eBook Chapters

8.1 Introduction

In the fields like Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Engineering and Economics; their laws and principles contains various parameters and their derivatives. The mathematical relationships of such parameters with their derivatives constitute the differential equations. In calculus, differential equations were firstly introduced by Newton and Leibnitz. Newton listed the three kinds of differential equations:

Man has tendency to classify everything in a hierarchical manner for example, ships may be classified on size, weight, what they carry or naval versus merchant or passenger. Any of these classification is as valid as any other.

But classification of biological species is unusual in that a predefined system exists i.e. the evolutionary relationships among organisms. But evolutionary relationships can only be estimated; and contrary to popular belief, even a good fossil record does not conclusively show the phylogeny or evolutionary tree of a group species.

Numerical taxonomy can be defined as “Numerical evaluation of the affinity or similarity between taxonomic units and ordering of these units into taxa on the basis of their affinities”. The term includes drawing of phylogenetic inferences from the data by statistical or other mathematical methods to the extent to which this should prove possible. The practice involves a number of fundamental assumptions and philosophical attitudes toward taxonomic work.

11.1 Introduction
Having explored the sophisticated statistical methods for analyzing meteorological data and the powerful visualization techniques for interpreting it, we now turn our attention to the very engine that drives modern weather forecasting: Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP). This chapter delves into the intricate science and technology behind predicting the future state of them atmosphere using mathematical models and supercomputers. The challenge of weather forecasting is immense. The Earth’s atmosphere is a chaotic, non-linear fluid system, constantly in motion, with interactions occurring across vast scales, from global circulation patterns to microscopic cloud droplets. For centuries, weather prediction relied heavily on empirical rules, human experience, and the interpretation of synoptic charts. While these methods achieved some success, they were inherently limited in their ability to accurately forecast beyond a day or two, especially for complex or rapidly evolving phenomena.
The visionary idea of predicting weather mathematically was first conceived by Lewis Fry Richardson in the early 20th century. He envisioned solving the fundamental equations governing atmospheric behavior using numerical methods. However, the sheer volume of calculations required made his manual attempts impractical, famously taking him weeks to produce a 6-hour forecast that had already passed. It was only with the advent of the electronic computer in the mid-20th century that Richardson’s dream began to materialize, marking the birth of modern NWP (Fig. 11.1).

9.1 Introduction Numpy

Numpy: is apython package which stands for “Numerical python”.

This was created in 2005 by Travis Oliphant.

Using numpy we can perform the following functionalities:

1. Mathematical and logical calculation on array.

2. Fourier transforms and routines for shape manipulation.

3. It has built in functions for linear algebra random number generation.

4. Used for scientific calculations.

5. It is faster than python list.

6. It is fast because it is associated with c programming.

NumPy is often called as an alternate for MatLab (a programming platform designed specifically for engineers and scientists for data analysis, developing algorithms, create models and application etc.)

Important nurseries and seed merchants of Uttar Pradesh

1. Azad Nurseries, Laxmi Gate, Saharanpur.
2. American Seed Store, Ayodhya.
3. Ashoka Seed Farm (Regd.) Darwaja Road, Ayodhya
4. Beiz Nursery, Azmatgarh Palace, Varanasi.
5. Ganesh Bagh Nursery, Kamachchha, Varanasi.
6. Ram Das & Co. Kamachchha, Varanasi.

Purpose- One of the important operation for horticulture crops is raising of seedlings (vegetable, fruit trees, shrubs and flowering annuals). Seedlings are either directly planted as in the case of some vegetables, flowering annuals, shrubs and trees or may used as root stock as in the case of mango, citrus etc. For healthy and good stand of seedlings proper preparation of nursery beds is essential. Since large number of seedlings are raised in a consideration. The protection of seedlings from pest, diseases, strong sun and wind is very important. These factor will vary if seedlings are raised under Low Tunnel Polyhouse.

1. Introduction

India’s horticulture production has exposed multiple rises in the historical two decades and the country is ranking second in the world next to China. The horticultural crops viz., fruits, vegetables, flowers, spices, plantation crops and medicinal and aromatic plants have become a vital motorist for economy development in numerous states in India. Horticulture contributes 30.4 per cent to GDP of agriculture, which calls for the need of research and technical backstopping in this sector. Horticulture is a division which has the potential to create multiple springs of income, thereby boosting the economic growth of a country. Horticulture can be undertaken as market driven cultivation of vegetables, fruits and flowers, as ecotourism, as therapeutic medicinal plant harvesting and as a part of multiple farming to accompaniment the main source of income.

A nursery is a place, where seedling, saplings, trees, shrubs and other plant materials are raised and sold out for planting in gardens and orchards. The prerequisites of a successful and remunerative fruit production are the availability of true-type, healthy and good quality planting materials. Nursery is, therefore, a place where one can produce true to type plants by gaining technical skill, maintaining plants property and by careful planning. Like orchard establishment, establishment of a nursery is also at permanent venture and any mistake made initially can’t be rectified easily in the later stages. Therefore, for establishing a nursery, due care in selection of site, plants to be raised and transportation facilitation etc. must be given.

Nursery

Definition: It is a small area or place where seeds are sown for getting baby plant to transplant in the main field. These baby plants are known as seedlings.

Generally, growing rootstock in fruit plants and small seeded vegetables like tomato, brinjal, onion, cole–crops etc are needed to raising nursery and further transplanting.

There are two types of nursery;

• Temporary nursery: This nursery is raised by soil in open condition.
• Permanent nursery: This nursery is raised permanently walled and often provided with overhead covering against rain or frost.

There has been an increasing demand for horticultural crops more particularly fruit .With this, the demand for good quality planting materials has gone up and hence the nursery business has developed rapidly in the recent years in our country. Plant propagation aims at the reproduction of selected individuals or group of individuals, in this the basic principal of life impose certain requirements which must be met with in practices for successful propagation. Plants material of various fruit crops have not only to be raised efficiently and scientifically, for which skilled knowledge in raising and management of nurseries is needed, but also these have to be transported quickly from nurseries to place where these plants materials will be grown.

Availability of quality planting material is one of the most importanant requirement for increasing the production and productivity of any fruit crops. It becomes one of the great challenges for horticulturists to get the disease free quality planting materials of fruit crops from an efficient and reliable nursery.

Besides edapho-climatic constraints in the arid region, availability of genuine planting materials at the doorsteps of the farmer’s is one of the major challenges that come in the way of horticultural development at commercial venture. Though, establishment of nursery is considered as remunerative farming enterprise if managed properly, in arid region it is still confined in the vicinity of big cities. It is also interesting to reveal that in the state like Rajasthan, most of the private nursery men are not producing planting materials in their nurseries except for the fruits like ber, lasoda and  kinnow instead they are purchasing planting materials from the other states in bulk and selling them on higher rate to the farmers of the state. The main reasons for poor development of nursery in the arid region are; unfavorable edapho-climatic conditions and poor knowledge about innovations made in recent past for nursery management. Keeping these facts in view, there is a need to develop a long chain of hitech-nurseries coupled with Human Resource Development for mass multiplication of quality planting materials for fulfilling the demand of end users. Production of quality planting material is directly link with productivity of fruit crops (Bose et al., 1998; Brison and Adriance, 2000).

7.1 Introduction
A nursery is a place where plants are cultivated and grown until they reach a usable size. Nursery management has evolved into a commercial venture, with different types of nurseries including retail, wholesale, and private nurseries. Retail nurseries sell planting materials to the general public, while wholesale nurseries supply other nurseries and commercial landscape gardeners. Private nurseries cater to the needs of specific institutions or organizations. Since many horticultural crops are propagated in nurseries, the production of quality planting materials is vital, especially for orchardists whose success largely depends on the quality of these materials, as most fruit crops are perennial. To be a successful grower, it is crucial to consider several factors, including soil and climatic conditions, location, water availability, financial support, labor availability, marketing facilities, demand, and transportation systems. However, the production of quality planting materials plays a pivotal role in determining the success of horticultural ventures, as planting materials form the foundation of the orchard (Chadha, 2001; Singh & Negi, 2010).
7.2 Demand for Seedlings and Seeds in India
The availability of quality planting materials is one of the most important factors in the development of a sound horticulture sector. In India, there is an immense demand for quality seedlings and seeds at lower costs, offering scope for large-scale planting. The demand for quality planting materials exists across the country, as these materials contribute to sustainable fruit production systems (Swaminathan, 2007).
7.3 Seedling Supply Chain
The primary suppliers of perennial tree seedlings are departmental/ government and industrial nurseries, which produce seedlings and vegetative propagules for their own needs, as well as for public distribution to meet raw material demands. Farmers primarily produce vegetable and ornamental seedlings, benefiting from the availability of improved seeds and the low input requirements. The price of ornamental seedlings depends on factors such as 

Nursery management is indeed a very important operation in successful growing of vegetables especially those, which are raised through seedlings in properly managed nursery beds. Raising nursery from seed provides an easy and convenient way to nourish tender young seedlings in a well-managed small and compact area. The nursery area can be conveniently protected from natural hazards, seed borne diseases and insect-pests and can be well managed economically. Some of the vegetable seeds are very costly, for which it is necessary to raise nursery in the most-optimum conditions. In areas where land holdings are small (in hills), nursery raising helps in making economical use of land for about one month and provides enough time to mature for previous crop, harvesting, threshing and land preparation for next crop. Most of the vegetable crops like cabbage, cauliflower, tomato, eggplant, sweet pepper, hot pepper, onion, celery, parsley, lettuce, etc. can successfully be raised through seed by growing them in the nursery and then transplanting in the field.

“A vegetable nursery is a place or an establishment for raising or handling young vegetable seedlings until they are ready for more permanent planting.”

Nursery can be maintained either for personal or commercial purpose, and each has its own advantages and disadvantages. Seedlings raised for own planting will be true to type, sound and healthy. On the other hand, seedlings purchased from outside may not be true to type, vigorous and healthy and may not arrive at destination in due course of time.

Nursery

Nursery is a place where seedling, saplings or any other planting materials are raised, propagated, multiplied and sold out for planting. The prerequisites of a successful and remunerative fruit production are the availability of true-to-type, healthy and good quality planting materials. Setting up of a fruit nursery is a long term venture and requires careful planning and expertise, because mistakes committed initially cannot be rectified easily and may adversely affect the return from the investment. Thus, one should pay due attention on every aspects when nursery is to be established.

Introduction

Nursery is a place where seedlings, cuttings and grafts are raised with care before transplanting.

Advantage of Raising Seedlings in Nursery

1. It is very convenient to look after the tender seedlings
2. It is easy to protect the seedlings from pests and diseases
3. Economy of land usage (duration in the main field is reduced)
4. Valuable and very small seeds can be raised effectively without any wastage
5. Uniform crop stand in the main field can be maintained by selecting healthy, uniform and vigorous seedlings in the nursery itself.

In the nursery seedlings, saplings, cuttings and grafts are raised, propagated and multiplied under favorable condition for transplanting in the main field. In nursery, plants are nurtured by providing them with optimum growing condition to ensure germination.

Benefits of Raising Seedlings in Nursery

1. Tender seedlings are looked after very conveniently.

2. Seedlings canbe protected very easliy from pests and diseases.

3. Land can be properly utilised (duration in the main field is reduced).

4. Costly and small size seeds can be raised effeciently without any wastage.

5. Uniformity in the crop can be be maintained by selecting healthy, uniform and vigorous seedlings from the nursery.

Nursery

An area where the planting materials are raised for sowing or planting in garden or fields, in other words, the nursery industry involves the production and distribution of different kind of planting material.

Some of the vegetables sown directly in the field are Okra, Pea, Cowpea, Frenchbean Dolichosbean, Radish, Carrot, Bottle gourd, Bitter gourd, Ridge gourd, Spongegourd,Ashgourd, Muskmelon, Watermelon, Cucumber, Pumpkin, Roundmelon, Spinachbeet, Spinach, Coriander, Amaranthus, Lettuce, Fenugreek etc. Some vegetables are propagated through vegetative means like Colocasia, Ginger, Garlic, Potato, Sweet potato, Drumstick, Asparagus, Elephant foot, Pointedgourd and Ivygourd. But there are certain vegetables having very small seeds and first sown in the nursery for better care and to combat the main field. Such vegetables are Tomato, Brinjal, Chilli, Capsicum, Broccoli, Endive, Chicory, Cabbage, cauliflower, Khol-Khol, Kale, Parsley, Lettuce etc.

Raising of seedlings in the nursery beds is economic as well as easier to take care of young, tender seedlings against disease, insect pests and weeds. Better combat against biotic stress like bright sun, rains and low temperature and economisation by saving land, labour and capital to fetch higher market price.

Introduction

Management is the process of successfully accomplishing tasks with and through others. It is all about having more control and getting better results as a result of having more control. Many parts of nursery administration are unrelated to horticulture in any way. Nurseries, both wholesale and retail, are frequently managed by persons who have worked in a range of sectors. Nutrient management, disease control, irrigation management, insect pest management, and marketing management are just a few of the nursery management techniques that are necessary for a successful nursery output. A nursery manager and employees who spend a lot of time for potting plants, weeding plants, or conversing with clients may discover that they do not spend enough time for managing the nursery, resulting in a loss of control. Many activities are carried out during management, such as planning - need for planting material, provision of mother blocks, land area requirements, water supply, working equipment, growth structures, and input availability. Implementation - land treatment, biotic interference and soil erosion prevention, correct layout, input supply, and so forth. However, in a small nursery where several jobs are required, the manager must strike a delicate balance between the numerous responsibilities. Managers who are well informed can provide good management; thus, the first duty of every manager is to become knowledgeable about the company for which they are responsible.

Nursery: Nursery is a place where seedling, saplings or any other planting materials are raised, propagated, multiplied and sold out for planting.

Importance of a Nursery

1.    The young seedling requires special attention during the first few weeks after germination. It is easier and economical to look after the young and tender seedling growing in nursery bed in a small area than in the large permanent site.

2.    Majority of fruit crops are propagated by vegetative means. The propagules require special skill and aftercare before transferring them in the main field in a controlled condition in nursery, all these can be provided successfully by skilled labours.

3.    Direct sowing method is not successful when compared with transplanting of seedling raised in nursery.

4.    Nursery hardened plants are preferred for causality replacement in orchards.

5.    Besides these, raising of seedling or sapling in nursery provides more time for replanting preparations.

6.    Seasoning of seeding against natural odds is only possible in nursery.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ number of beds measuring 8 m, 0.6 m are sufficient for raising sufficient seedling for one hectare.
2. Seeds are sown singly at _____distance apart in the furrow.

1. SELECTION OF SITE

Select a location where one could ensure semi-shady conditions. Well drained medium-loam soil; rich in organic matter and neutral soil pH. An irrigation source in the vicinity with natural pH water is highly desirable.

A nursery is a place, where seedling, saplings, trees, shrubs, and other plant materials are grown and maintained until they are placed in a permanent place.

A nursery is a place, where seedling, saplings, trees, shrubs, and other plant materials are grown and maintained until they are placed in a permanent place.

Advantages of Nursery

1. The area being small and compact, it is convenient and easy to grow large number of seedlings per unit area.
2. Management of favourable growing conditions becomes easy and feasible.
3. Easy management of pests and diseases in compact area.
4. Establishment of disease free and virus free scion bank.
5. Ensure optimum utilization of labour, water, nutrients and other inputs.
6. Ensure easy and cheap availability of plants.
7. Promotion of export through supply and processing of quality plant materials.

Nursery is one of the important components of horticultural crop production. Nursery is place where young crop plants are raised under intensive care for later transplanting to the field. Nurseries may be classified as follows. On the basis of the irrigation facilities, the nurseries are dry or wet nurseries.

1. Dry Nurseries: Generally such types of nurseries are observed in forestry. It is maintained without any irrigation or artificial watering. The rab nurseries of Western Maharashtra, Karnataka and Gujarat come under this category. The rab or semi-rab nurseries are made in the plantation areas on small well-burnt patches of land usually 0.01 to 0.05 ha mainly for supplying teak stumps. The seeds are sown in lines 45 cm apart just before the onset of monsoon. Normally no elaborate beds are made, no fencing is made and no irrigation is provided as compared to other nurseries.

Introduction

Forest restoration is a complex process that requires many steps to ensure successful forest establishment. These steps include choosing suitable tree species and provenances, applying nursery cultural practices to produce quality seedlings and making site modifications to improve the physical environment of the restoration site (Grassnickle, 2000). Conifers are the most important tree species of the western Himalayas and J&K. There are about 16 species spread over 9 genera in 3 families. Among these families, Pinaceae, with seven species in 4 genera, is the most dominant, while Taxodiaceae, with 2 species in 2 genera, is the least represented. Out of the total taxa, 7 species belonging to 5 genera are exotic and exist in cultivation only.

1. INTRODUCTION

Nursery management is the backbone of fruit industry. The nurseries will have to play vital role in planned work for increasing the area under orchard. They are indeed the hub on which the success of an orchard depends. It provides continuous supply of healthy and certified planting material. So, one should give utmost attention while raising fruit plants.

The fruit plants are the foundation on which an orchard is built. If the plants are reliable and of guaranted performance, they will be high yielding and will produce quality fruits. There are many nurserymen in several fruit belts of the country who multiply thousands of fruit plants vegetatively for sale. It is desirable to raise only reliable, true-to-type, disease resistant and vigorous and precocious plants in order to have success in the fruit development programme in the country. At present there are several research stations and progeny- cum-demonstration orchards, Govt nurseries and also private registered nurseries engaged in the propagation of fruit plants.

Stone fruits like peaches, plums, apricots, almonds and cherries liked by one and all throughout the world for its colour, taste and nutritional value and grown in all part of the temperate zone and lower hill area of the country. The common procedure to raise nursery trees is to grow rootstocks from seeds or cuttings and then to bud known suitable varieties upon them. The stone fruits do not come true- to-type when raised from seed and therefore, nursery plants are generally raised through vegetative methods of propagation either on their own roots by cuttings or layering techniques or on the roots of other plants (rootstocks) by budding and grafting techniques. Rootstocks play an important role in quality fruit production. The stone fruits are generally propagated on rootstocks rather than on their own roots to have an advantage of rootstocks, like growth control, precocity, cropping and resistance to insect-pest and diseases.

1. INTRODUCTION

The demand for high quality planting material is steadily increasing due to interest in vegetable gardening. The need of setting up plant nurseries to meet the demands of the people has been felt by small and marginal farmers as well as by gardeners and farm house owners. In order to meet this demand, there is ample scope for introduction of small nurseries which will serve to augment the incomes of needy sections of rural society. Almost all vegetables crops are propagated by seeds, except sweet potatoes, asparagus, garlic, potato etc., which does better if propagated vegetatively. Among the vegetable crops which are propagated by seeds, cucurbits, beans, peas, radish, turnip, carrots and leafy vegetables seeds are sown directly in the fields. Other vegetables like cabbage, cauliflower, tomato, onion, chilli etc. are first sown in nursery beds where seedlings are raised and then transplanted.

Apricot is an important fruit grown in the dry temperate and mild-hill regions of India. The fruit belongs to the family Rosaceae and genus Prunus. The original apricots are native to China, whereas wild apricot, which is known as ‘Zardalu’, is indigenous to India. Wild apricots are found at a low altitude of 1500 m and as high as 4000 m a s l. The cold hardy trees are hardier than peach and almond and can tolerate winter temperatures as low as -30ºC. They are drought- tolerant and can be grown in a variety of soils, but deep, fertile and well- drained loamy soil with a pH value of 6.0 to 6.8 is suitable for their growth and development. Apricots are found the world over at low altitudes of 150 m and as high as 4000 m a s l.

Nursery rearing of bivalves and molluscs serves as an essential transitional phase in shellfish aquaculture, linking hatchery production to grow-out farming. During this stage, juvenile bivalves, called spat, or young molluscs are carefully raised in controlled or semi-controlled environments to promote their survival, healthy development, and preparation for transfer to open water farming systems. In India and Southeast Asia, common species include edible oysters (Crassostrea spp.), green mussels (Perna viridis), and clams (Meretrix spp.), while some molluscs such as abalone and gastropods are cultivated in specialized nursery setups. This nursery phase begins when larvae settle and transform into spat, typically measuring between 0.3 and 1 mm. These young shellfish are especially sensitive to changes in the environment, predators, silt, and diseases. To protect them, they are reared in nursery systems like upwelling or downwelling tanks, raceways, or floating mesh containers in clean coastal waters. Some hatcheries use land-based tanks equipped with filtered seawater and aeration. Optimal nursery conditions include maintaining water temperatures between 24 and 30°C, salinity levels of 25 to 35 ppt, and dissolved oxygen above 5 mg/L. Preventing biofouling through regular cleaning of nursery equipment is critical, as fouling can restrict water circulation and feeding. The spat feed by filtering microalgae such as Isochrysis, Chaetoceros, or Skeletonema, which are either supplied as live feed or cultivated within the nursery environment. The nursery period usually lasts 3 to 6 weeks, varying by species and growth rate. By its end, the spat reach 5 to 10 mm in size and are ready for transfer to grow-out systems like racks, rafts, poles, or bottom culture. Successful nursery rearing improves survival rates, ensures more uniform growth, and boosts the overall efficiency and sustainability of mollusc farming.

Indian Major Carps (IMC)—namely Catla (Catla catla), Rohu (Labeo rohita), and Mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala)—form the foundation of freshwater fish farming in India. These species contribute heavily to national fish production and are vital for supporting food security, rural livelihoods, and income generation. The nursery phase is a key transitional stage where hatchlings (spawn) are nurtured into fry in a controlled environment. Proper management during this stage is essential to ensure high survival rates, healthy growth, and the production of disease-free seed for stocking in grow-out ponds. Nursery rearing serves as a vital link between hatchery output and commercial fish farming. Adopting scientific nursery practices enhances the quality of fry, minimizes mortality, and boosts overall aquaculture efficiency. As India pushes for greater sustainable aquaculture yields, well-managed nursery systems play a central role in strengthening the fish seed supply chain.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

A nursery is a place, where seedlings, saplings, trees, shrubs and other plant materials are grown under intensive care and maintained until they are ready for final transplanting in the main field. The importance of the best quality planting material as an initial investment is a well-realized factor for persons engaged in horticulture field. So, nurseries have great demand for the production of plants, bulbs, rhizomes, suckers and grafts. But in general, good quality and assured planting material at reasonable price is not available in most of the cases. Nursery is the basic need of horticulture. Plant propagation techniques and practices is the core of horticulture nurseries. The planting materials for horticultural plantations are raised from seeds and vegetative parts. The difficulty of procuring seeds and their rising cost makes it necessary to find means to increase seedling survival and growth.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The importance of the best quality planting material as an initial investment is a well-realized factor for persons engaged in horticulture field. So, nurseries have great demand for the production of plants, bulbs, rhizomes, suckers and grafts. But in general, good quality and assured planting material at reasonable price is not available many a times. Nursery is the basic need of horticulture. Plant propagation techniques and practices is the core of horticulture nurseries. The planting materials for horticultural plantations are raised from seeds and vegetative parts. The difficulty of procuring tree seeds and their rising cost makes it necessary to find means to increase seedling survival and growth.

Raising a nursery needs a great skill. Nursery business has become an agro- business for the unemployed youths. Generally, various commercial crop growers require a good quality saplings or grafts of genuine type. So, nursery raising is quite a remunerative enterprise.

Nursery is a special place where seeds are sown, plants are propagated, grown, nurtured to usable size for planting or for sale. Nurseries provide the necessary control of moisture, light, soil and predators and allow production of healthy and hardy seedlings.

Pot mixture is the media, used in the pots for propagation of nursery plants. It is the combination of different materials in a particular proportion to create better environment for rooting, growth and development of plants.

The most commonly used ingredients to make potting mixture areas follows

Introduction

Nursery is an art of raising and selling seedlings, saplings, and other planting materials for use in gardens and orchards. The availability of true to type, healthy and high quality planting materials is a must for a successful and profitable fruit production. “Scion block” refers to trees planted to provide scion wood for propagating nursery stock, whereas “seed block” refers to the planting of registered seed trees that will provide seeding rootstock for propagating certified nursery stock. It consists of planting self-rooted mother trees/mother stools with the objective of providing vegetatively propagated (clonal) rootstock for the multiplication of certified nursery stock.

5.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to the Moluccas of Spice Islands of Indonesia.

• In India, cultivated in Thrissur, Ernakulam and Kottayam districts of Kerala, and parts of Kanyakumari and Thenkasi, Nilgiris (Kallar, Buraliar) districts in Tamil Nadu.

5.2. Economic importance

• Fleshy arils surrounding the nutmeg seed are the source of the spice mace.

• Used to flavour many kinds of baked goods, confectionaries, puddings, potatoes, meats, sausages, sauces, vegetables, and beverages such as eggnog.

• Fresh husks are used for making jelly.

• Nutmegs act as stimulant and carminative.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Among tree spices, nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt) belonging to the family Myristicaceae is the most important, providing two spices, i.e. the nutmeg (dried seed) and the mace (dried aril covering the seed). The latter is more important. Nutmeg is cultivated mostly in the tropical areas of Indonesia and West Indies. The world annual production of nutmeg and mace is around 12000 tonnes and 2000 tonnes, respectively (Krishnamoorthy and Rema, 2001). A native of the Moluccas (The Banda Islands of East Indonesia), nutmeg is presently cultivated in several countries such as Grenada, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka, Fiji, some Caribbean Islands, Africa and China including India. Of late, Brazil also started its cultivation. The Indonesian nutmeg known as East Indian nutmeg shares 75% and Grenadian known as West Indian nutmeg shares 25% of world market and they are major suppliers in the world. The East Indian nutmeg is highly aromatic which is preferred by the USA. West Indian type is of mild flavour and is preferred in Europe. The major importers are USA, Canada, Japan and European countries. In USA, the oil is generally preferred whereas the Europeans consume it as whole spice.

Scale insects:Pseudaulacaspis cockerelli, Parasaisettia nigra:Coccidae

Attack Adults and nymphs feed on plant sap and cause wilting and drying of seedlings and young plants.
 
Brown soft scale: Lecanium sp. (=Coccus) hesperidum : Coccidae

English name : Nutmeg
Botanical name : Myristica fragrans Hout.
Family : Myristicaceae
Chromosome number : 2n = 44
Centre of origin : Indonesia
Nutmeg of commerce is the dried kernel inside the brown and a thin brittle shell. A scarlet aril or mace surrounds the nutmeg. The Word Myristica is derived from the Greek term Myron, which means a sweet liquid distilled from the plant. The composition of dried nutmeg includes volatile oil (6-16%), starch (14-25%), furfural (1.15%), and pectin (0.5-0.6%), while mace contains volatile oil (4-15%) and amylodextrin (25%). Both the seeds and mace are rich in essential oils. The essential oil from nutmeg seeds consists of approximately 80% pinene and camphane, 4% myristicin (which has hallucinogenic properties), as well as p-cymene, d-linalool, terpineol, geraniol, safrole, eugenol, and isoeugenol. Mace oil shares similarities with nutmeg oil but is fresher in aroma. Mace is primarily used as a culinary spice and flavouring agent.

Introduction

The health and wellness of human being is largely dictated by the consumption of nutritious foods. Understanding the role of foods in maintaining health and cure of diseases has its roots in the ancient Hippocratic and Vedic texts as well as in the canons of Traditional Chinese Medicine (Sharma et al., 2012). Presently, the transition from a traditional to modern lifestyle, consumption of diets rich in fat and calories combined with a high level of mental stress has been the major cause of lifestyle related diseases like coronary heart disease, obesity, diabetes, cancer and hypertension (Moczara et al., 2012; Sharma et al., 2018). Various studies have linked foods as helpful in combating a number of such degenerative diseases (Sharma, 2015).Therefore, the tenet "Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food", quoted by Hippocrates about 2,500 years ago is receiving overwhelming interest. There are number of scientific reports emphasizing the importance of consuming biologically active ingredients present in fruits, vegetables, whole grains and legumes to reduce the risk of chronic diseases (Hasler 2002; Das et al., 2011; Sharma and Sharma 2016). Such biologically active ingredients are now popularly known as neutraceuticals. Whereas, the functional foods are the foods that resemble traditional foods but possess demonstrated physiological benefits. In some countries, however, functional foods and nutraceuticals are used interchangeably. Regardless, the main focus of such products is to improve health and reduce disease risk through prevention. The main difference of this category with pharmaceuticals is that they are multi-targeted mixtures and present at low concentration while pharmaceuticals are uni-targeted pure compounds with high dose use. Hence, an overview on the concept of nutraceutical and functional foods, their classification, development and regulations is summarized in this article.

Abstract

Quinoa is a pseudo-cereal which belongs to family Chenopodiaceae. Quinoa can act as highly potential crop for areas where ecological conditions do not support other food crops because of its rusticity, tolerance to frost, salinity, drought and ability to grow in marginal soils. Recently, much attention is focused on quinoa for people with celiac disease and allergic to gluten. Quinoa contains high-quality protein, complete with all essential amino acids and is a good source of carbohydrates, lipids, vitamin C, vitamin E (natural antioxidants) and adequate amount of important micronutrients such as minerals. Carbohydrates of quinoa possess excellentfreeze-thaw stability and can be used as thickener in frozen foods.

Quinoa also consists of bioactive components such as phytosterols, squalene, fagopyritols and polyphenols which act as powerful anti-oxidants in-vitro and thus couldprevent degenerative diseases such as coronary heart disease, atherosclerosis and Alzheimer's disease. Fibre accounts for 6% of the grains total weight, and quinoa intake therefore promotes intestinal transit, regulates cholesterol, stimulates the development of beneficial bacterial flora and helps prevent colon cancer. The quinoa grain can be used to combat liver disease, angina and cystitis. The radical scavenging ability and Angiotensin I converting enzyme (ACE) inhibition activity of quinoa is higher than that of amaranth, rice and wheat. Recent studies have identified significant amounts of ecdysteroids, kaempferol, quercetin, two phytoestrogen - daidzein and cenistema in quinoa. Ethanolic extract of quinoa was observed to have Antioxidant and antihypertensive activity.

1. Introduction

Buckwheat is one of the most important life supporting nutritious crops, which has come as a secondary crop in many countries and has now attained its position in the agriculture of many countries where cereals form the stable food for the people. Though the crop is not a cereal, the seeds themselves can bring the name ‘pseudocereal’ due to their similar usage as cereal grains. There are many species of buckwheat in the world, of which mainly nine species have agricultural value (Krkoskova and Mrazova, 2005). Generally, the genus Fagopyrum in the family Polygonaceae includes two buckwheat species used for food around the world: common buckwheat (F. esculentum Moench), which is almost grown on all continents, and tartary buckwheat (F. tataricum (L.) Gaertn), which originated in eastern Tibet or northwestern Yunnan in China and is grown only in Asia, Europe, and North America (Bonafaccia et al., 2003; Tsuji and Ohnishi, 2001).

Buckwheat is grown throughout a large area as a crop that fits the farming system on marginal and fairly unproductive land. It is used as a subsistence crop in many of the more mountainous areas where it is often grown with barley at the higher altitudes. Tartary buckwheat, because of its frost tolerance, is generally grown at the higher altitudes whereas common buckwheat is grown at the lower altitudes. In many areas the trend is for replacement of common buckwheat, which has lower yielding ability and lacks frost tolerance, with finger millet or other crops.

Abstract

The aim is to review the potential health benefits of minor millet. There is in need to identify newer sources of nutraceuticals and other natural and nutritional materials with the desirable functional characteristics. They are an important staple food in India for people of low income groups. Minor millet is rich in several nutrients as well as non-nutrients such as phenols. Nutritionally, its importance is well recognised because of its high content of calcium (0.38%), dietary fiber (18%) and phenolic compounds (0.3-3%). Minor millets, one of the cereals are known for several health benefits including its polyphenol and dietary fiber contents. Health beneficial effects include anti-diabetic, anti-tumerogenic, atherosclerogenic effects, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. The energy of minor millets is greater than other cereals and nearly equal to that of brown rice because the lipid content is generally higher (3 to 6%). This review deals with the nature of polyphenols and dietary fiber of minor millets and their role with respect to the health benefits associated with millet.

Introduction

While Indian agriculture has evolved to provide food to our ever growing population, nutrition security still remains a distant dream. Fruits an important component of a healthy diet, are rich source of nutraceuticals. Such health components comprising of flavonoides, carotenoides, vitamins, anthocyanins and other polyphenolics provide health benefits of disease prevention through antioxidant activity and reduced disease risks. Of late there has been an explosion of consumer interest in the health enhancing role of physiologically-active specific food components commonly referred to as nutraceuticals and functional foods.

The term ‘nutraceutical’ was first coined by an American doctor Stephen DeFelice in the 1990s. Today, healthcare market is flooded with different new nutraceutical related terminologies like, cosmeceuticals, biopharmaceuticals, herbaceuticals, ayuraceuticals, dermaceuticals, nutri-cosmetics etc. A review of 200 epidemiological studies showed that cancer risk in people consuming diets high in fruits was only one-half that in those consuming few of these foods. Increased acceptance and use of nutraceuticals and functional foods in the western world has resulted in increased export of such commodities from these countries. World-wide market for nutraceuticals and medicinal plant products today has surpassed US $ 15 billion with the top markets being United States (US $ 3 billion), Europe (US$ 2.4 billion), Japan (US$ 2.7 billion) and Asia (US$ 2.7 billion). It is increasing at the rate of 10% per annum. USA holds a significant share (35%) in world nutraceutical market followed by Japan (25%). As per the US estimates, the market for natural food colorants is estimated at US $ 500 million out of which anthocyanin and lutein together account for US $ 200 millions. Other large, emerging international markets in south and southeast Asia and mid-east gulf countries include UAE, Qatar, Oman and Kuwait. At present nutraceuticals and food supplement based functional foods account for trade worth US$ 170 billions and India’s share in this market is less than one per cent.

Introduction

The primary role of the diet is to provide enough nutrients to meet metabolic requirements while giving the consumer a feeling of satisfaction and well being. Beyond meeting nutrient needs, diet may modulate various functions in the body and may play detrimental or beneficial roles in some diseases. Now a days concept in nutrition is expanding from the past emphasis on survival, hunger satisfaction and preventing adverse effects to an emphasis on the use of foods to promote a state of well being and better health and to help reduce risk of diseases.

In recent years, the words like functional foods, nutraceuticals, phytochemicals are frequently used/found in media. It is important to understand these words and understand their functions in health care.

Abstract

Wild plants have a great role in the lives of tribal peoples living in and around the world by way of providing products for both food and medicine. Such herbal plants are the core of research, which can solve several health issues as well as nutritional supplements. Keeping on the view we have presented a summary of medicinal plants used as nutraceuticals collected from various regions of India. This communication describes 35 herbal plants used as a medicine against different diseases as well as their nutritional applicability.

9.1. Introduction
The three basic need for human survival are- food, clothing and shelter. The requirement of food comes first. Human are omnivorous. They eat mainly natural foods. Before 5000 years ago, cereals were the main food for all civilization and then the complexity of life began to make appearing with the advent of industrialization, flourishing of industry and commerce. Unpolished grains were utilised at first, but in contemporary civilisation, we have begun to prepare them, which results in the loss of essential nutrients. The intake of meats, processed meals, and sugary goods has grown while the general intake of cereals has decreased. People now lack vital nutrients as a result of the departure from natural diets. People began to realise a few years ago that health is a significant concern in addition to flavour, convenience, and quality value. They have thus begun taking nutritional vitamin supplements to make up for the nutrients lost from processed meals. People are increasingly opting for natural nutraceuticals in capsules and tablets, a trend known as medicalization in nutrition, instead of relying on natural food items. Hippocrates emphasized the connection between food and medicine, stating that healthy foods has a strong therapeutic advantages. The ancient Indian medical system known as Ayurveda places a strong focus on the functioning of diet and nutraceuticals in both health and illness.
9.2. What are Nutraceuticals
Stephen De Felice, the founder and chief executive of the Foundation for Innovation in Medicine (FIM), first used the term “nutraceuticals” in 1989 to refer to the broad category of medicines and nutrition. Nutraceuticals are foods or dietary components that not only offer nourishment and energy but also significantly contribute to regulating and preserving the regular physiological processes that keep people healthy. Nutraceuticals included processed meals such as cereal-grains, soups or stews, genetically engineered foodstuffs, herbal items, nutritional supplements, and extracted nutrients. People are increasingly concerned about their healthy wellbeing these days. However, these include a hectic, sedentary lifestyle, unhealthy eating patterns, body image issues, and being afflicted by a number of illnesses. These are the factors driving the global nutraceutical market’s expansion and generating a lot of interest. Numerous health issues of the century, including cancer, type 2 diabetes, heart disease, inflammation, oxidative stress, constipation, and more, can be fought off with the use of these nutraceuticals. Overall, nutraceuticals bring an entirely novel phase in medical science and assist the food companies to promote more creative research strategies. (Dudeja and Gupta, 2017)).

Introduction Rapid increase in world population in last few decades has challenged the food producing sector (Agriculture, poultry, dairying and aquaculture) massively to meet the global food demand. The population is expected to be 9.9 billion by 2050 which means the food producing sector have to increase production by 60% further more than the current production (FAO, 2020). According to FAO (2016) approximately 17% animal protein and 7% total protein consumed by humans were provided by fish. Accordingly, per capita fish consumption was gradually increasing worldwide at 1.5% rate annually from 9.0 kg in 1961 to 20.5 kg in 2017 (FAO, 2018; Fajardo et al., 2022). Aquaculture which accounts for 47% of total fish production is expected to overtake capture fisheries by 2024 and reach 52% by 2029 (FAO, 2020).

Introduction

Citrus fruits are acidic, exotic fruits with juicy, bitter, fruit segments inside. Citrus fruits commonly originated in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. They have long been valued as part of a nutritious and tasty diet. The f lavours provided by citrus are among the most preferred in the world, and it is increasingly evident that citrus not only tastes good, but is also good for people. Citrus fruits have certain therapeutic properties such as antitumor, anti-inflammatory and anticancer, due to phytovitamins and nutrients present in them.

Bio-active compounds having beneficial health effect on human beings from terrestrial and marine sources are considered as “Nutraceuticals”. Nutraceuticals from marine origin are proved to have wide range of therapeutic effects viz., anti-obesity, immune enhancement, natural antioxidant, cardio protective, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory effects. These natural products do not have any side effects contradictory to many medicines available today, hence have attracted global market. Microencapsulation technique has been considered as one of the unique methods to encapsulate the bio-active compounds for target delivery. Importance and application of nutraceuticals from marine origin are highlighted.

Introduction

World over in the recent past, research in nutraceuticals has shown continuous growth and the progressive approach is aimed at identifying the potential nutraceutical compounds which are having health benefits in human beings. Awareness among the people is the prime reason for the growing demand for nutraceuticals.Today people are more aware about the nutrition and related health problems. Recently, researchers across the globe are exploring the possibilities to extract and isolate bio-active compounds from both terrestrial and marine sources.