eChapters

Avocado is a pear-shaped berry, which is otherwise known as alligator pear or butter fruit. The term alligator pear is due to the scaly appearance of some varieties of avocado, especially, the Hass avocados, which possesses black leathery skin. The edible portion of avocado is its flesh, which is yellowish green in colour. This flesh has a slightly nutty flavour with the consistency of butter. Avocado contains vitamins A, C, and B complex that sustain accurate performance of neurotransmitter which makes it as a superior food for the nervous system. Avocados have the highest energy value (245 cal/100 g) of any fruit besides being a reservoir of several vitamins and minerals (calcium and magnesium) that can calm and aid restorative sleep which is essential for nervous system to perform efficiently. Avocado is mainly used fresh, in sandwich filling or in salads. It can also be used in ice creams and milk shakes and the pulp may be preserved by freezing. The end quality of avocado determines its nutritional value. 

Bael is commonly known as Bengal quince, Indian quince, golden apple, holy fruit, stone apple and bel. It is more prized for its medicinal virtues than its edible quality.  The deciduous tree with trifoliate aromatic leaves is traditionally used as sacred offering to ‘Lord Shiva’. Fruit is a hard-shelled berry and very well-known for its medicinal properties due to marmelosin content. The ripe fruit is tonic, restorative, laxative and good for heart and brain. The pulp is often processed as nectar or squash. A popular drink called “Sherbet” in India is made by beating the seeded pulp together with milk and sugar. A beverage is also made by combining bael fruit pulp with that of tamarind. These drinks are consumed perhaps less as food or refreshment than for their medicinal effects. For medicinal use, the young fruits, while still tender, are commonly sliced horizontally and sun-dried and sold in local markets. The fruit, roots and leaves have antibiotic activity. The root, leaves and bark are used in treating snakebites.

The word banana is derived from the Arabic word “banan,” which means finger and it is known as “the fruit of the wise”. In the middle ages, the banana was thought to be the “forbidden fruit of paradise”. Bananas are the most popular fruit in the world. Members of the genus Musa are considered to be derived from the wild species Musa acuminata (AA) and Musa balbisiana (BB). It is not a tree, but a perennial herb the leaves of which are usually grouped together, forming a trunk-like structure called pseudostem. The origin of bananas is believed to be Malaysia or India. Bananas are a very important commodity for developing countries, with a clear dual nature as they are at the same time a major staple commodity and a fundamental export commodity. There are almost 1000 varieties of bananas in the world with lot of commercially recommended cultivars. The most commonly known banana is the Cavendish variety, which is usually produced for export markets.

Ber is most commonly found in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. Originally native to India, it is now widely naturalized in tropical region from Africa to Afghanistan, China, Malaysia, Australia and in some Pacific regions. The major production regions for Indian jujube are the arid and semi arid regions of India. It is also known as ‘King of Arid Fruits’ and ‘Poor Man’s Fruit’. In Philippines it is called manzana or manzanita (“apple” or “little apple”). Fully ripe fruits are less crisp and somewhat mealy; overripe fruits are wrinkled, the flesh buff-coloured, soft, spongy and musky. 

The breadfruit is believed to be native to New Guinea. It is grown throughout the tropics. Breadfruit is a staple food in many tropical regions. Raw breadfruit has a very light fragrant taste that is somewhat like a guava, but not as sweet. The texture of raw breadfruit is rather tough and rubbery. It is used more as a vegetable than as a fruit. It can be eaten ripe as a fruit or under-ripe as a vegetable. Soft or overripe breadfruit is best for making chips and biscuits. The dried fruit can be made into flour. Its flour is much richer than wheat flour in lysine and other essential amino acids. Breadfruit is high in calories and contains a good amount of vitamin C and potassium with smaller amounts of calcium, iron and magnesium. The wood is yellowish or yellow grey with dark markings or orange speckles; light in weight; not very hard but strong, elastic and termite resistant and is used for construction and furniture. Fiber from the bark is highly durable and is used for clothing in Malaysia.

Carambola or starfruit is native to Indonesia. The fruit has ridges running down its sides (usually five) which in cross-section resembles a star, hence its also known as starfruit. It has a waxy, golden yellow to green coloured skin with a complicated flavour combination that includes plums, pineapples and lemons. Carambola consists of two main types of varieties viz.  sour and sweet. The sour types contain as much as 1 per cent acid and the sweet types have low acid (0.4 per cent) content with 5 per cent sugars.

The English name of cashewnut derives from the Portuguese name for the fruit of the cashew tree, Caju. It is native to the coastal areas of north-eastern Brazil. It was introduced in Goa by the Portuguese in the 16th century mainly to control soil erosion and to use in afforestation programmes but now it has become an important cash crop of Goa. The fruit of the cashew tree is an oval or pear-shaped accessory fruit known as ‘cashew apple’ sometimes called a pseudocarp or false fruit which develops from the receptacle of the cashew flower.  The cashew nut is a popular snack with a rich flavour that is often eaten on its own, lightly salted or sugared. Cashew nuts are also sold covered in chocolate. In Goa, the cashew apple is mashed and juice is extracted and kept for fermentation to prepare beverage called fenny. 

Prunus avium means “Bird Cherry” in the Latin language, is commonly known as ‘Sweet cherry’. Cherries have pleased the palates of food lovers for centuries. Their ruby-red colour and tangy taste won the hearts of kings, queens and noblemen in the history, making a special place for cherries on their tables. The ultimate celebration of cherries is the National Cherry Festival. It is held every year in July in the “Cherry Capital of the World”-Traverse City, Michigan. This festival originated from a spring ceremony known as the “Blessing of the Blossoms.” Thousands of visitors come from all over the world to celebrate the harvest and of course, eat cherries. A delicious fruit, cherry is rich in protein and sugars. Cherry is an excellent source of minerals like potassium, manganese, magnesium, iron, phosphorous and copper. Good amounts of vitamins (A, B, C and K) are found in cherries. They also contain anthocyanins, melatonin and fibers. It has more calorific value than apple. 

Citrus fruits are originated in the tropical and sub tropical regions of South East Asia, particularly in India and China. North East India is the native place of many citrus species. Citrus fruit has been cultivated in an ever-widening area since ancient times. Although oranges are the major fruit in the citrus fruits accounting for about 70 per cent of citrus output, the group also includes small citrus fruits (such as tangerines, mandarins, clementines and satsumas), lemons, limes and grapefruits. Citrus fruits are consumed as fresh fruit or utilized for preparing processed citrus products. Approximately one third of total citrus production is utilized for processing. India ranks sixth in the production of citrus fruits in the world. In India, it is primarily grown in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Karnataka, Uttaranchal, Bihar, Orissa, Assam and Gujarat. Citrus fruits have several beneficial health and nutritive properties. They are rich in Vitamin C and folic acid, as well as a good source of fiber. In addition they contain potassium, calcium, folate, thiamine, niacin, vitamin B6, phosphorus, magnesium and copper.

Coconuts are the fruit of the coconut palm, botanically known as Cocos nucifera, where nucifera means “nut-bearing”. The fruit-bearing palms are native to Malaysia and southern Asia. The coconut has been regarded as ‘man’s most useful tree’, ‘mankind’s greatest provider in the tropics’, ‘one of the nature’s greatest gifts to man’, ‘tree of life’, ‘tree of abundance’, ‘tree of plenty’ and the ‘tree of heaven’ or ‘Kalpa Vriksha’ in India. In Sanskrit Kalpa Vriksha means “tree which gives all that is necessary for living” because nearly all parts of the tree can be used in some manner or another. The Indian state of Kerala is known as the land of coconuts. The name derives from “Kera” (the coconut tree) and “Alam” (place or earth). It has great antiquity in India which is also evident from the fact that the part of Malabar Coast, extending from South Kanara to Cape Comorin, is known as Keralam meaning the land of coconut. The coconut industry is intimately associated with the rural life and occupation of the people of Malabar Coast.

The custard apple is believed to be a native of the West Indies but it was carried in early times to southern Mexico through Central America. The custard apple, is generally rated as “ugly duckling” species among the prominent members of the genus Annona. It is sometimes erroneously termed “sugar apple” or “sweetsop”. The custard-apple is also called bullock’s heart or bull’s heart. The name “Custard Apple” is due to its custard like taste. The fruit has a peculiar aroma which makes a sweet drink and can be used as a milk substitute. Custard apple fruit with a sugary, grainy taste is rich in calories. The fruits are packed with vitamins (A, B and C) and minerals (iron, calcium, magnesium and potassium). The fruit flesh can be scooped from the skin and eaten as is or served with light cream and a sprinkling of sugar. Often it is pressed through a sieve and added to milk shakes, custards or ice cream.

Phoenix dactylifera commonly known as the true date palm, is a palm in the genus Phoenix, cultivated for its edible sweet fruits. The fruit’s English name as well as the Latin species name dactylifera, both come from the Greek word for “finger,” Daktulos, because of the fruit’s elongated shape. The date palm is believed to have originated in the lands around the Persian Gulf. Date palms are said to thrive with their “feet in water and heads in the sun” because they need plenty of ground water but high heat and arid weather to produce fruit. Therefore, date palms grow best in hot and arid climates.

Durian, an exotic fruit, native to Malayasia and Indonesia, is considered to be the ‘King of all fruits’ in South East Asia. The term ‘Durian’ has been derived from the Malay word ‘Duri’ which means thorn. The fruit has a tough, thick, thorny husk that resembles the husk of jackfruit. The notorious odor has given rise to the unflattering terms like “Civet Cat Tree”, and “Civet Fruit” in India and “Stinkvrucht” in Dutch. Durian is delicious, soft and succulent with a distinctive sulphuric smell. It is characterized by the rich, buttery smooth and luscious flesh. The fruit is distinctive for its large size, unique odour and formidable thorn-covered husk. The fruit is a good source of carbohydrates, protein, dietary fiber and energy. Some of the other durian fruit benefits are their high iron content and lack of cholestrol. It is rich in vitamin B, C and E, as well as in amino acids. The jelly is prepared from over ripe fruits which is sour in taste.

Fig is one of those fruits which are known to mankind since early ages. Legend maintains that the Fig was the “Autumn Fruit’ as revealed by the Greek Goddess, Demeter, and the tree is still held sacred in most parts of the Mediterranean. The fig’s nutritional value is so high that it is often referred to as the ‘Fitness Fruit’. It is a rich source of dietary fiber. It contains a good amount of vitamins and various useful minerals like iron, calcium, magnesium, copper, etc. The matured fruit has a tough peel either pure green, green suffused with brown, brown or purple. The interior is a white containing a seed mass bound with jelly-like flesh.

Grape cultivation is one of the most remunerative farming enterprises in India. Considered the “Food of Gods” by the ancients, the little juicy ball holds more mysteries than we can think of. Classified by biologists as a ‘true’ berry, it has fleshy insides all the way to the tiny seed, making it a strong powerhouse of nutrition and energy. As one of nature’s richest source of antioxidants, the grape is priceless in its nutritional value. In fact many dieticians believe that it helps lower the incidence of two of the deadliest diseases in the urban world- coronary disease and cancer. In its juice form, the grape is known to cleanse the liver and remove excess uric acid from the body. One interesting but little known fact is that grape seeds are healthier than the fruit itself. They contain powerful antioxidants serving to prevent premature ageing, disease and decay. Grapes, one of the most delicious fruits, are rich sources of vitamins A, C, and B6. In addition to this they contain essential minerals like potassium, calcium, iron, phosphorus and magnesium.

Guava is native to tropical America, commonly known as ‘Apple of Tropics’ and it has got much greater health benefits than apple, therefore, it is also known as ‘Poor man’s Apple’. It is widely grown in the tropics, enriching the diet of million of people in the world. Guava has spread widely throughout the world because it thrives in a variety of soils, propagated easily and bears fruit relatively quickly in comparison with other fruits. At the beginning of the 16th century the Portuguese introduced it throughout the Pacific as far as the Philippines and the Spanish took it to India. 

Hazelnut is also known as a cob nut or filbert nut according to species. The hazelnut was native to the Black Sea coast long before our era, where it was found growing wild. Turkey is one of the few countries in the world having a favourable climate for hazelnut production. Hazelnuts are extensively used in confectionery to make praline and also used in combination with chocolate for chocolate truffles and products such as Nutella. Hazelnut oil recovered from hazelnuts is strongly flavoured and used as cooking oil. Hazelnuts are a good source of energy with 60.5 per cent fat content. Hazelnuts have been ranked as one of the most nutritious nuts because they supply significant amounts of protein and fiber, vitamin E and B, minerals like iron, zinc, calcium, magnesium and potassium. 

Jackfruit is believed to be indigenous to the rain forests of the Western Ghats of India and the name “Jack fruit” is derived from the Portuguese word Jaca, which in turn, is derived from the Malayalam language term, Chakka. The jackfruit has played a significant role in Indian agriculture for centuries. Archeological findings in India have revealed that jackfruit was cultivated in India 3000 to 6000 years ago. During the season, each tree bears as many as 250 large fruits, supposed to be the largest tree-borne fruit in the world. The fruit varies widely in size, weigh from 3 to 30 kg and has oblong or round shape measuring 10 cm to 60 cm in length and above 25 to 75 cm in diameter. 

Jamun is tall evergreen tree indigenous to India.  According to Hindu tradition, Rama subsisted on the fruit in the forest for 14 years during his exile from Ajodhya, because of this, many Hindus regard jamun as a ‘Fruit of the Gods’. It is known by different names in different regions of India: these names are java plum, black plum, jambul and Indian blackberry. Though the fruits of jamun are liked by all and sell at a good price, but it has still not grown as an orchard tree and is generally known as an avenue tree or as a wind break. Jamun is a hardy fruit plant which can be grown under adverse soil and climatic conditions. It is one of the hardiest fruit tree and best suited for wastelands. It is drought tolerant and at the same time can tolerate water stagnation as well as marshy wetlands. 

Kiwifruit or Chinese gooseberry (Actinidia deliciosa) is known as ‘China’s miracle fruit, and ‘the horticultural wonder of New Zealand’. From China it spread to New Zealand where it was recognized as a potential fruit and became a popular backyard vine. The name “Kiwifruit” comes from the Kiwi, a brown flightless bird and New Zealand’s national symbol. It has a fibrous, dull brown-green skin and bright green or golden flesh with rows of tiny, black, edible seeds. The fruit has a soft texture and a unique flavour and today it is a commercial crop in countries like Italy, China, and New Zealand. It is native to Southern China, where it was known as Yang Tao (sunny peach). It is known as “Chinese Gooseberry”, because of its visual resemblance to gooseberry.

Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) a native of China, is grown in India since 18th century. It is member of the genus Litchi in the soapberry family, Sapindaceae. The name of the fruit is derived from the Chinese word lee chee which means “one who gives the pleasures of life”. Litchi is also known as the “fruit of romance” in China. The most important use of litchi is as table fruit in ripe form although it is also used in processed forms such as squash. The fresh fruit has a “delicate, whitish pulp” with a “perfume” flavour. Eating litchi can benefit those suffering from colds, fever and sore throats. Great source of Vitamin C and potassium, it also contains phosphorous, calcium, magnesium and protein. According to a Chinese book, the nature of the flesh of the litchi is warm and it can helps improveing the blood circulation. The Chinese also use litchi for medicinal purposes and for making wine. 

The Loquat is a fruit of south eastern Chinese origin and it is comparable with its distant relative, the apple, in many aspects such as high sugar, acid and pectin contents. It is mostly eaten as a fresh fruit and it mixes well with other fruits in fresh fruit salads. Pies or tarts are made from firm, slightly immature fruits. A major part of total produce is used for fresh consumption, however, it can also be used for making value added products like jelly, jam, preserves, juice and squash.  Loquat syrup is used in Chinese medicine for soothing the throat like a cough drop. The flowers are regarded as having expectorant properties. It is good source of vitamin A, potassium, fiber, carbohydrates and is low in cholesterol. 

Mango is the national fruit of India which has been cultivated in India from time immemorial. It is indigenous to India and dates back to around 4000 BC. The wild mango is said to have been originated in the foothills of Himalayas in India and Burma. The mango was cultivated as early as 2000 BC. Gradually, the wild mango developed into an exotic, richly flavoured succulent fruit that is enjoyed even today. In the early stages of domestication, fruits were probably very small and fibrous without much flesh. The Mughals and Portuguese selected and grew mango plants for generations. Centuries of development have produced varieties of mangoes free from both fibre and unpleasant flavour. This eventually led to larger fruits with thick flesh that we are familiar with today. The Chinese traveler Huien T’sang, who visited Hindustan between 632 and 645 A.D., was the first person, so far as known, to bring the mango to the notice of the outside world.

Mangosteen named after the French priest and explorer Laurentiers Garcin is thought to have originated in Southeast Asia. It was said to be Queen Victoria’s favourite fruit. The correlation of Queen Victoria with the mangosteen is probably related to the fact that numerous people have referred to it as the “Queen of Fruits”. It is one of the most praised tropical fruits and certainly the most esteemed fruit. Most people enjoy mangosteen and the fruit now categorized as a “super fruit” has a ready market in western countries where it is considered a tropical delicacy. Mangosteen is primarily consumed as a fresh fruit.

The olive is native to the Mediterranean region, tropical and central Asia and various parts of Africa. Historically, olive tree was symbol of ‘Peace and Goodwill’. Olive oil has long been considered sacred; it was used to anoint kings and athletes in ancient Greece. It was burnt in the sacred lamps of temples as well as being the “eternal flame” of the original Olympic Games. Olive oil produces many health benefits when used in cooking or when poured over salads. The use of olive oil can improve digestion and can benefit heart metabolism through its low content of cholesterol. Experts claim that olive oil consumption can cause a person to grow shiny hair, prevent dandruff, wrinkles, dry skin and acne, strengthen nails, stop muscle aching, lower blood pressure and cancel out the effects of alcohol. The nutritional value of olives also includes the high vitamin E content. Olives also have high amounts of polyphenols and flavonoids which also act as antioxidants. Apart from this olives are good source of iron, copper, and dietary fiber. 

The papaya, papaw or pawpaw is the fruit of the plant Carica papaya, commonly known as ‘melon tree’ in the genus Carica. It is native to the tropics of the America. This highly loved tropical fruit was reputably called “The Fruit of the Angels” by Christopher Columbus. Papaya is considered powerhouse of nutrients as it is rich in anti-oxidants, vitamins viz. A, B, C, minerals like potassium and magnesium and fiber. Together, these nutrients needed for function of a healthy immune system, promote the health of the cardiovascular system and also provide protection against colon cancer. In addition, papaya contains the digestive enzyme, papain, which helps in digestion and is widely used in industry for various purposes. 

The purple passion fruit (Passiflora edulis) is a native of the rainforest margins in the Amazon region of Brazil. Passion fruit acquired its name from Spanish missionaries who thought that parts of the plant’s flower resembled different religious symbols such as the crown of thorns. Passion fruit grows on a vine in tropical regions. It has a tough, smooth, waxy rind that can be either yellow or purple. The flavour is like a cross between melon and guava. Passion fruits get sweeter as they shrivel. The fruit will quickly turn from green to deep purple (or yellow) when ripe and then fall to the ground within a few days. They can either be picked when they change colour or gathered from the ground each day.

The word persica, along with the “peach” itself and its cognates in many European languages, derives from an early European belief that peaches were native to Persia. Alexander the Great and his armies found the peaches in Persia and brought them to Greece. Most of the peaches grown in commercial orchards today are fruits that are harvested while too firm with a seed that clings to the pulp called a “clingstone” peach. The best flavoured peaches ripen soft and the seed easily separates from the edible portion, and these are called “freestone” peaches.

Chinese pear (Pyrus pyrifolia) is a pear tree species native to China, Japan and Korea. The tree’s edible fruit is known by many names, including Asian pear, nashi or nashi pear, Korean pear, Japanese pear, Taiwan pear, sand pear or apple pear. In South Asia, the fruit is known as Nashpati. The tree is a popular symbol of spring in East Asia and is a common sight in gardens and the countryside. The European pear (Pyrus communis) is a species of pear native to Central and Eastern Europe and Southwest Asia. The European pear is one of the most important fruit of temperate regions.

The English term pecan comes from the Algonquian Indian word paccan or pakan, meaning a nut so hard that it had to be cracked with a stone or a nut requiring a stone to crack. Pecan nut is native to North America and United States produces about eighty per cent of the world’s pecans. The Spaniards called it a “type of walnut”. Subsequently, the French turned it into “La Pacaniere”. Eventually, the name pecan nut was created. The nuts of the pecan are edible, with a rich buttery flavour. They can be eaten fresh or used in cooking, particularly in sweet desserts.

Japanese persimmons were introduced into the United States from Japan by Admiral Perry who discovered the fruit growing on the coast of Southern Japan in 1851. It is regarded as the national fruit of Japan and several improved cultivars have been developed there. It is the one of the easiest tree fruits to grow in the home landscape and also the most beautiful especially in fall when the foliage turns to brilliant colours and huge orange fruits hang from the tree like ornaments.

Pineapple is the second most popular tropical fruit next to bananas. It is also known as Piña, Nanas and Ananas. Native to South America, it was named for its resemblance to a pine cone but it is neither a pine nor an apple. When Christopher Columbus made his second voyage to the Caribbean’s in 1493, he and his crew ate the unusual fruit they found there. They thought the fruit looked like a pine cone, so they dubbed it the “Pine of the Indies.” When they introduced it to the English later on, they added the word “apple” because they thought it should be associated with another delicious fruit that people enjoyed. Thus, the name “pineapple” came into existence. In their natural form, every variety of pineapple has a rough, diamond-pattern skin. Their tastes vary slightly, though they all basically have the same juicy, tart taste. 

A plum or gage is a stone fruit tree in the genus Prunus. The European plum is thought to have been discovered around two thousand years ago, originating in the area near the Caspian Sea, while Japanese plums actually originated in China. However, they derived their name from the country where much of their cultivation and development have occurred. Mature plum fruit may have a dusty-white coating that gives them a glaucous appearance and is easily rubbed off. This is an epicuticular wax coating and is known as “wax bloom”. Plum fruit tastes sweet and/or tart; the skin may be particularly tart. It is juicy and can be eaten fresh or used in jam-making or other recipes. Plum juice can be fermented into plum wine; when distilled, this produces a brandy known as Slivovitz or Rakia in Eastern Europe. Dried plums (or prunes) are also sweet and juicy and contain several antioxidants. 

Pomegranate commonly known as ‘anar’ is an ancient favourite table fruit of tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world.  The pomegranate tree is native from Iran to the Himalayas in northern India and has been cultivated since ancient times throughout the Mediterranean region of Asia, Africa and Europe. The word pomegranate comes from the Latin “Pomum granatum” which means “apple of many seeds.” The Romans called it the Punic apple. Ancient Romans not only enjoyed the succulent flesh of this fruit but due to the high amount of tannic acid in the skins, they also used the skins in the process of tanning leather. Perhaps due to the fruit’s princely blossom crown, it has gained distinction as a royal fruit. “Pomum granatum” or seeded apple was the name which was known in the middle ages. The French named their hand-tossed explosive a grenade after the seed-scattering properties of the pomegranate fruit.

Raspberries are grown for the fresh fruit market and for commercial processing. There are many species of raspberry but the name originally referred with the red fruit to the European species Rubus idaeus. The English name comes from an old English term “raspis”, which refers to the slightly hairy or “rasping” surface of the fruit. The raspberry can be of any colour from orange, pink, red, purple to black. Rubus albescens also known as Mysore raspberry is native to India. It is also called Snowpeaks, Ceylon or Hill raspberry. 

Sapota or sapodilla popularly known as Chiku is native to tropical America where it is mainly grown for its chickle, “the gutta parcha” extracted from its latex from stems. It is used as a base material in chewing gum and in some other industrial uses. However, in India it is cultivated for its delicious sweet fruits. The fruit is fleshy berry, variable in shape, size and weight. The skin is thin, rusty brown somewhat scurfy looking like Irish potato, and the pulp soft, melting, crumbling with a sandy or granular texture with 1–5 hard black seeds. The fruit has an exceptionally sweet malty flavour. 

Strawberries one of the best fruits of the world are native to North America. Strawberry fruits are aggregates made up of several small fruits, each with one seed called an achene. The flesh of the strawberry is actually an enlarged receptacle, non-reproductive material. The word strawberry comes from the old English streawberige, most likely because the plant sends out runners which could be linked to pieces of straw. The name Strawberry was also derived from the berries that are “strewn” about on the plants, and “strewn berry” eventually became “Strawberry”. Strawberry is a delicious fruit taken fresh in several ways. It also makes excellent ice cream and jam on account of its rich aroma. 

The English walnut (Juglans regia) is a native of Western and Central Asia. The nut was the food of the royalty and was introduced by the Greeks in Rome, where it became Juglans, a name derived from Jovis and glans, meaning Jupiter’s Acorn or the ‘Nut of the Gods’. The English walnut tree, also known as the Common, Persian or Royal walnut tree, is an ancient tree with many uses, most notably for its use as timber and for the walnut fruit. The common walnut tree has been used as a food, beauty aid, medicine and natural health supplement. In China the tree is used horticulturally in classical garden design.

Water is a social requirement. Society now become aware about it’s dependence upon water and hence realized the importance of water in sustaining not only the development but also life. Water: too little, too much, too dirty; is general scenario in the world. But with increase in population water become limiting resource and is becoming scarcer and scarcer day by day. As water become scarcer commodity, the users (stakeholders) become more conscious regarding their share in water and ultimately this situation may lead to water conflicts. Earlier water related problems were generally tackled by hydro-engineers, but now in present climate changed scenario these problems go beyond the hydraulics and hydrology. Now a days politicians, ecologists, Non Government Organizations (NGOs), the media and the stakeholders etc are playing a crucial role in decision making in respect to water management issues. Now water projects are designed in reference to social context (Social context means cultural, economic, political, sociological, legal and other such aspects). When social factors are taken into consideration while tackling the water problems, it could not possible to satisfy all involved. Thus it is required to agree upon a compromise solution acceptable to all. Over recent few decades, information and communication technology (ICT) flourishes with great advances. It provides the ways to search for compromise solutions. In this chapter information, hydroinformatics, evolution of hydroinformatics and role of internet in hydroinformatics are discussed.

Data collection is a tedious and time consuming work, particularly from remote places. So many times the collected data is noisy. But data is the base for future planning and management of water resources. Planning based on noisy data could lead to failure. The modern data collection and subsequent control system i.e. telemetry and SCADA, are introduced in this chapter.

Modeling is heart of hydroinformatics. Simulation modeling became integrated part of modern science to justify feasibility of selected option among various competitive alternatives. Simulation modeling is a tool to evaluate the performance of a system, existing or proposed, under different configurations of interest and over long periods of real time. This chapter describes basic concepts, model simulation, model variables, modeling process, model performance etc. in brief.

In this era of computer, mathematical models become integral part of hydrologic studies due to advancement in soft technology. But question always arises as ‘Why should modeling?’ It was well expressed by Rosenblueth and Wiener (1945) as

No substantial part of the universe is so simple that it can be grasped and controlled without abstraction. Abstraction consists in replacing the parts of the universe under consideration by a model of similar but simpler structure. Models, formal or intellectual on the one hand, or material on the other are thus a central necessity of scientific procedure.

Data mining is a powerful technology which helps in extracting future trends and behaviour from large databases. Thereby it helps decision makers to make knowledge-driven decisions. One common form of real-world data is time series. The suitable models are required to analyze time series data. This chapter provides a short introduction to stochastic system, uncertainty, basic statistics time series analysis and some stochastic models.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) technology is increasingly used in our everyday lives. It is used in a variety of industries from gaming, journalism/media, to finance, as well as in the research fields from water resources to robotics. In this chapter concept and applications of AI are discussed in brief.

6.1 Historical Background

After World War II, a number of people worked independently on intelligent machines. The English mathematician Alan Turing was the first who explained the concept of intelligent machines through a lecture in 1947. He stated that intelligent machines could be developed by programming computers rather than by building machines. Since late 1950 many researchers are working on intelligent machines, mostly on programming computers

The artificial neural network (ANN), a data driven model, is inherently suited to the problems that are mathematically difficult to describe. An ANN is a flexible mathematical structure that is capable of identifying complex nonlinear relationships between input and output data sets, where explicit knowledge of the internal processes is not available. In this chapter general structure of ANN is described and also explained briefly with a case study.

7.1 What is Artificial Neural Network?

An Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is an information processing paradigm that is inspired by the way biological nervous system, such as brain process the information. An ANN is an adaptive (Adaptive means that the system parameters are changed during operation i.e. training phase), most often nonlinear system that learns to perform a function (an input/output map) from data. In more practical term, neural networks are non-linear statistical data modeling tools. They can be used to model complex relationships between inputs and outputs or to find out patterns in the data.

Remote sensing is emerged as an important application of science in all fields for collection of information from a far. This chapter describes the fundamental concepts of remote sensing, electromagnetic radiation (EMR), the interactions between EMR and earth surface features, satellites etc.

8.1 What is Remote Sensing?

Remote sensing is nothing but acquiring information about an object without touching the object itself. In other words, remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon, without making physical contact with that object. In present era, the term generally refers to the use of aerial sensor technologies to detect and classify objects on the Earth by means of propagated signals. As remote sensing is obtaining information about objects without making physical contact with them, remote sensing can be described as ‘reconnaissance from a distance’, ‘teledetection’ or a form of the common phrase ‘look but don’t touch’.

More information, more accurate and timely decision. In present high tech world, the more information you have it is easier to make an accurate decision. The information comes in many different ways, from reports to digital photos. A new way to analyze data is a geographic information system (GIS). GIS allows to bring all types of data together based on the geographic and locational component of the data. GIS is a useful tool for seeking innovative ways to solve the problems.

9.1 What is GIS?

A geographic information system (GIS) is a system designed to capture, store manipulate, analyze, manage and present all types of geographically referenced data. GIS can be defined as a computer-based system for digital entry, storage, transformation, analysis and display of spatial data. A geographic information system integrates hardware, software and geographically referenced data for further analysis. GIS allows users to interpret the georeferenced data in many ways that reveal relationships, patterns and trends.

Vegetation is a key component in hydrologic modeling. Transpiration, a component in hydrologic cycle, is contributed by vegetation. Most of the hydrologic model thus includes vegetation as a parameter. For accurate and appropriate model output, first requirement is good quality data. Most of the time, the data on vegetation is confusing, as in literature various researcher have used different values for common vegetation parameters. Here some common parameters of some important crops, which yield good quality results, are given.

Kharif crops are generally sown during last week of May and first week of June, while rabi crop are sown during last week of November and first week of December. But this period will vary from region to region as well as depends on variety of crop.

Food security of a country can be achieved through advanced agricultural research, followed by efficient and effective transfer of technologies. Unlike laboratory experiments, agronomic experiments are being conducted at open environment which leads to lot of variations in outcome/results due to influences of unpredictable weather condition and heterogenic soil characters even though proper adoption of local control. Results of an experiment can be expressed in different ways to make the clients to understand easily recordable output data viz., growth attributes, yield parameters and yield, laboratory analyses data like soil and crop nutrient status and quality parameters of the produce. Nutrient management studies should focus the efficiency of particular fertilizer nutrient over others, methods of fertilizer application, contribution of nutrients to crops from soil and fertilizer etc. Similarly, water management experiments would explain the water conveyance, application and storage efficiencies, suitability of method of irrigation, water saving techniques and water use efficiency of different crops as well as agronomic practices etc. In weed management experiments, the efficiency of particular herbicide in terms of controlling weeds, and increasing crop yields have to be expressed by various efficiency indices. Weed suppression ability of an intercrop can be explained by smothering efficiency.

2.1. Rainfall

Rainfall is one of the prime natural resource that decide the economy of a country. Inadequate and improper distribution of rainfall during cropping period will have serious threat to crop production resulted in food insecurity of growing population. So each and every action must be focused to conserve every drop of rainfall in an effective way and the conserved rainfall should be utilized in an efficient manner for crop production.