also raise significant ethical and governance concerns. This chapter examines data ownership, privacy, algorithmic bias, transparency, accountability, cybersecurity, socioeconomic inequality and animal well-being. Precision livestock systems continuously monitor animals through sensors, computer vision, machine learning and IoT networks, enabling preventive decisions and automated interventions. However, excessive dependence on algorithms may reduce human oversight and treat animals merely as data-producing units. The chapter advocates an interdisciplinary framework for responsible AI that aligns innovation with animal-welfare standards, farmer interests, social values, equitable access, regulatory requirements and long-term environmental sustainability.

S₁, S₂, S₃ : The symbols used to designate the first, second/third generation of selfing. S1 is obtained by sowing seeds of so plants and so on.
Saccharometer: A type of hydrometer used for finding the concentration of sugar solutions by determining their density; usually graduated to read the percentage direct.
Safari Park: Safaris are specialized zoos where the captive animals are housed in any large naturalistic enclosures and the visitors are allowed to enter the enclosure to view the animals in a mechanized vehicle or a predetermined route from close quarters.

Summary

Climate change (floods, droughts, rise of temperature and sea level) can directly impact the incidence of water related diseases through effects on water temperature and precipitation frequency and intensity. This chapter focuses on some common water quality related diseases that may enhance due to climate change such as arsenicosis, cholera, cyanobacterial toxins, dengue, diarrhoea and malaria. Arsenicosis is the disease caused by arsenic (As) contamination. As poisoning via groundwater has become a worldwide problem with 21 countries experiencing As groundwater contamination including Bangladesh, India, and China. In Bangladesh, out of 64 districts, As levels in 60 districts have exceeded WHO recommended guidelines of 10 µg/L and in 51 districts it exceeded Bangladesh recommended guidelines of above 50 µg/L. Chronic exposure to As has been linked to carcinogenic effects in both humans and animals. These include cancer of the various skins and internal organs (lung, bladder, liver and kidney) and reproductive and developmental effects; cardiovascular disease; reduced intellectual function in children and mortality. Alternate floods and droughts (due to climate change) have been found associated with the release of As and contamination of groundwater in Bangladesh, therefore may increase the risks of the disease due to rise of extreme events such as floods and droughts. Cholera is a diarrhoeal disease caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. In 2012, WHO reported 245, 3931 cases of cholera in 48 countries, with more than 3,034 deaths with a case-fatality rate (CFR) of 1.2%. The highest cases were from Africa, followed by Latin America and Asia. The epidemic of cholera is reported to be linked strongly with climate change. Changes in temperature, salinity, rainfall and abundance of phytoplankton have been shown to cause an impact on distribution and survival of V. cholerae. In Bangladesh, cholera (cholera-toxin producing strain of V. cholerae) outbreaks are related to plankton blooms and rise of sea temperature.