eChapters

Kharif onion helps maintain supply and stabilize prices when stored rabi onions become scarce. Its production is nevertheless challenged by high temperature, excessive rainfall, humidity, unsuitable varieties and limited availability of quality seed. Onion is biennial for seed production and requires bulb production followed by replanting for flowering and seed formation. Its protandrous flowers encourage cross-pollination, making adequate isolation and pollinator activity essential. This chapter explains short-day varietal requirements, bulb selection, vernalization, isolation, field management, pollination, harvesting, seed processing and storage. Improved infrastructure, organized production and farmer training are required to ensure continuous supplies of genetically pure, high-quality kharif onion seed.

Accurate crop-yield forecasting supports food-security planning, resource allocation and farm decision-making. Yield is influenced by interacting factors such as weather, soil, irrigation, fertilizer and pesticide use, making reliable prediction challenging. This chapter presents an algorithmic framework using historical agricultural and environmental data. It covers cleaning, missing-value treatment, categorical encoding, normalization and feature extraction. Decision Tree, Gradient Boosting, AdaBoost and XGBoost regression models are evaluated individually and combined through soft voting. Performance is measured using standard prediction-error metrics. The case study demonstrates that ensemble modelling can improve accuracy and robustness, helping farmers and planners optimize inputs, anticipate production and strengthen agricultural productivity.

A water budget quantitatively accounts for water entering, leaving and remaining within a defined agricultural or hydrological system. Comparable to a financial budget, it considers precipitation, irrigation, runoff, evapotranspiration, percolation and changes in storage. This chapter explains the climatic and soil-water budget, potential and actual evapotranspiration, water surplus, water deficit and moisture adequacy. It discusses how water-balance analysis supports irrigation scheduling, crop planning, drought assessment, rainwater harvesting and watershed management. Understanding the timing and magnitude of water availability helps farmers and planners select crops and management practices suited to local conditions. Water budgeting therefore provides a fundamental tool for climate-resilient and resource-efficient agriculture.

This chapter introduces plant analysis as a means of determining crop nutrient status and diagnosing nutritional deficiencies. It explains the selection of representative plant tissues at suitable stages of growth, followed by washing, drying, grinding, digestion and elemental estimation. Recommended tissues and sampling stages are provided for cereals, pulses, oilseeds, fibre crops, vegetables, ornamentals and fruit crops. Procedures are included for estimating nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, boron, zinc, iron, copper and manganese in plant samples. The chapter stresses that reliable interpretation depends on correct tissue selection, careful sampling and freedom from contamination. It thereby connects laboratory measurements with crop nutrition and fertilizer management.

This chapter examines the human user as the central component of every ergonomic system. It considers physical, temporal, cognitive and affective characteristics that influence how individuals interact with tools, tasks and environments. Biomechanical principles—including force, posture, movement, balance, leverage and energy—are introduced to explain physical performance and injury risk. The musculoskeletal system and the effects of sustained or repetitive activity are discussed alongside differences in user strength and capability. Cognitive processes such as perception, attention, memory and decision-making are linked with emotions, mood and workplace satisfaction. Together, these dimensions demonstrate why effective ergonomic design must accommodate the complete physical and psychological experience of users.

Increasing pressure on freshwater resources has created interest in the use of saline water for agricultural production, particularly where high-quality irrigation water is limited. This chapter examines the management possibilities associated with using saline water while addressing the risks of salinity to soil and crops. It focuses on the role of selected nutrients and soil amendments in improving crop performance under saline conditions. The roles of potassium and phosphorus are discussed in relation to plant nutrition and tolerance to salinity. Zinc is also considered for its importance in maintaining plant nutritional balance under saline conditions. The chapter further examines gypsum as an amendment and its role in managing saline soil conditions. Organic matter is discussed for its contribution to soil physical, chemical and biological properties, while biofertilizers are considered as a component of management under saline environments. The integrated use of nutrients, amendments, organic materials and biological inputs provides approaches for improving the productivity of saline soils. The chapter therefore links saline-water use with appropriate soil and nutrient management for sustainable crop production

Intelligent irrigation requires systems capable of responding dynamically to crop, soil and environmental conditions. This chapter explores fusion-driven reinforcement learning for precision irrigation, with particular attention to rice alternate wetting and drying and drip farming systems. It introduces the overall framework and methodology used to combine information from different sources for irrigation decision-making. Kalman filter fusion is considered for integrating relevant data, while reinforcement learning provides an adaptive environment in which irrigation strategies can be optimized. The chapter presents results and discussions associated with the proposed approach and considers its potential contribution to efficient water management. Future research directions focus on improving intelligent irrigation systems and their agricultural applicability.

The integration of Internet of Things technologies with artificial intelligence is creating increasingly connected and data-driven agricultural systems. This chapter examines how IoT and AI can support smart farming through continuous data collection, analysis and decision-making. It discusses technological infrastructure for advanced agriculture and improvements in field operations enabled by connected sensors and intelligent systems. Applications in precision farming, including orchard and vineyard management, are considered alongside emerging technologies and high-throughput phenotyping. IoT devices can provide information about environmental and crop conditions, while AI methods transform these data into useful management insights. The chapter concludes by examining future directions and research challenges associated with integrated smart farming systems.

Cold plasma technology represents an innovative non-thermal approach for improving food safety while minimizing undesirable changes associated with conventional heat treatments. This chapter introduces the fundamental principles of cold plasma and explains how reactive species generated during plasma treatment can contribute to microbial inactivation and food decontamination. It examines major plasma-generation methods, including dielectric barrier discharge, corona discharge and microwave plasma systems. The chapter highlights the potential of cold plasma for preserving nutritional and sensory characteristics while reducing microbial hazards. It also considers technological challenges such as treatment uniformity, interactions between plasma and food matrices and the need for process optimization and regulatory validation for wider industrial adoption.

Plasma Activated Water (PAW) is an emerging technology that combines the reactive properties of plasma with water to create an effective medium for food preservation and decontamination. This chapter explains the principles of PAW generation and examines different generation systems, including atmospheric pressure plasma jets, corona discharge and dielectric barrier discharge. It explores applications of PAW in reducing post-harvest losses, extending the shelf life of highly perishable foods, supporting edible-coating formation, controlling undesirable enzyme activity and improving food safety. The chapter emphasizes the potential of PAW as a sustainable processing approach while discussing treatment conditions, food-matrix interactions, technological limitations and opportunities for future development in food preservation.

The successful transformation of agriculture through artificial intelligence and digital technologies requires supportive policies, institutions, infrastructure, and farmer-oriented programmes. This chapter examines the role of government policies and institutional support in promoting smart farming and digital agricultural innovation. Effective policies can facilitate investment in research and development, digital infrastructure, farmer training, technology access, rural connectivity, data governance, and sustainable agricultural practices. Institutional mechanisms are particularly important for overcoming barriers faced by smallholder farmers, including high technology costs, limited digital literacy, and inadequate infrastructure. The chapter emphasizes collaboration among governments, research institutions, universities, private enterprises, and farming communities to promote inclusive technology adoption, strengthen resilience, and achieve sustainable food security.

Biodynamic Farming introduces biodynamic preparations used within holistic approaches to soil and crop management. The chapter systematically presents formulations BD-500 and BD-501 and the compost preparations BD-502 to BD-508, prepared from materials such as yarrow, chamomile, stinging nettle, oak bark, dandelion, valerian, and horsetail. Cow Pat Pit is also included. The discussion emphasizes the preparation and intended agricultural role of these formulations within biodynamic farming systems. By presenting each preparation separately, the chapter provides students and practitioners with an organized reference for understanding traditional and biodynamic inputs and their place within broader sustainable, ecological, and natural farming practices. for reference.

Laparoscopy is an operative procedure designed for the visual inspection of peritoneal cavity and biopsy of organs. Laparoscopy is a valuable diagnostic and therapeutic tool in clinical medicine. In the field of cholecystectomy, appendicectomy, vagotomy, hernia repair and adhesion release laparoscopy surgery offers significant advantages over open surgery in humans. For gynecological problems like ovarian cyst or in the case of oophorectomies and hysterectomies, laparoscopic surgery (‘scarless surgery’) is now considered a better alternative in addition to laparoscopic sterilization. Only in the last 15 years laparoscopy is widely used in different animal species for research and clinical diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. The first canine laparoscopy procedures were performed in the early 1900’s (Kelling, 1902). Anderson (1937) used dogs to perfect his skills prior to human clinical trials. The first clinical application of laparoscopy in dog’s involved ovarian function studies in the early 1960’s and Lettow reported the first laparoscopic liver biopsy procedure in a dog in 1972.

Laparoscopy is not only used in the examination of the abdominal cavity organs, surgical treatment but also in the diagnosis of the different disease conditioned by biopsy examination (removal of a sample of tissue from the living body for histopathological examination). Biopsy is indicated to ascertain a correct diagnosis, specific therapy and accurate prognosis. Laparoscopy is becoming an alternative method of monitoring biopsies of internal organs. It permits precise localization and accurate site on the various abdominal organs surface such as kidney, liver, spleen etc. Since, it is relatively noninvasive so it ranks highest amongst biopsy techniques. The technique allows visual control over the biopsy procedure, which considerably limits post biopsy complications and increases the likelihood of obtaining diagnostically useful biopsy specimens.

Abstract

Crop diversity play important role of sustainable development. A study on crop diversity in Andhra Pradesh was conducted during 2010-2011. In Andhra Pradesh, cultivated crop plant species resulted in augmentation of 140 species belonging to 132 genera and 46 families. The maximum species strength was observed in the Rayalaseema region (127 species belonging to 120 genera and 43 families), followed by Telangana region (125 species belonging to 114 genera and 43 families) and parts of Coastal Andhra region (118 species belonging to 103 genera and 46 families). Species richness was predominant in cultivated crops like vegetable crops (31 species belonging 25 genera and 12 families), Fruit crops (25 species belonging 18 genera and 14 families), commercial crops (23 species belonging 23 genera and 15 families) and Leafy vegetables (12 species belonging 12 genera and 8 families). The maximum species richness in families was found in Fabaceae (16 genera and 19 species), followed by Poaceae (14 genera and 16 species), Cucurbitaceae (11 genera and 14 species), Asteraceae (7 genera and 7 species) and Apiaceae (5 genera and 5 species). The present and the past similar studies observed that many more native species remain in agriculture than previously thought, under the right conditions. There is a need to establish mechanisms of control on introduction of exotic species in natural habitats. We also need to strengthen the legislation on the use of biodiversity and to establish a research programme of the economic potential of local flora and fauna as an alternative to introduction of exotic species to safeguard our traditional crop diversity.

Abstract

India is a country of villages (640930 villages) and 68.84% population of India is living in villages as per the All India Census, 2011. Dairy farming has been complementing the Indian agriculture since ancient times and rearing of livestock for milk/milk products and draft power has been the tradition of ancient India. Majority of the stake holders are from local communities, particularly pastoralists, have been using their traditional knowledge system for rearing the native breeds. The systematic breeding of cows over the centuries has led to the development of as many as 37 cattle breeds in India. Breeds like Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Gir, Kankrej, Tharparkar and Rathi are mostly reared for milk production. The number of the animals of majority of indigenous breeds has declined over the years attributed to crossbreeding. Further, their number is very low and majority of cattle population (80%) in India is non-descript. However, considering the importance of indigenous cattle, some of the breed improvement programs have been initiated to conserve and multiply these breeds.

Abstract

In the present study, the village chicken rearing practices were documented in Kannur and Kozhikode districts of Kerala. A total of 128 native chicken farming households were surveyed. The system of management is extensive backyard type with the provision of shelter at night. Around 90% of the farmers had more than five years of continuous experience in village chicken farming. Majority (73.4%) of chicken present in this region was either reproduced within the household from earlier generations or added from the neighbourhoods of the same Panchayat. Most of the farmers (68.8%) consider that chickens are reared for both egg and meat; while, others (31.3%) deem that they are meant for eggs alone. As many as 87 % of the farmers cull the surplus males before one and half years of age. In contrast, majority of farmers (78.1%) do not cull female birds and usually maintain them till their death.

Abstract

The Arabian camels are well known for their existence and adaptation to the desert geo-climatic situations. Their service to mankind in the difficult terrains of the earth for transport and baggage is also well documented in the literature and has clear reflection in society through art and culture. The existence and adaptation of single humped camels in hilly terrains of India is not very much known, but there exists a population of camel in the hills of erstwhile Mewar state of southern Rajasthan and adjoining area. Based on the locality these camels are known as Mewari camels and are well adapted to travel and carry loads across hills. Phenotypically the Mewari camels are stouter and off-white to light brown in colour. Molecular characterization also distinguishes it from other major breeds of camel. The Mewari camels are mainly reared for milk production. In recent study, it was found that of the total camel population with camel milk producers, about 31% are in-milk female camels. On an average about 2.8 litres of milk per milking female is being sold in the market everyday. Assuming that the camel population in the tract has gone down by 25% of its level of the year 2007 and the current survey figures are utilized for extrapolation, the population of camels in the breeding tract comes to 10408 with 4335 breedable females and 3226 female camels in milk. Accordingly, thousand lactating camels are producing 2800 litres of milk per day or 1022 tonnes per annum and are exclusively meeting the milk requirement of 10,000 persons at present level of per capita availability of milk in the country i.e. 276 gm per day. If the production potential of superior animals of the breed is utilized, the per day production from a female camel can be gradually increased to 6 litres or even more as the the best animals produce an average yield of 10 litres of milk per day during a lactation period of 16 months. Thus with 1000 she camels presently meeting the milk requirement of 10,000 people, may meet the milk requirement of 20,000 people by selecive breeeding. With proper policy support, if more she camels can be covered, the population covered can be increased proportionately. The increase in milk production is expected to increase per capita milk availability in the deficient districts and thus may assist us in ensuring nutritional security of the people of the region. Consequently, the increased milk production may further ensure better returns to the camel owners and thus strengthening the livelihood and conserving the camel populations in situ.

Abstract

The advent of modern chemical industry has resulted in the release of huge amounts of novel organic compounds, as industrial by-products, pesticides, other agrochemicals etc into the environment. These new compounds tend to resist biodegradation, with potential consequences such as persistence in the environment or bioaccumulation in food chains. Early detection of toxic chemical compounds in the environment, particularly in water, and their biological effects on organisms has therefore become increasingly important. The traditional approach to environmental pollution assessment is based on chemical analytical methods which only provide information about the absolute concentrations of known chemicals in the environmental sample without an adequate interpretation of its toxicity to biota. In order to get more relevant information about environmental pollution risk, it is therefore inevitable to supplement the chemical analytical data with the results of methods providing information on biological impacts. The negative biological effects of pollutants present in all kinds of environmental samples can be assessed using different living organisms or cells as ‘analytical devices’. The biological response following the exposure of living organisms or cells to environmental sample usually gives an information on toxicity, genotoxicity, estrogenicity etc. of the whole mixture of chemical compounds. According to the technical principle, methods of biological monitoring can be classified to bioassays, biosensors, immunoassays, and ecological methods. Besides being sensitive only to the bioavailable fraction of pollutants, biotests also have the power to assess the integrated effect of interacting chemical compounds and to detect the compounds, which are toxic only due to bioactivation.

Introduction

Carbohydrates constitute nearly 80% of the total dry matter of wheat kernel. Starch is the predominant form, with cellulose, hemicellulose and pentosans present in lesser amount. Starch is present in discrete granules within the cells of the endosperm. Starch content is available in the range of 65% to 75% and generally related negatively to the protein content. Starch structure is a crucial determinant of many end-product uses of wheat. While the amylose /amylopectin ratio is a useful descriptor of starch structure, a more complete analysis of the population of the molecules which constitute a particular starch is considerably more revealing. The molecules range from the high degree of polymerization (10⁷ – 109 glucose units) and heavily branched amylopectin population, to the lower degree of polymerization (103 -106 glucose units), and infrequently branched amylopectin population. Starches with widely differing structures are suited to particular end uses. For example, starches with no amylose, the so called waxy starches are particularly suited to use as thickeners or gel forming agents because they form a clear stable gel with little retrogradation. In contrast, starch with high amylose content form hydrogen bonded insoluble aggregations which are suited to use in adhesives, plastics and as a source of dietary-fibre starch. The size and branching pattern of starch are also important determinants of the suitability of starches for particular end-uses due to the effects these parameters have on gelatinization temperature, starch swelling and viscosity.

Garden should serve the feelings of comfort and pleasure along with soothing effect on mind and soul of the owner and the visitors. This should be the basic aim of the landscape designer along the budget. Landscape artist should never imitate another garden which has secured popularity but should develop one’s own design. Every plot or site may not be even and ideal for designing a garden. The principles of landscape design work together to create the overall look of the garden. Natural undulations of a barren landform should be utilized with its advantages and also to break the monotony of leveled plain. The principles of garden designing interact with the elements of color, texture, line, form and scale to develop a unified landscape design that blends the beauty of nature with the splendor of modern architecture.

INTRODUCTION

The ultimate objective of forest tree breeding is to develop fast growing high yielding genetically improved superior strains in order to replace the wild natural forest stands so as to obtain higher forest productivity per unit area and time. A breeding programme, in fact, involves purposeful management of genetic variability present in a taxon. The variation is regulated through controlled mating. This obviously, needs detailed information on the nature and extent of genetic variation on one hand and equally on the reproductive biology of the species. A clear understanding of phenological behaviour, time of anthesis, time and duration of stigma receptivity, fertilization, mode of pollination, seed development etc. is necessary for attempting crosses between genetically different forms which is invariably involved in the breeding programmes. Although, tree breeding work has been done to a great extent on the temperate species (Devey et al. 2002; Murat et al. 2006; Gotzenberger et al. 2007), no serious efforts were made in the past on tropical forest species including Jatropha (Jatropha curcas), presumably due to the consideration that similar breeding methods may perhaps, be applied to the tropical trees as well. This, however, is not applicable, as the phenological and reproductive features are typical different to each species. It was in this background that the present research article was planned to collect information on floral biology, breeding behaviour and hybridization programme in Jatropha for subsequent application in its genetic improvement.

INTRODUCTION

Wood has been a source of fuel from time immemorial for human societies. It has been used directly as firewood and also as charcoal. The world today is energy deficient. Energy derived from fossil fuels is costly, unsustainable and its extensive use is polluting the environment. The much talked about phenomenon of ‘Global Warming’ has been ascribed to the higher accumulation of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere released from the use of fossil fuels and also deforestation. Wood biomass is one of a range of renewable energy resources. It has an advantage over wind and solar energy, for example, as these cannot necessarily deliver power when required. Wood besides being renewable is also a clean and carbon-lean fuel and could play a valuable role in our contribution to climate change mitigation.

INTRODUCTION

The terms agro-forestry and farm forestry are used interchangeably in India with respect to the establishment and/or management of trees on farms for productive purposes. It also particularly recognizes the use of trees and shrubs on farms to support agricultural production, protect soil and water resources, enhance biodiversity, sequester carbon, and improve landscape values. Lundgren (1982) defined “Agroforestry as a collective name for land use systems and technologies where woody perennials are deliber-ately used on the same land unit as agricultural crops and/or animals, either in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence. In agroforestry systems there are both economical and ecological interactions between the different components”. It has been proposed that including a tree component within the farming system, either on bunds and boundaries (sequentially with crops) or intercropped in an agroforestry type configuration, can lead to increased land productivity while diversifying the farming enterprise (Atta-Krah et al. 2004; Huxley 1999; Young 1989), and increase economic security for small farmers (Russell and Franzel 2004).

Introduction

Biodiversity provides enormous direct economic benefits, an array of indirect essential services through natural ecosystems, and plays a prominent role in modulating ecosystem function and stability. It provide farming systems and taxa the means to recycle nutrient, reduce insect, pest and disease problems, control weed, maintain good water and soil conditions, handle climate stresses while producing commodities necessary for human survival. It is estimated that 1400 m ha of croplands and agro-ecosystem may provide ecosystem services worth US$ 92 ha-1 per year in pollination, biological control, and food production amounting to total US $ 128 x 109 per year (Costanza 1997). Moreover, Thrupp (1997) explained several benefits provided through conservation of biodiversity (Figure 1). The animal and plant diversity and the knowledge of associated management of these resources are the assets with the farmers which are important in marginal and difficult farm conditions. Higher diversity allows greater access to available resources, and hence increased net primary production and decreased nutrient losses. Diversity management can constitute a central part of livelihood management strategies of farmers and communities in different production system (Rege et al. 2003). The multifunctional services of biodiversity in amelioration of agro-ecosystems as given in Table 1 have also been emphasized by both the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) and the International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development (2008). 

Abstract

Plant genetic resources constitute the chief component of agro-biodiversity and comprise of land races, modern cultivars and obsolete varieties, breeding lines, genetic stocks and wild species. They provide the basic materials to the plant breeders to utilize genetic variability for the development of high yielding cultivars with a broad genetic base. The utilization of these genetic resources, however, depends upon their efficient and adequate characterization and evaluation, which in turn entails efficient characterization standards and appropriate strategies.

Introduction

Analysis of trait data generated from characterization and evaluation of the genetic resources is used to understand and use diversity. Currently, a large number of distance measures are available for analyzing similarity/dissimilarity among accessions based on different traits representing different types of variables. The selection of the most appropriate distance measure for each trait is the prerequisite for diversity analysis. One of the approaches is to form clusters where accessions between clusters would be more diverse than the accessions within a cluster. The clustering algorithms require a distance/similarity matrix between the accessions which can be calculated depending upon the nature or type of traits such as morphological and agronomic traits and/or molecular markers.

6.1 PROCESSES IN THE DOMESTICATION TECHNOLOGY

6.1.1 Introduction

The world Agroforestry centre Former international Centre for Research in Agro – forestry (ICRAF) and other home base orgainsation in their programme Africa Humid Tropics Regional programmed are the leader in the science and practice of integrating working trees on small farms and in rural landscapes. In this programme trees that ensure security in food nutrition income, health, shelter and energy and a regenerated environment are domesticated. The mission of this is to increase; diversify and stabilize income, food and health strategies from practicing agroforestry approaches in general domesticating indigenous trees and their products particular.

Definition of Agroforestry

Basically agro forestry is the integration of agriculture forestry and sometimes animal production. This is a measure to maintain soil fertility, stop desertification and soil degradation. Foresters and agriculturalist have long recognized the important of these approached which have been incorporated into forestry law of severe countries. This does not only involve the planting of certain trees in farms but also the protection of certain trees species which are not to be felled or damaged during farming.

Introduction

Synbiotics refer to nutritional supplements combining probiotics and prebiotics in form of a synergism. The synbiotic concept was first introduced as “mixtures of probiotics and prebiotics that beneficially affect the host by improving the survival and implantation of health-promoting bacteria. Probiotics are live bacteria which are intended to colonize the large intestine and confer physiological health benefits to the host. A prebiotic is a food or dietary supplement product that enhances the activity of probiotics. Synbiotics are not drugs and the effects are due to changes in bacteria population or enhancement of activity of the bacteria. A synbiotic may contain fiber, but all fiber is not necessarily a synbiotic.

Using prebiotics and probiotics in combination is often described as synbiotic, but the United Nations Food & Agriculture Organization (FAO) recommends that the term “synbiotic” be used only if the net health benefit is synergistic. A synbiotic contains fiber such as fructose oligosaccharide, galactose oligosaccharide, etc. and is intended to stimulate the microflora in the large intestine. The combination of probiotics and prebiotics work separately in the small and large intestine, but synergistically increase the overall gut health. Prebiotic has shown to increase the population and/or function of the probiotic it is paired with, as the probiotic is an external species, whereas prebiotics stimulate the flora which is already present.

Introduction

After the discovery that low concentrations of antibiotics included in livestock diets had a beneficial effect on production efficiency, the use of antibiotic growth promoters (AGPs) became a common practice, benefiting both the livestock industry and consumers. Antibiotic growth promotion in agricultural and animal production has been practiced for about 50 years (Dibner et al., 2007). Orally ingested antibiotics promote growth and efficiency of poultry and other animals. Early indications of a beneficial effect on production efficiency in poultry and swine were reported by Moore et al. (1946) and Jukes et al. (1950).

Introduction

An ionophore is a lipid-soluble molecule usually synthesized by microorganisms, which transport ions across cell membranes of susceptible bacteria, dissipating ion gradients and uncoupling energy expenditures from growth to kill these bacteria. The term ionophore was first used in 1967 for their ability of organic molecules to bind metal cations and form lipid soluble complexes that facilitate their transport across cell membrane. The ionophore antibiotics show wide varieties of biological activity ranging from antibacterial, antifungal, antimycoplasma, antiparasitic, antimalarial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory and tumourcell cytotoxic activity (Augustine, et al., 1987; Gumila et al., 1996). Presently seven polyether antibiotics include monensin, lasalocid, salinomycin, narasin, maduramycin, laidomycin and senduramycin are used around the world in various segments of cattle and poultry industries. These ionophores are mainly used as anticoccidial drugs in poultry and growth promoters in the ruminants. Polyether antibiotics are not used in human but recently, it has been shown that some of these compounds are able to selectively kill human cancer stem cells and multidrug resistant cancer cells. Hence, they are recognized as new potential anticancer drugs.

Introduction

There is concern that antibiotic-resistance in bacteria may make commonly used antibiotics less effective. Oral immunotherapy (passive immunization) with specific antibodies is a strategy that has been actively pursued in laboratory and clinical studies for the last two decades. Feeding of egg yolk antibodies to neutralize specific pathogens, especially enteric microorganisms, is a potential alternative to antibiotics. Oral administration of these antibodies has met with some degree of success in prevention of viral and bacterial enteric infections in humans, piglets, calves, fish and rabbits. It is proposed that the egg yolk antibodies may act against enteric pathogens by binding, immobilising and consequently reducing or inhibiting the growth, replication, or colony forming abilities of these pathogens. Three immunoglobulin classes (IgA, IgM and IgY) have been shown to exist in chickens. Chicken immunoglobulin G (IgG) has been designated as immunoglobulin Y(IgY) because it varies in several aspects from mammalian IgG. IgY is the main serum immunoglobulin in chickens. It is transported from the hen to the embryo via the egg yolk. The egg yolk thus contains high concentrations of IgY. Other immunoglobulin (Ig) classes are present only in negligible amounts in the egg yolk. It has been shown that the presence of immunoglobulins in eggs is an example of passive immunity. This is because these antibodies originated from the hen and are used to protect the offspring from various infectious diseases after hatch.

Introduction

The original concept of feeding bacterial direct fed microbial (DFM) to livestock was based primarily on potential post–ruminal effects, including improved establishment of beneficial gut microflora (Fuller, 1999). Calves fed Lactobacillus acidophilus have been reported to have reduced incidence of diarrhoea (Beecham et al., 1977) and reduced intestinal coli form count (Bruce et al., 1979). But now it is known that certain bacterial DFM also have beneficial effects in the rumen and one of the important groups of this type of bacteria is propionic acid producing bacteria (Elsden, 1945; Johns, 1951a; Langa, 2010). This group of bacteria includes Propionibacterium spp., Veillonella spp., Megasphaera spp., Selenomonas spp. and Succiniclasticum spp. (Table 1). Propionic acid producing bacteria (PAPB) are secondary bacteria which enhance propionate production by utilizing the end products of primary fibrolytic or starch utilizing bacteria which produce succinic acid and lactic acid (Swenson and Reece, 1996). Inoculation of in vitro fermentation with the lactate utilizing ruminal bacterium Megasphaera elsdenii prevented lactate accumulation and produced propionic acid when a highly fermentable substrate was used (Kung and Hession, 1995). Propionibacteria are also rumen active bacteria which can produce propionic acid by utilizing glucose, lactic acid and succinic acid (Elsden, 1945; Grinstead and Barefoot, 1992; Hugenholtz et al., 2002). Ghorbani et al. (2002) also reported that Propionibacteria convert lactate and glucose to acetate, propionate and CO₂. They also reduce nitrate to nitrite and reduce nitrite load by 40-60% and minimize changes in blood nitrite and met hemoglobin (Rehberger et al., 1993). Succinic acid is an important end–product, but in practice this is converted into propionic acid by other bacteria such as Selenomonas ruminantium (Swenson and Reece, 1996; McDonald et al., 2002; Langa, 2010); such interactions between microorganisms are an important feature of rumen fermentation. Veillonella gazogenes are also active in the rumen and produce propionic acid by fermenting succinic acid (Johns, 1951a). Moreover in low quality forage-based diet Fibrobacter succinogenes are predominant fibrolytic bacteria which digest fibre faster and produce sufficient amounts of succinic acid in the rumen (Cheng et al., 1984; Miron and Ben-Ghedalia., 1992) and synergistic increases in propionate production and fiber digestion was found in co-cultures of Fibrobacter succinogenes and Selenomonas ruminantium (Sawanon et al,2003), and of Ruminococcus flavefaciens and Selenomonas ruminantium (Sawanon et al., 2006). These findings suggest that positive interactions occur between bacteria, mostly via metabolite exchange.

Introduction

Enzymes are globular proteins that act as biological catalysts. They are produced by living cells to bring about specific biochemical reactions. Digestive enzymes catalyze the degradative reactions by which substrates (i.e., feedstuffs) are digested into their chemical components (e.g., simple sugars, amino acids, fatty acids) which in turn, are used for different body functions. Different enzymes are utilized for the complete digestion of complex feed. The enzymes are being used in the feeding industry from last several decades. Various digestive enzymes have been studied for use as feed additives to enhance animal performance They are commonly used to improve the nutritive value of feeds for non-ruminants (especially, poultry and swine). They are not routinely used in adult ruminant diets because the fibrolytic activity within the rumen environment is normally very high, and it is assumed that exogenous enzymes cannot survive proteolysis in the rumen (Kopency et al., 1987). Forages are the main feed component that serve as the major source of energy available to the animal in ruminant production system. However, due to slow or incomplete digestion of fibrous substrates only 10 to 35% of energy intake is available as net energy that significantly limits livestock performance and profits in production systems. To improve the ruminal fibre degradability many strategies have been developed to stimulate the digestion of the fibrous components in ruminant feeds. That includes, use of various feed additives which stimulates fiber digestion, physical and chemical processing of feeds in order to enhance the rate and extent of fiber digestion. However, the use of “natural” product to enhance production efficiency is highly recommended that can potentially play some role in replacing performance benefits vacated by antibiotics and hormones. Enzymes are proteins that are ultimately digested or excreted by the animal, leaving no residues in products, which was a major drawback in the use of antibiotics and hormones.

Introduction

Supplementary feeding is an essential practice in fish farming operation which accounts for over 60% in total input cost. The dependence of candidate species on balanced supplementary feed increases with increase in stocking population in ponds targeting per hectare higher production as the standing crop of cultured species exceeds the natural feeding capacity of ponds. Therefore, feeding of artificial feed balanced in all nutrients such as protein, lipid, carbohydrate, vitamins and minerals containing optimum protein and energy ratio has assumed foremost importance in aquaculture industry. The use of balanced feed however, is directed towards optimum realization of genetic potentials of farmed species for survival, immunity, growth and reproduction (Mohanty, 2009). Consequent to researches done in India and abroad, a strong data base has been developed about the nutritional behavior of great majority of these cultivable fish and shell fish species and several feed formulations have been successfully undertaken. With optimum pond management, feeding of formulated balanced feed, it has been possible to increase aquaculture production as high as 15- 17 t/ha/yr for carps and 8-12 t/ha/yr in semi intensive prawn and shrimp farming in India (Mohanty, 2009).

Plant viruses are ultramicroscopic particles that multiply only within living cells and are potentially pathogenic while composed of nucleic acids surrounded by protein coat.

More than half of the known viruses cause diseases of plants. All plant species are probably susceptible to one or more plant viruses. Symptoms of virus infection may include stunting, yellowing, necrosis, mosaic, mottling, ring spots, or abnormal structures. Economic damage consists of reduced yield and quality.

Viruses neither divide nor produce any kind of specialized reproductive structures such as spores. Instead, they multiply by inducing host cells to form more viruses. Viruses causes disease not by consuming cells or killing them with toxins, but by utilizing cellular substances during multiplication, taking up spaces in cells, and disrupting cellular processes. These in turn upset the cellular metabolism and lead to the development of abnormal substances and conditions injurious to the functions and life of the cells or the organism. The property of transmissibility is an essential criterion for viruses. Plant viruses are transmitted from plant to plant in a number of ways. Mode of transmission includes vegetative propagation, mechanically through sap, seeds, pollen, dodder and by insects.

Introduction

Biotechnology, in the recent years, has created unprecedented opportunities not only for the manipulation of biological systems for the benefit of mankind, but also to understand studies for better understanding of the fundamental life processes. Consequently, it has become the fastest and most rapidly growing technology in the world. As per US National Science Foundation, “Biotechnology is defined as any technique that uses living organisms or parts of organisms to make or modify products, to improve plants, amend animals or to develop microorganisms for specific uses”. Biotechnology offers new strategies that can be used to develop transgenic crop plants with improved growth, yield and quality and tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. By transgenic crop, we mean any plant containing a gene(s) which have been artificially inserted instead of the plant acquiring them through pollination. A plant in which a foreign gene has been transferred through genetic engineering is called transgenic plant and the gene so transferred is called transgenic. The inserted gene sequence known as transgene may come from another unrelated plant or from completely different species. Plants containing transgene are often called genetically modified or GM crops. Transgenic technologies have opened up many exciting possibilities to improve products with added value having application in food, agriculture, animal husbandry, environment, medicine and industry. It also offers uncommon opportunities for improvement in genetic potential of plants and animals by introduction or removal of gene(s) that regulate a specific trait.

Introduction

Within the very small portion of the plant kingdom that includes the world’s crop plants, the legumes are a large group second to the cereals as sources of human food. Legumes belong to the family leguminosae with a group of bacteria, Rhizobium, which is able to utilize atmospheric nitrogen. This symbiosis which occurs in the root hairs may be the key to the success of legumes worldwide distribution. The family leguminosae includes about 18,000 species, characterized by their fruits, which are pods, by their (usually) alternate, pinnate or trifoliate leaves (Cobley and Steele, 1976). The diversity in the family ranges from hardwood trees of the tropical rain forests to the herbs of temperate pastures.

In practical agriculture, resistance represents the ability of a certain variety to produce larger crop of good quality than an ordinary variety at the same level of insect population. During the 19^th Century, the French wine industry survived a major set-back largely due to the use of resistant root stocks imported from America and which still maintain their resistance levels against the beetle pest (Painter, 1951). Another important example of resistant variety is the U-4 variety of cotton possessing high level of resistance to the jassid, Emposasca spp. (Parnell, 1925). The excessive use of pesticide on oilseed crops needs to be minimized owing to several reasons: (i) most of the pesticides are lipophilic and are likely to be carried in the oil (ii) in a few cases like Brassica, leaves and inflorescence are consumed as saag (pot herb), (iii) the oilseed crops provide the raw material for the vanaspati industry, cosmetics, etc., (iv) many of the oilseeds and oils are directly consumed without further processing, and (v) the oil cakes are used as cattle feed. Thus there is an urgent need to exploit the non-pesticidal methods of pest control, among which the use of resistant varieties assumes a great significance. The details of each oilseed crops are given below:

Introduction

Mites and ticks belong to acarology an offshoot of animal science Zoology a common man mites and insects look alike but former can be easily differentiated by absence wings and antennae and presence of four pairs of legs in most farms. Parasitic mites and ticks live on domestic animals, pets and poultry (Baker and Pritchard, 1960; Baker and Tuttle, 1994; Krantz and Walter, 2009). They are responsible for inducing paralysis, host intoxication, irritation carriers of pathogens and other health disorders to them. The severe bites of ticks cause tick toxicosis producing deep wounds, which bleed and are open to secondary infection. Parasitic mites are among the serious pests of the bees the world over. At times they cause mass mortality of brood and put a heavy loss to apiculture industry. Both solitary and social bees that are important pollinators are parasitized by Messostigmatid mites reducing their life span and foraging efficiency. They parasitize silkworm larvae, pupae and adults. By their toxication silkworms die in few hours. Man himself is not free from the attack of mites. Human itch mite, scabies mite and pyroglyphid mites causing allergic asthma are notorious examples of parasitic mites on man. Dancing on the head of a pin’ is definitely impossible for most animals. However, a large number of mites, the smallest Arachnida could do it. The size of these creatures ranges from a fraction of a millimetre, invisible to the naked eye, to about one centimetre in ticks.

Introduction

India possesses rich fish germplasm resources, accounting for about one-tenth of the 20,000 and odd species of fish known in the world. The Ganga network of rivers in the North, the Brahmaputra and the Mahanadi in the East, the Sutlej, the Narmada & the Tapti in the West and, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery in the South are very rich sources, harbouring bulk of the important fish fauna. (Jhingran, 1982).

The major carps of India which are also referred to as Gangetic carps are the most important among the commercial fish species and form the major component of the aquaculture system in the country (Jhingran, 1982). Since the last two to two and a half decades, there was a steady progress in carp farming in India due to the availability of seed of the major carps and the development of different packages of culture technologies (Chaudhuri et al. 1975).

Introdution

In developing countries, traditional methods have special advantages over modern agricultural techniques. The capital and technological skill requirements in the use of traditional technologies are generally low and their adoption often requires little restructure of the traditional societies. By adopting such indigenous knowledge, our ancestors did not face any problem of large scale pest out break or economic crisis unlike the today’s farmers. The present study focused with this central theme of research.

Indigenous Technical Knowledge refers to the unique, traditional, local knowledge existing within and developed around the specific conditions of women and men indigenous to a particular geographic area (Grenier, 1998). Indigenous Knowledge is the accumulated knowledge, skills and technology of the local people. Indigenous Knowledge has two powerful advantages over scientific knowledge like it has little or no cost, and is readily available. Indigenous Knowledge can be defined as the knowledge built up by a group of people through generations of living in close contact with nature over the years; the farmer in India had been using cow dung and cow urine as manure in the fields.

The potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is one of the four most important food crops of the world, the other three being rice, wheat and maize. It is a high yielding and nutritive crop and produces highest dry matter, carbohydrates, edible protein, minerals and vitamin C and B per unit of area and time. In view of the shrinking cultivable land area and increasing population of India, the potato has a high potential to solve the problems of hunger and malnutrition in our country. But, potato is a perishable commodity and its harvest time (February/March) in Indo-Gangetic plains (which account for nearly 87% of the country’s potato production) coincides with steep rise in ambient temperatures. From April onwards, temperatures start shooting up and the produce has either to be consumed within a short period of time or is required to be preserved in the cold stores. Due to inadequate, expensive and unevenly distributed refrigerated storage facilities in the country, there have been frequent gluts in the market causing substantial economic losses to farmers and wastage of precious food. Such gluts occur every 3 to 5 years. The glut years are followed by a reduction in potato area and production leading to high potato prices in alternate years which again encourage farmers to increase potato area in subsequent years resulting again in a glut situation and price crashes. This boom and bust cycle has thus continued for long (Pandey et al., 2009).

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt): Soil-inhabiting bacterium that produces an insecticide effective against larval stages of many species of Lepidoptera, although some strains are effective against various beetle, mosquito, and blackfly larvae.

Backcross: A cross between a hybrid and one of its parents; a cross between a heterozygote and a homozygote (cf. Hybridization, Heterozygous, Homozygous).

Bacterial insecticide: Bacteria pathogenic to insects (e.g., Bt or B. popilliae). Applied using application techniques also used for chemical pesticides.

Bacterium (pl. bacteria): Microscopic, prokaryotic, single-celled organisms having cell walls but lacking membrane-bound organelles. Important in decomposition, nitrogen fixation and other symbiosis, and as pathogens. A significant component of soil food webs.

Bait (B): A pesticide formulation that combines an edible or attractive substance with a small amount of toxic active ingredient (usually about 5%). Baits containing poisonous chemical and food stuffs are primarily offered to pests as food for control of animal pests like mollusks, cutworms, and rodents.

F₁ generation: The first-generation offspring of a particular mating.

F₂ generation: Derived from a mating within the F₁ generation.

Face: The front of the head, below the frontal suture (Fig. 108).

Facet: The hexagonal external surface of an individual compound eye unit of ommatidium.

Facies: In taxonomy, the general aspect, appearance, or habits of a species or group.

M

Mach number: Named after the Austrian physicist Ernst Mach (1838-1916), is the ratio of the actual velocity of the fluid (or an object in still air) to the velocity of sound in the same fluid at the same state.

Machine: 1. A combination of rigid or resistant bodies having definite motions and capable of performing useful work. 2. A device for transforming or transferring energy.

Machine drawing: A mechanical drawing of a machine or machine parts provided with notes and dimensions for workshop information.

Machine drilling: The d rillin g of work under a power-driven machine.

Machine molding: The use of special machines in the preparation of molds for the production of castings.

Machine rating: The amount of power a machine can deliver without overheating.

Machineable: Material capable of being finished by tools or cutters in or on a machine tool.

Machinery: A group of machines; also, the working parts of an engine or machine.

Machining: Performing various cutting or grinding operations on a piece of work.

T bolt: A bolt shaped like the letter “T, the head being a transverse piece, which fits into the recessed under cut T slots, as on a table of a milling machine or planning machine.

T head engine: A cross section of an engine block resembles the letter T. Valves are arranged on both sides of the engine; requiring two camshafts and two camshafts drive gears. An expensive type of construction.

Tachometer: An instrument for measuring the speeds of shafts in revolutions per minute.

Tail pulley: A pulley at the tail of the belt conveyor opposite the normal discharge end; may be drive pulley or an idler pulley.

Tail screw: The screw, which operates the spindle of the tailstock on a lathe.

Taillight: A signal light, required by law to be carried on the rear of every automobile, and lighted when the car is driven at night.

Tailstock: The movable head of a lathe as distinguished from the headstock, which is fixed.

Take up: A tensioning device in a belt conveyor system for taking up slack of loose parts.

Gene Frequency

A population, in the genetic sense, is not just a group of individuals, but a breeding group and the genetics of a population is concerned not only with the genetic constitution of the individuals but also with the transmission of the genes from one generation to the next. In the transmission the genotypes of the parents are broken-down and a newest of genotypes is constituted in the progeny, from the genes transmitted in the gametes. The genes carried by the population thus have continuity from generation to generation, but the genotypes in which they appear do not. The genetic constitution of a population, referring to the genes it carries, is described by the array of gene frequencies, that is, by specification of the alleles present at every locus and the numbers of proportions of the different alleles at each locus. If for example, A1 is an allele at the A locus, then the frequency of A1, is the proportion or percentage of all genes at this locus that are the A1 allele. The frequencies of all the allele at any one locus must add up to unity, or 100 percent. 

Heterosis, hybrid vigor, or outbreeding enhancement, is the improved or increased function of any biological quality in a hybrid offspring. The adjective derived from heterosis is heterotic.Heterosis is the occurrence of a superior offspring from mixing the genetic contributions of its parents. These effects can be due to Mendelian or non-Mendelian inheritance.

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is one of the most important commercial crops of India. The crop is grown on commercial scale in coastal Maharashtra and other states of the country. The main reason for the low productivity is the pest incidence. The insect pests cause crop loss ranging from 30 to 40 per cent in cashew (Satapathy, 1993). Keeping in view, the strategy of increasing production, one of the important aspects is to develop technologies to save the crop from the pest incidences.

Cashew is attacked by around 180 species of insect and non-insect pests in India resulting in substantial yield loss (Sundararaju, 1993b). Godse et al. (2004) reported over 58 species of insects and pests on cashew crop in the Kokan region of Maharashtra region. The infestations of insect pests have been identified as one of the major factor responsible for low productivity. The most important pests that limit production are the cashew stem and borer (CSRB) and the tea mosquito bug (TMB). In addition, leaf and blossom webber, shoot tip caterpillar, and apple and nut borer cause damage. Recently, apple and nut borer and leaf miner are emerging as major pests and they also occasionally becoming serious in some orchards.

Aromatic plants synthesise and preserve a variety of biochemical products, many of which are extractable and useful as chemical feed stocks or as raw materials for various scientific investigations. Many secondary metabolites of plants are commercially important and find use in a number of perfumery, flavouring and pharmaceutical compounds. The characteristic property of the plant is due to a variety of complex chemical compounds and hence aromatic plants are generally referred to as ‘natural bio-chemical factories’ or ‘chemical goldmines’.  Not all these natural chemicals can be synthesised in laboratory. Aromatic plants possess odorous volatile substances, which occur as essential oil, green exudate, balsam and oleoresin in one or more parts, namely, root, wood, stem, foliage, flower and fruit.  The term essential oil is concomitant to fragrance or perfumes because these fragrances are oily in nature and they represent the essence or active constituents of plants. They are called volatile or ethereal oils as they evaporate when exposed to air at ordinary temperatures.