eBook Chapters

1. Introduction

In this era of genomics, proteomics and metabolomics the challenge in nutritional science is to clarify human nutrient requirements and design nutritional strategies to promote health and functional longevity. Our ancient Indian belief that ‘we are what we ate’ and our future health as individuals may well depend upon what we eat today. Plant-based dietary antioxidants are believed to have an important role in the maintenance of human health because our endogenous antioxidants provide insufficient protection against the constant and unavoidable challenge of reactive oxygen species (ROS). We have various endogenous defense chemicals but they are inadequate to prevent oxidative damage that makes human system prone to various degenerative diseases. Hence, it is necessary for increased intake of dietary nutraceuticals that may help maintain the balance between oxidants and antioxidants, slow age-related changes, and prevent onset of degenerative diseases.

Introduction

Foods and nutrients play a vital role in normal functioning of the body. They are helpful in maintaining the health of the individual and in reducing the risk of various diseases. Nutraceuticals and functional foods are broad terms describing “a food (or part of a food) that provides medical or health benefits, including the prevention and/or treatment of a disease”. Nutraceuticals hold promise in clinical therapy as they have the potential to significantly reduce the risk of side effects associated with chemotherapy along with reducing the global health care cost. Food provides not only essential nutrients needed for life but also other bioactive compounds for health promotion and disease prevention. Consumption of fruit and vegetables, as well as grains, has been strongly associated with reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, Alzheimer disease, cataracts, and age-related functional decline. A change in dietary behavior such as increasing consumption of fruit, vegetables, and grains is a practical strategy for significantly reducing the incidence of chronic diseases.

Functional foods that contain significant amounts of bioactive components may provide desirable health benefits beyond basic nutrition and play important roles in the prevention of chronic diseases. The key question is whether a purified phytochemical has the same health benefit as does the whole food or mixture of foods in which the phytochemical is present. Technological progress in manipulating plant metabolism and metabolites, combined with the explosive growth of the “functional food” industry has led to many attempts to enhance the concentration of these health-promoting compounds in specific plant-based foods . “Functional foods” are foods that, by virtue of physiologically active components, provide a health benefit beyond basic nutrition”. Functional/medicinal food is a category of botanical therapeutic available at the grocery store, which can be decrypted as “food engineered or supplemented to provide health benefits”. Thus, the future of plant-based functional foods seems bright and, as a result, grocery and drug stores might eventually look very similar. Optimization of composition of fruits and vegetables would be a very cost-effective method of disease prevention, since diet-induced health improvements would not carry any added costs for the health sector.

Several centuries ago, Father of medicine Hippocrates, has said “Let food be your medicine”. Our traditional therapies or alternative medicine effectively integrated this concept and include herbal remedies, nutritional interventions like vitamins/minerals supplementation specialized diets etc, and other techniques such as acupuncture, relaxation regimens, and homeopathic medicines. While, in modern medical science medicines are used to cure diseases which may have some inherited side effects. From the final decade of the last century, a renewed interest was seen in traditional therapies and people are thinking of integrated medicine with a focus on prevention of disease rather than its cure. In this context many terms like “dietary supplements”, “nutraceuticals” and “functional foods” were frequently used to address this issue. The term “nutraceutical” was coined from “nutrition” and “pharmaceutical” in 1989 by Stephen DeFelice, MD, founder and chairman of the Foundation for Innovation in Medicine (FIM). Nutraceutical can be defined as, “a food or part of a food, that provides health benefits, including the prevention and treatment of a disease.” However, the term nutraceutical as commonly used in marketing has no regulatory definition. There is confusion between the closely related terms nutraceuticals, functional food and dietary supplement. Kalra (2003) differentiated between these terms as: Functional food provides the body with the required amount of vitamins, fats, proteins, carbohydrates, etc, needed for its healthy survival. When functional food aids in the prevention and treatment of disease(s) and disorder(s) other than anemia, it is called a nutraceutical.

SYNOPSIS

There is an increasing awareness about quality of food among consumers all over the world. Organically produced food is considered to be nutritionally superior, but the available information is not conclusive.

Management system adopted for fruit trees are quite different, especially with regard to nutrient than that adopted for field crops. The shift in management system could be commenced 3-4 years after planting depending on the tree size. Nutrients are required for flowering and fruiting while at the same time trees are allowed to grow and maintain sufficient vigour for producing high yields in following years. To maintain productivity of trees in long run and maintain the sustainability of tree production capacity, application of nutrient should be based on actual requirement and availability of nutrient in the soil. Application of plant nutrients economically at correct time with right amounts in a way that nutrients could be taken up by plants efficiently with minimum losses. The purpose of assessment of nutrient requirement of fruit trees is to keep mineral nutrient levels in the tree with in the desired range to have the growth and development effects and fruiting of trees as desired.

The most important thing in nutrient management for bearing trees is to analyze the importance of timing of nutrient application in relation to tree phenology or growth cycle.

Concept of nutrient availability: The ions in the soil solution are available to plant provided they can reach an active root or it can reach them. The concentration of ions in the soil solution at any given moment is however; usually low, except immediately after the application of water soluble fertilizers.

Most of the nutrients are taken up by the plant in the form of cations which are positively charged. Available cations either in the soil solution or held against leaching by negatively charged clay or humus particles are easily taken up by the plants. Other plant nutrients notably phosphorus, boron and molybdenum are taken up by the plant as anions which are negatively charged. The concentration of anions in the soil solution is usually low because they become converted to new less soluble forms e.g., soluble phosphate ions forms less soluble iron or aluminium phosphates. Minerals upon weathering and organic matter upon mineralization release nutrient ions.

Physical factors

However, much readily available nutrients a soil may contain various physical features of the soil make it impossible for the plant roots to absorb it. It then becomes positionally unavailable. These features include hard pans, undesirable soil structures, presence of hard clods, dry soil horizons and water logged situation.

Low soil cation exchange capacity leads to less retention of calcium, magnesium, potassium, copper and zinc.

1. Introduction
Aquaculture has emerged as one of the fastest-growing food production sectors worldwide, a trend driven by several factors, including the rising global demand for seafood, the depletion of wild fish stocks, and the search for sustainable protein sources. As the human population continues to grow and dietary preferences shift towards healthier, protein-rich food options, aquaculture plays a pivotal role in addressing food security. However, the expansion of aquaculture also brings forth significant challenges, particularly in the efficient use of resources, including feed. One of the primary challenges for the aquaculture industry is ensuring that fish and other aquatic organisms receive optimal nutrition through formulated feeds. Aquafeeds are typically designed to provide a balanced mix of proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals necessary for the growth, health, and reproduction of farmed species. However, not all nutrients in these feeds are equally digestible or absorbable by the animals. The efficiency with which nutrients are utilized depends largely on their bioavailability—a term that refers to the proportion of ingested nutrients that are available for absorption and utilization by the body.
1.1 Defining Nutrient Bioavailability in Aquafeeds
In aquaculture nutrition, nutrient bioavailability is a crucial determinant of overall feed efficiency. It is defined as the fraction of a nutrient that, after ingestion, becomes available for utilization in physiological processes such as growth, tissue repair, metabolism, and reproduction. In practice, this means that bioavailable nutrients must first be digested in the gastrointestinal tract, absorbed through the intestinal walls, transported to various tissues, and

Abstract
The cultivation of grain legumes is expanding globally because of their diverse applications as food for humans, feed for livestock, and raw materials for industrial purposes. Legumes contribute significantly to sustainable agricultural practices due to their unique ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen through symbiosis with rhizobia bacteria in their root nodules. Incorporating legumes into cropping systems in place of traditional cereal-cereal rotations can significantly enhance agricultural sustainability due to their multiple benefits. Their role in nutrient cycling, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, ensures that subsequent crops benefit from improved soil nutrient availability, making legumes an essential component of crop rotations and intercropping systems. Additionally, legumes improve soil structure, organic matter content, and decrease the environmental impact associated with excessive fertilizer use, such as greenhouse gas emissions and water pollution. With the increasing demand for plant-based foods and the economic challenges of fertilizing cereal crops, grain legumes are anticipated to play a more prominent role in cropping systems, especially in regions where fertilizer availability and affordability are limited. It includes studies on improving nitrogen fixation efficiency, enhancing phosphorus uptake, and developing varieties that are better adapted to specific environmental conditions and cropping systems. Additionally, there is a need to identify the most suitable legume species and varieties for different regions and cropping patterns to ensure maximum productivity and sustainability.
Keywords: Climate change mitigation, Grain legumes, N fixation, P availability, Soil organic carbon

9.1. Nutrient deficiency of corrective measures

9.1.1. Major and secondary nutrients

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is the principal and one of the most important horticultural products of India. In spite of its immense popularity and commercial importance, information relating to nutrient deficiency/toxicity symptoms in cashew has not progressed much. Nutrient deficiency is common in cashew growing soils as most of the cashew plantations in India are established on degraded slopes with poor fertility, where soil and water erosion are common phenomena. Nutrient deficiency in cashew is influenced both by soil and climate.

Previous Year Questions

1. Discuss the iron and protein malnutrition in India. Describe the dietary pattern for mitigating the above-said malnutrition. (15M, IFoS-2022)

2. What is protein energy malnutrition? Give micronutrient deficiency in women and children. (20M, CSE 2017)

3. How are vitamins classified? Name the blood clotting vitamin. Give its various functions and sources. (10M, 150W, CSE 2019)

4. What do you mean by nutrient deficiency? Explain the micro-nutrient deficiency in context of work capacity of women and children. (12.5M, CSE 2015)

There is a lot of confusion and lack of understanding when it comes to scheduling of fertigation. Even crop specialists prepare a fertigation dosage by dividing the total fertilizer quantity by the number of days of crop growth. This is highly erroneous. A scientifically prepared fertigation plan allows coordination of nutrient supply with changing demands of the growing crops which changes with the physiological shifts in the crop. Fertigation planner requires following information to prepare this schedule- which, when and how much plan:

Soil is a major source of nutrients needed by plants for growth. The three main nutrients are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). Together they make up the trio known as NPK. Other important nutrients are calcium, magnesium and sulfur. Plants also need small quantities of iron, manganese, zinc, copper, nickel, chlorine, boron and molybdenum, known as trace elements because only traces are needed by the plant. The primary nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, because they are required in larger quantities than other nutrients. These three elements form the basis of the N-P-K label on commercial fertilizer bags. As a result, the management of these nutrients is very important. However, the primary nutrients are no more important than the other essential elements since all essential elements are required for plant growth. Remember that the ‘Law of the Minimum’ tells us that if deficient, any essential nutrient can become the controlling force in crop yield.

Introduction

Increase in population in our country with decrease in cultivable land is putting the challenges to the scientists and policy planners for increased food supply. There is very little scope for horizontal increase in cultivable land. Hence, the way to meet the need for providing food to ever increasing population is to increase the production of food per unit area of cultivable land.

Farmers, generally apply fertilizer to soil on blanket recommendation. Sometimes, the addition of nutrients is inconsistent. Sometimes, the application of fertilizer is much higher than the recommended dose. Imbalanced application of fertilizer to soil results in low nutrient use efficiency and low crop yield. There is need of site specific nutrient management for increased crop yield and for achieving higher nutrient use efficiency. Proper care should be taken for selection of fertilizer, method of application of fertilizer, rate of fertilizer application and also time of nutrient supply to the soil. Excess application of fertilizer has an adverse effect on soil health.

Traditional tillage may affect physico-chemical as well as biological properties of soil. Change in tillage practice from conventional tillage to conservation agriculture method may have an impact on soil properties and nutrient dynamics. Conservation agriculture affects soil health, proper fertilizer application, both rate and time, along with efficient use of soil moisture improves nutrient use efficiency. For obtaining a good crop yield nutrient should be available for plants in adequate quantity and in right proportion. Nutrients removed by the crop should be replenished by application of inorganic fertilizers alongwith incorporation of organic manures. Soil test is an important tool for determining the quantity of nutrients available in the soil. Based on soil test values and nutrient requirement of the crop rate of fertilizer to be applied in the soil for the plant is determined. Ample quantity of farm yard manure is not available nowadays. Hence, other organic manure such as town waste, green manure etc should be used.

Nutrient film technique popularly known as NFT is one of the methods of soilless farming or hydroponics where in plants have their roots in a shallow stream of recirculating water containing all the nutrients required for plant growth dissolved without any solid growing medium. The lower portion of roots remain submerged in flowing nutrient medium in a water tight gully having enough air for the roots. The nutrient film technique was developed during the late 1960s by Dr Allan Cooper at the Glasshouse Crop Research Institute, England. The method is already used in commercial horticulture in many countries including India. NFT is potential for other crops such as animal fodder and even energy-source plants for fuel production.

NFT related technologies

Hydroponics : Cultivation of plants in nutrient solutions is known as hydroponic cutlivation. This ia gerally done under protected structures and in containers arranged horizontally or vrtically (vertical garden). Use of nutrient film or fertilizers is made to feed the plants. Hydroponics can be practiced following nutrient film technique method, trough method, deep water floating method and coco peat bag culture.

The foods we eat contain nutrients. Nutrients are substances required by the body to perform its basic functions. Nutrients must be obtained from diet, since the human body does not synthesize them. Nutrients are used to produce energy, detect and respond to environmental surroundings, move, excrete wastes, respire (breathe), grow, and reproduce. There are six classes of nutrients required for the body to function and maintain overall health. These are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, water, vitamins, and minerals. Foods also contain non-nutrients that may be harmful (such as cholesterol, dyes, and preservatives) or beneficial (such as antioxidants). Nutrients that are needed in large amounts are called macro-nutrients. There are three classes of macro-nutrients: carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. These can be metabolically processed into cellular energy. Micro-nutrients are nutrients required by the body in lesser amounts, but are still essential for carrying out bodily functions. Micro-nutrients include all the essential minerals and vitamins. There are sixteen essential minerals and thirteen vitamins.

Plants require altogether 17 essential elements to nourish themselves and to complete their reproduction and life cycle. Among them nine elements are required in large amounts for their growth, the so called macro nutrients like C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca Mg and S.  The former three elements (C, H and O) are available to the plants through air and water over which we have relatively little control either in their application rates or uptake into plant system.

With the introduction of high yielding varieties and use of high analysis fertilizer in intensified agriculture under irrigation condition resulted in green revolution in our country. But continuous use of chemical fertilizer in indiscriminate manner without assessing soil also had adverse effect on productivity and environment. Though use of high analysis fertilizer ensured the high production but also resulted in acceleration of mining of native sources of nutrient. This has led to appearance of hidden hunger of several other essential nutrients and sustainability of our agriculture has become venerable.

Sustainability in agricultural production is guided by the overriding philosophy of ‘feed the soil to feed the plant’. Adequate supply of plant nutrients is required to ensure efficient crop production. Plants use individual chemical elements and ions as their food. In 1939, Arnon and Stout laid down three criteria for the essentiality of a plant nutrient.

The arid region of India covers about 12 % of countries geographical area and occupies over 3.17 lakh Km² of hot desert located in the parts of Rajasthan (61%), Gujarat (20%), Punjab and Haryana (9.0%), Andhra Pradesh (7%), Maharashtra (0.4%) and Karnataka (3.0%). In addition to this an area of about 78 thousand Km² of cold desert in Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh presents an entirely different set of agro climatic conditions as compared to hot arid zone. The hot arid region is characterized by low and erratic distribution of rainfall (< 100 to 400 mm), high temperature, low relative humidity, high potential evapo-transpiration, high sunshine and high wind speed during summer. Soils of this region are dry for most part of the year and suffer from water stress. Besides growing annual crops, a great emphasis is being laid on the development of agroforestry systems in this region which also includes cultivation of arid fruit crops in cropping systems. Horticulture based production systems are considered to be the most ideal strategy to provide food, nutrition and income security to the people (Chundawat, 1993). Integration of annual crops with fruit trees yields multiple outputs that ensure production and income generation.

Soil

Soil is the upper most crust of earth surface which supports plant growth. It is defined as a three phase system in which plants grow. These phases are solid, liquid, and gas are essential. Solid part is frame which provides space for other two. It consists of minerals, clay minerals and organic matter. The soil is also a living system with millions of microbes that breakdown organic matter. The microbes are very essential and survive only when soil is well aerated and rich in organic matter and devoid of waterlogged conditions. Texture of soil depends on the size of solid particles and classified as gravel, coarse and fine sand, silt and clay. Soils are classified according to the relative distribution of these particles. Likewise, arrangement of these particles is referred as structure. Generally loamy soils and crumb structure are most growing preferred for fruit crops. According to level of organic matter, soils are classified as mineral soil or organic soil and soil having more than 20% organic matter is organic soil like peat and muck etc. Minerals and salts lend chemical properties to the soil like pH, alkalinity, sodicity, salinity and cation exchange capacity which influences the availability of nutrients in soil. Therefore, for making choice for soil, soil analysis in terms of following criteria isessential to decide on land capability. Maximum numbers of fruit orchards in India are depleted from micro and macro plant nutrients which interrupted the growth and development of the fruit plants and their quality. Therefore, like growers are not attain profit desired. To obtain marketable fruits, nutrients managements are highly beneficial to the fruit growers rainfed areas. Analysis of soil is useful to determine the level of the elements available in the orchards to get maximum yield.

10.1 What is nutrient management?

• Nutrient management is an important component in orchard management for high efficiency and high fruit quality. Fruit trees are perennial woody plants which can store nutrients and then release them for growth.

• Therefore, the nutrient uptake of fruit trees includes the total nutrients of the fruits, leaves, new branches, and time increments of storage. Nutrient uptake is different under different yield levels. For example, the N uptake of apple trees was 100–120, 110– 130,120–140, and 130 150kg/ha under yield levels of 30, 45, 60, and 75t/ha, respectively.

• Basal fertilization is considered to be important for high-quality fruit production by providing nutrients for tree growth and also improving soil structure which promotes better root development. It is usually recommended and immediately applied during the dormant season up to autumn, after fruit harvest.

• Top dressing applications are usually chemical fertilizers which are applied two to four times before bud break or prior to or after blooming and at the fruit enlargement stage, depending on the requirements of each type of fruit tree.

• Using this INM method, the total nutrient demand is calculated according to target fruit yield level and NPK fertilizers are recommended based on soil fertility index (High, Moderate, and Low soil fertility) and nutrient demand with different stages. For moderate apply trees, most of N fertilizer is applied in autumn after picking to add N storage and renew tree vigor, and most of the P fertilizer is applied in spring with flowing stage to improve flower bud quality, and most of the K fertilizer is applied in summer fruiting period to improve fruit quality. Management of high yielding fruits using suitable pruning, and irrigation, are combined in this INM

The fundamental idea behind integrated nutrient management, or INM, is to optimize plant nutrient supply in order to maintain the targeted crop yield. It entails using chemical fertilizers, organic manure, and biofertilizers in the right amounts according to the land use system and the environmental, social, and economic circumstances. Vermicomposting is a natural fertilizer that is devoid of chemicals and made from organic wastes that decompose. It is an environmentally benign process. Beneficial microflora, including those that fix nitrogen, dissolve phosphorus, and break down cellulose, are abundant in vermicompost. In addition to having earthworm cocoons, which boost the number and activity of earthworms in the soil, it also has important vitamins, enzymes, and hormones like auxin and gibberellins, which improve the soil’s structure, texture, aeration, and ability to hold water while preventing soil erosion. Additionally, because of its high organic matter content, it increases the soil’s capacity to retain water, improves the macro- and micronutrient quality of the soil, and encourages greater root development and nutrient absorption. Porosity, aeration, drainage, and water-holding capacity are all extremely high in vermicompost (Sinha, 2009). Profile of Nutrients in Vermicompost: C:N ratio of 15.5. N = 1.6%, P = 0.7%, K = 0.8%, Ca = 0.5%, Mg = 0.2%, Fe 175.0 ppm, Mn 96.5 ppm, Zn 24.5 ppm, Cu 5.0 ppm, T = 0.5%. Biofertilizers are substances that include living microbes that, when added to soil, colonize the plant’s interior, or rhizosphere, and increase the host plant’s availability or supply of primary nutrients, so promoting growth. Biofertilizers provide soil with nutrients by utilizing the body’s natural mechanisms of fixing nitrogen, phosphorus solubilization, and growth-promoting material production. It can symbiotically link with plant roots because it is a living entity. Complex organic material could be simply and safely converted into a simple chemical by the involved microorganisms, making it easier for plants to absorb them. Long-term microorganism function leads to an increase in soil fertility. It preserves the soil’s natural habitat. In addition to increasing plant development, it substitutes artificial nitrogen and phosphate by 25% and enhances crop output by 20% to 30%. According to Hazarika and Ansari (2007), biofertilizers have the capacity to fix 20–200 kg N/ha/year, solubilize

According to the present state of our knowledge, sixteen-elements are considered to be essential for plant growth and development. These nutrients are chemical elements, which are absorbed by the plants in more or less quantity to transform light energy into chemical energy and to keep up plant metabolism for the synthesis of organic material. These elements are regarded as essential in higher plants.

These are Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potash, Calcium, Magnesium, Sulphur, Zinc, Manganese, Copper, Iron, Boron, Molybdenum and Chlorine. Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen are obtained from air and water. Carbon makes up the great bulk of the plant and is obtained from carbon dioxide in the air. Hydrogen is derived mainly from the breakdown of water. Oxygen is obtained from air as well as water. Other thirteen elements are obtained from mineral and organic components of the soil. These elements are further grouped into major/macro and minor/micro-elements. The nutrients that are required in relatively larger quantities are termed as macro elements. Micronutrients that are required in relatively lesser quantities are termed as micro nutrients.

Pineapple is considered as one of the important tropical fruits which are extremely demanded in the international market. This is due to its various quality characteristics like sweeter taste, blemish-free flesh, a cylinder shape with golden yellow pulp, a very pleasant aroma when ripe, low acidity, and a longer shelf life compared to other varieties (Banful et al., 2011; Malezieux et al., 2003). Pineapple can grow well in low as well as high fertile soil but the best production is obtained with high fertile soils. Souza et al. (2007) found that a fruit’s weight is directly correlated with the plant vigour at the time of f loral differentiation with a minimum D-leaf length. Therefore, it is proved by Souza et al. (2007) that nutrients play animportant role in pineapple cultivation to increase the growth and yield of the crop. It is also noted that the pineapple plants have a large nutrient uptake demand, especially for potassium, followed by nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, and phosphorus.

The focus on pineapple production should not only aim for stable volumes but also sustainable growth while maintaining quality standards amidst a growing population. The ‘Green Revolution’ with high inputs has plateaued, emphasizing the need for a natural balance to sustain life and property. Effective plant nutrient management is crucial for environmental, economic, and social reasons. Pineapple’s nutrient requirements, high in nitrogen (N), potassium (K), and iron (Fe), with lower needs for phosphorus (P) and calcium (Ca), make soil organic matter desirable. Repeated cultivation exhausts soil nutrient reserves, leading to decreased yields. Heavy synthetic fertilizer use may cause soil impaction and acidification. Combining organic manure with chemical fertilizers is recommended for profitable and sustainable crop production while preserving soil fertility. However, excessive nitrogen application poses health risks. As farmers transition to organic farming, the negative impact of inorganic fertilizers on pineapple size, yield, and quality is evident.

Salt affected soils occupy 962.2 m ha globally which accounts for 33% of the arable land. In India 8.373 m ha is affected with salts. Of which 2.359 m ha are alkali soils, 3.829 m ha are saline soils and 2.185 m ha coastal saline soils. Reclamation of these soils provides additional area for food grains production and employment.

India is a leading vegetable producing country in the world. Presently it occupies 7.981 million hectare area with the annual production 129.077million tones (2008-09). The country being belessed with the unique gift of nature of diverse climate and distinct seasons, make it possible to grow an array of vegetables number exceeding more than hundred types. However, potato being the staple food and easy to mix in several preparations ranks first (26.6%) in total production of vetetables followed by onion (10.5%) and other important Solanaceous vegetables like tomato (8.6%), brinjal (8.0%). Cauliflower and cabbage are most preferred winter vegetables and their total share in the country’s vegetable production is 5.1 and 5.3%, respectively. Other important vegetables, which are primarily grown in the country, are okra, onion, vegetable peas and a good range of cucurbits (Fig. 1)

There is miss-match in area production and productivity of vegetables among various states of the country. The West Bengal ranks first in the total production of vegetables in the country and its production during the year 2008-09 was in tune of more than 22.704 million tones, contributing the more than one-fifth of total country’s vegetable product ion. Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa in north India and Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Karanataka in south India are the other leading vegetable producing states in the country. In last one decade, there has been considerable progress in enchancing the productivity of vegetables which is presently 16.2 tonnes hectare^-1. Incessant growth of urbanization, ceaseless fragmentation ofland holdings and depleting natural resources are the major challenges before the expansion of any agricultural commodity either cereals or vegetables. Hence, our attention must be focused on vertical expansion strengthened with the boon ofthe technology instead of horizontal expansion just by increasing the crop area. To ensure the nutrition security of the burgeoning population of the country, it is estimated that up to 2020, the country’s vegetable demand would be around 155 million tones (Rai et al., 2004; Pandey et al., 2009). To achieve this target, it is sine qua non to integrate the various technologies right from production to post-harvest.

SUMMARY

Vegetables play a pivotal role in food and nutritional security of the ever increasing population of our country. The vegetarian society largely depends on vegetables for the want of their nutritional requirements. Vegetables are exhaustive crop with an exceedingly high turnover of plant nutrients, Thus , nutrient element required for optimum growth and development of vegetables should supplied to soil and plants in right time and in a balanced and integrated mode. Neither the chemical fertilizers are alone nor the organic sources exclusively able to sustain the soil fertility/productivity. The national average productivity of different vegetable crops of our country at present is much below the potential productivity. It may be increased up to 2-3 times more by adoption of appropriate nutrient management practices. The majority of our Indian soils are deficient in about 7-8 macro and micronutrients which leads lower productivity. Integrated nutrient management (IPNM) is one of the recent methods of supplying nutrients to the plants by organic as well as inorganic means together to fulfill the nutrient requirements. Organic manures are the key characteristics including the long term fertility of soil by maintaining organic matter levels, fastening soil biological intervention, nitrogen fixation as well as effective recycling of organic materials including crop residues and live stock wastes and weed. Micro - organisms play an important role in various chemical transformations in soil and thus, influence the availability of major nutrient like N, P, K. and S to the plant.

Importance of nutrient management in crop production can be very well explained by conducting various field trails by different fertilizer nutrient, methods of application and sources of fertilizer. Experiments on nutrient management are being carried out to study the impact of nutrient application, new techniques of fertilizer application, sources and doses of fertilizers on plant growth, yield and soil fertility and their efficiency over existing one was elucidated through various efficiency indices. The following efficiencies are normally being used in nutrient management studies.

Plant Nutrition

The term “fertility” refers to the inherent capacity of a soil to supply nutrients to plants in adequate amounts and in suitable proportions. Nutrition in plants may thus be defined as a process of synthesis of food, its breakdown and utilisation for various functions in the body. There are two types of nutrition:

1. Autotrophic nutrition: It is a type of nutrition in which the living organisms manufacture their own organic food from simple inorganic raw materials. The green plants exhibit autotrophic mode of nutrition and hence called the autotrophs.
 
2. Heterotrophic nutrition: Certain non green organisms like fungi and many bacteria fail to synthesize their own organic nutrients from inorganic substances.  These organisms are thus dependent on some other external sources for their  nutrition. Such plants are called heterotrophic plants and the mode of nutrition is called heterotrophic nutrition.

Manures and Fertilizers

Even though pomegranate grows well in soils of low fertility, production can be increased by application of manures and fertilizers. Initial soil analysis is desirable for proper scheduling of fertilizers. The nutritional recommendation depends on fertility of the soil and also the age of the plant. For young plants (2-3 months old) application of 200 g Neem cake along with 3-4 kg FYM/plant is recommended. After 3 months, each plant may be given 250 g DAP along with 250 g Neem cake and 5 kg FYM. Again after 9 months, application of 500 g DAP, 250 g Potassium sulphate, 1 kg Neem cake and 10 kg of FYM/plant is recommended.

Nutrient management is one of the key aspects that ensure good quality produce in optimum quantity. Nutrient availability influences growth and productivity of crops. Sixteen elements are recognized as essential nutrients for growth and development of plants. These essential elements are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, iron, zinc, manganese, copper, boron, molybdenum and chlorine. While carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are derived from air, soil and water, other elements are taken by the plant roots from the soil, according to the requirement of the plant. The soil contains these elements in varying quantities depending on the origin of the soil. According to the quantity of requirement of these elements by plants for its various growth processes,the elements are classified into different categories.

Major nutrients or primary nutrients - These are required by plants in large quantities because they are involved in all the processes of plant growth and development. Major nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.

Secondary nutrients - These are required by plants in relatively smaller quantities for growth and development. Secondary nutrients are magnesium and sulphur.

Micro nutrients - As the name suggests, these are required by plants in minor quantities for their physiological processes. These elements are iron, zinc, manganese, copper, boron, molybdenum and chlorine.

Each of the plant nutrients has a definite quantitive role and specific function in the physiological processes of plants. If any of the essential element is deficient or absent in the soil sysem, the plant growth is affected negatively and this is reflected as inferior quality produce. On the contrary, if a nutrient is excess in the soil system, it hinders in absorption of other nutrients and also may itself be toxic. Hence to get the required growth, quality and quantity of the produce, optimum availability of all the nutrients should be ensured.

1. Introduction
Aquaculture has become one of the most significant contributors to global food production, responding to the escalating demand for fish and seafood. As a rapidly growing industry, aquaculture plays a crucial role in ensuring food security, nutrition, and livelihoods. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), aquaculture production has expanded at an average annual rate of 5.3% over the past 30 years. This growth has positioned aquaculture as a primary source of protein, essential fatty acids, and micronutrients for billions of people worldwide. Despite its rapid expansion, the aquaculture industry faces significant environmental challenges, primarily due to the large amounts of organic waste generated by fish farming. This waste includes uneaten feed, fish excreta, and the remnants of dead organisms, all of which can contribute to nutrient pollution when not properly managed. Nutrient pollution is associated with serious ecological consequences such as eutrophication, where excess nutrients lead to algal blooms, oxygen depletion, and the degradation of aquatic habitats. These environmental issues threaten biodiversity and undermine the sustainability of aquaculture systems.
Nutrient recycling has emerged as an innovative and sustainable solution to address these challenges. This approach transforms waste into valuable resources, particularly in the form of nutrient-rich feed ingredients. By harnessing nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic matter from aquaculture waste, nutrient recycling not only reduces environmental impact but also improves the economic efficiency of aquaculture operations. Nutrient recycling promotes a circular economy model, where waste from fish farming is reintroduced into the system, closing nutrient loops and reducing the reliance on external inputs.

The requirements for a given nutrient is the minimum quantity of that nutrient that will maintain normal growth and reproduction, when all other nutrients are supplied in adequate quantities and at the same time, prevent the development of symptoms of nutritional deficiency.
 
The accurate way to express the nutrient requirements is in amount per day per animal. Poultry are fed in groups and hence, it is not practicable to express the requirements in amounts per day per animal. So, they are expressed in relation to energy content of the diet as poultry eats within limits to satisfy their energy needs. However, the estimation of energy content of the diet is not possible on routine basis and the calculated values may very much from estimated values. Because of these difficulties, the nutrient requirements of poultry are expressed on unit weight basis. 

Pigs are highly prolific among meat producing livestock and also excellent to all other type of farm animals in the efficiency of converting feed into high quality pork. The Nutrient requirements expressed for the mono-gastric animals like poultry and pigs as percent of the diet or the amount per kg of the diet, since they are generally fed in groups rather than individual feeding practiced in case of cattle and buffaloes (where absolute requirements are given). The latest requirements available are NRC nutrient requirements for swine, 1998 (10th revised edition), BIS, 1986 specifications for pig feeds and ICAR, 1998 for growing and finishing swine. Similarly ARC requirements are also available. NRC requirements are on 90% DM basis and are for breeds like Large White Yorkshire, Landrace, Berkshire etc., while BIS specifications are on 100% DM basis and for indigenous pigs, improved pigs and crossbred pigs.

Goats are valued as economical milk producer and main source for meat for a large section of population. The dry matter intake varies from 3% (Meat goat) to 4-6% (Dairy goat) in different breeds of India and it is higher than that of larger farm animals.

1. Nutrient requirements for maintenance

Adult body weight of goats may vary from 15 to 45 kg in different breeds. There are also does and bucks that weight up to 60kg. Nutrient requirements for maintenance of adult goats are, therefore given for body weights ranging from 15 to 60 kg. On an average for maintenance 76 g DM is required for each kg of metabolic body weight and similarly the requirements for DCP and TDN is 3 and 30 g, respectively.

2. Nutrient requirements for pregnant does

Since adult body weight as indicated already varies from 15 to 60 kg, the requirements for pregnant does are also given for body weights ranging from 15 to 60 kg.

Indian breeds of sheep have much lower adult weight (30-40kg) and growth rate in comparison to many foreign sheep breeds (70kg). Hence the requirements are lesser then foreign breeds.

1. Nutrient requirements for maintenance
On the basis of several balance studies and digestibility trials the requirements for Indian sheep breeds has been developed and calculations are made on the basis of 2.73 g of DCP per kg of metabolic body weight and TDN and ME requirements are 27.3 g and 98 Kcal per kg of metabolic body weight respectively. The requirements for different body weight are given in the table below:

Nutrient requirements of the animals in terms of protein, energy, minerals and vitamins are the basis for scientific feeding. The total requirement of an animal includes two components (i) maintenance (ii) production. While maintenance requirement varies with body size of the animal, the requirement for production depends upon its physiological state and production levels.

Such recommendations are based on the results of a large number of feeding experiments, conducted throughout the world. Feeding standards developed by Nation Research Council (NRC) of USA and Agricultural Research Council (ARC) of UK, for livestock and poultry are considered to be the best general guides for computation of ration. However, limited investigations carried out in this country suggest that adoption of foreign standards always leaves a fair margin of safety so far as the feeding of Indian species are concerned. This owes mainly due to differences in size, breed, nutritional values of feeding stuffs and other practices in the agro-climatic conditions of this tropical country. Some efforts have been made by India scientists in this area.

Duck production has an immense role in improving the socio-economical status of rural farmers. In India, duck farming occupies an important place next to chicken farming. Duck contributes about 7-10% of the total poultry population of the world. Ducks are water fowl, hence, they need a semi-aquatic lifestyle. They need a pond, lake, river, canal or any such type of water bodies for their survival. Thus, they are mainly concentrated in West Bengal, Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Kerala, Tripura, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Jammu & Kashmir and Manipur. Ducks are reared for both eggs and meat purposes. Unfortunately, duck farming is not done in an organized way in our country.

The requirement of micronutrients is always in low amounts while their moderate decrease causes the deficiency symptoms and a moderate increase causes toxicity. In other words, there is a narrow range of concentration at which the elements are optimum. Any mineral ion concentration in tissues that reduces the dry weight of tissues by about 10 per cent is considered toxic. Such critical concentrations vary widely among different micronutrients. The toxicity symptoms are difficult to identify. Toxicity levels for any element also vary for different plants. Many a times, excess of an element may inhibit the uptake of another element.

Soil is the fundamental resource in the agricultural production systems and monitoring its fertility is critical to the sustainability of agriculture. Plant nutrients undergo different transformation processes through which they are converted from unavailable to available forms. Nutrient cycling thus involves the transformation and availability of nutrients and is mediated by microbial action. Understanding the dynamics of nutrient and soil organic matter transformations requires an understanding of the biological, chemical, and physical processes involved.

7.1. Soil Nitrogen

The objective of nutrient use is to increase the overall performance of cropping systems by providing economically optimum nourishment to the crop while minimizing nutrient losses from the field and supporting agricultural system sustainability through contributions to soil fertility or other soil quality components. NUE addresses some but not all aspects of that performance. The most valuable NUE improvements are those contributing most to overall cropping system performance. Therefore, management practices that improve NUE without reducing productivity or the potential for future productivity increases are likely to be most valuable. An excellent review of NUE measurements and calculations was written by Dobermann (2007). Table  is a summary of common NUE terms, as defined by Dobermann, along with their applications and limitations. The primary question addressed by each term and the most typical use of the term are also listed below.

12.1 INTRODUCTION

Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) is a heavy feeder and needs a balanced and adequate supply of nutrients for growth and yield. Fertilizer is one of the most costly inputs, which accounts for greater part of production costs in the cultivation of oil palm. Large amount of nutrients are removed by the fruit bunches harvested from the mature palms. It is estimated that 25 tonnes fresh fruit bunches per hectare per year removes 93.5 Kg Nitrogen, 11.0 Kg Phosphorous, 92.7 Kg Potassium, 19.3 Kg Magnesium and 20.3 Kg Calcium.

Economic yields of oil palm are achieved when the supply of nutrients from the soil, palm residues and fertilizers are properly integrated in required quantities. Leaf analysis is an analytical tool for detecting the nutrient requirements in oil palm and other perennial crops, which are slow growing and can provide easily, defined standard leaf material for analysis due to leaf phyllotaxis. Nutrient deficiency symptoms are also an important means for determining the nutritional problems in oil palm, since the crop presents easily identifiable N, K and Mg deficiency symptoms. However, by the time symptoms are evident, nutrient deficiency might have already affected growth and yield.

Also the nutrient supply may be insufficient before the appearance of leaf symptoms. So there is a need for a thorough inspection of the leaf canopy to corroborate the results of leaf analysis and identify the areas with severe nutrient deficiencies. The research on oil palm nutrition was carried out under rainfed conditions at Palode, Kerala and irrigated conditions at Pedavegi, Andhra Pradesh.

In India, a great variety of soils ranging from red sandy loams/sandy clay loams (Alfisols), alluvial silt loams (Inceptisols / Entisols), heavy black soils (Vertisols) and acidic red laterite soils (Oxisols) are put to oil palm cultivation. In Andhra Pradesh, it is grown in red sandy, red loamy, red loam with clay base, deltaic alluvium pH - 6.5 to 9.0. In Karnataka, it is grown in red and brown sandy loams and black clayey soils, with pH - 6.5 to 9.0. Red soils, red loamy soils and clay loam soils are used for growing oil palm in Tamil Nadu. Laterite soils are used for oil palm cultivation in Kerala.

Post independence era brought about a radical change in agricultural scenario which improved economy and living standard of Indian farmers to a great extent. Green revolution, (field crops) during early sixties followed by white revolution (milk) and thereafter yellow (oilseeds) and blue (fish) revolutions made the country not only self sufficient in most of the food commodities but also exporter in many. Several calamities including droughts, floods, and ill effects of national and international conflicts faced by the, people of the country during post independence era could not affect the economy and stability of the country much because of rich agricultural heritage. As usual, the rapid and rather un-planned development creates several problems and this was true in our conditions too. Loss ofindigenous land races, depletion of soil nutrients and water resources, creation of salinity and water logging, resurgence of pest and diseases, declining factor productivity and farm profits and increased environmental (air, water & soil) pollution are among such problems have great concern to agricultural scientists and planners in coming future. The situation further aggravated because of industry oriented government policies and globalization which supported growth of industries and trades rather than agriculture and hence the growth rate in these sectors was considerably high. This fact is more visible by the figures on relative contribution of different sectors in the national GDP during last sixty years (Table 1). At the time of independence of the country more than 75% people were depend on agriculture related occupations which came down to mere 67.4% in 2009-10. Similar is the case of total contribution of agriculture in national GDP which decreased from 57% in 1951-52 to as low as 14.6% in 2009-10. Besides government policies, major factor identified responsible for degradation of resources, stability in production and decreased factor productivity is chemical based farming and that too in imbalanced and improper methods of application practiced by the farmers for getting more andinore production and profits per unit area per unit time The solution of this lies in the increased use of organic sources of nutrients in proper ratio along with chemical fertilizers - IPNS (Integrated Plant Nutrient System). Livelihood of marginal and small land holders who represent a large section (more than 86%) of farming community and remained deprived of advancements in the, field of agriculture has been the main agenda of the Indian Government in Xlth, five year plan and to continue in Xllth plan too. To ensure livelihood improvement with focus on small and marginal farmers Integrated Farming System (IFS) has been proved to be an effective approach. Accordingly, the Project Directorate of Cropping Systems Research renamed as Project Directorate for Farming Systems Research with AICRP on Integrated Farming Systems Research and Network Project on Organic Farming mandated with farming systems perspectives. Since, integrated farming system is a holistic approach wherein all the wastes and residues are recycled within the system and nothing go waste. Output of one enterprise is used as input for the others. This way, farming becomes more economic and environmentally safe.

Developments of feeding standards

Feeding standards are statements or quantitative descriptions of amounts of one or more nutrients needed by the body. Since the beginning of nineteenth century, scientists worldwide started formulation of standards for feeing the livestock and poultry and as such with the advancement of science the standards were developed from time to time. For convenience all such standards are grouped under major 
3 headings based on principles of standards. These are comparative type, digestible nutrient system and production value type.

Introduction

Nutrition is the fundamental pillar of life and an essential foundation of human and national development. Rightfrom the earliest stage of human development, the fetal stage, at birth, infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age, nutrition forms the basis for survival, performance, mental and physical development & economic and social development.Nutritional deficiencies during pregnancy, fetal and early postnatal life can have a negative impact not only on the subsequent growth and development but can also lead to changes in metabolic regulation and homeostasis.

Introduction

"The new science of nutrigenomics teaches us what specific foods tell your genes. What you eat directly determines the genetic messages your body receives. These messages, in turn, control all the molecules that constitute your metabolism: the molecules that tell your body to burn calories or store them. If you can learn the language of your genes and control the messages and instructions they give your body and your metabolism, you can radically alter how food interacts with your body, lose weight, and optimize your health." (Mark Hyman 2006).

Nutrients have long been considered merely as fuel or cofactors however, it is accepted that diet and feeding strategies play an important role in determining the basic physiological processes that influence the health and wellbeing of animals and ultimately influence the efficiency of production. Traditional research related to animal nutrition mainly deals with either deficiency or excess of the particular nutrient which affects their health and productivity. Subsequently, it was appreciated that nutrients can themselves participate in the regulation of metabolic pathways, for instance through the allosteric regulation of specific enzymes, or by modulating hormone secretion. Shifting of balance between health and disease states involves the complex interplay of genes and the environment, which includes nutrients. The use of systems biology approach in nutrition has attracted both scientists and industrialists during recent decades and a link between diet and health is well established. However, it has often been difficult to easily evaluate the effects of specific nutrients, combinations of nutrients and nutrient interactions because of the lack of straightforward biological indicators that respond to even the simplest changes in nutrition or nutritional status.

The exploration of facts about healthy and nutritious food has increased over the years. The advent of advance scientific tools has elucidated facts regarding the role of diet or nutrients in regulating gene expression (Sales et al., 2014). Various studies based on molecular interactions in food has revealed that many dietary components such as proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals, vitamins and phyto-constituents has the tendency to regulate gene expression.

4.1. Introduction
The food is the main factor known to affect the health of an individual. By interference in the protein synthesis, function and metabolites and alteration in genome expression, the healthy condition must be altered to diseased condition. Side by side we can say that the dietary component directly or indirectly modulates the molecular fingerprint and understanding of which is dealt with nutrigenomics. So, by modulation of a particular gene for a specific disease by nutrition, we can prevent the specific disease and promote the health of a population. Consuming fruits and vegetables on a regular basis has been linked to better health outcomes and diminution of several chronic or life style linked diseases.
Concept of Nutritional Genomics
After completion of human genome sequencing, the unique term “Nutritional genomics” tends to replace the old term “Nutrient-gene interaction”. It has been stated that so many polymorphism can influence protein structure and function. There are several regulatory sites where nutrients can impact the flow of genetic information. The two components of the nutritional genomics field are nutrigenomics, which studies how dietary components interact with the genome to regulate changes in proteins and other metabolism, and nutrigenetics, which determines how dietary components affect genetic variations. (Farhud et al., 2010). Nutrients are as environmental influences can interact with genetic material. It is commonly known that DNA metabolism and repair require a range of dietary elements that serve as cofactors or substrates in metabolic pathways. However, little is known about how cofactors and/or micronutrient excess or deficiency affect the accuracy of DNA replication and repair (Caroline and Fenech, 2008). The response to a particular nutrient, which is determined by the individual genotype, must also be taken into consideration, even though the nutrients can influence the development of a particular phenotypic.

Abstract

Nutrition and genetics both have very crucial role in human health and in development of chronic diseases such as cancer, osteoporosis, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. Difference between individuals in response to dietary intervention is a well-known phenomenon in nutrition research (Ordovas, 2008).The effect of dietary changes on phenotypes such as blood cholesterol, body weight and blood pressure can differ significantly between individuals (Ordovas et al., 2007). Various bioprocess i.e. ingestion, absorption, digestion, transport, metabolism and excretion of nutrients and food bioactive components in human body is carried out through proteins such as enzymes, receptors, transporters, ion channels and hormones. Genetic variation leads to altered production and affect functional properties of these proteins. Furthermore nutritional efficacy is also different among different individuals which might be affected by nutritional status. Thus diet and gene expression are interrelated and have a mutual effect on physiology of human body.