eChapters

Abstract

Plants store structural carbohydrates (SCs) and Non-structural carbohydrates (NSCs) to buffer source–sink interactions at various phases of growth and under diverse environmental conditions. Structural carbohydrates (cellulose, lignin, hemicelluloses) provide structural integrity to the plant and the Nonstructural carbohydrates (sugars and starch) plays important role in growth, respiration, osmotic regulation, defence and helps in maintaining the carbon balance. Abiotic stresses such as drought, heat, salinity, and lodging etc. restrict the growth and development of plant which culminates into lower yield. Hence, the role of Non-structural carbohydrates needs to be elucidated for achieving desired crop improvement interventions to mitigate the harmful effects of climate change and having sturdy crop system. Improving our understanding of whole-plant sink–source dynamics and further optimising them will have far-reaching consequences in the near future.

Abstract

The current photosynthesis of flag leaf is the most crucial source of assimilates that are essential for grain development in wheat. Translocation of these assimilates from the leaf to grain takes place in the form of sucrose. However, environmental cues that influence assimilate balance between the leaf and the developing grain which act as source and sink respectively determine grain yield prospects of wheat. The assimilate translocation system that links source and sink can also play a significant role. Hence, this aspect of assimilate supply has been a focus of research over the past few decades for crop improvement particularly under abiotic stress environment that tend to alter source-sink balance by impairing physiological and developmental processes in plants. Grain growth is mainly triggered when the primary assimilates meet the metabolic needs of the developing grains through the current photosynthesis or through assimilates stored in the form of Non-structural carbohydrates in stem. Hence, the improvement of photosynthetic capacity to synthesize sucrose, its storage remobilization, and utilization becomes imperative under abiotic stresses. Various aspects of Non-structural carbohydrates in wheat stem have been estimated, and efforts have been made to reveal the mechanisms of assimilate partitioning. In this context this chapter discusses strategies to improve grain yield with greater insights into the photosynthetic carbon assimilation, the pathways actively involved in the transport of sucrose from source to sink and their utilization at the sink organ. The information related to assimilate supply to the developing wheat grain under high temperature and drought stress conditions can provide opportunities to translate this knowledge into traits for improvement of climate resilience in wheat.

Abstract

Global consumption of wheat during 2021/2022 marketing year reached to 787.4 million metric tons (https://www.statista.com/aboutus/our-researchcommitment/1239/m-shahbandeh). It shows about 4.4 million metric tons increase from the previous year. With the increase in population a significant increase in wheat production is needed to feed 9.7 billion mouths by 2050. A very limited effort can be directed to increase area under wheat production. Diseases and pests of wheat cause significant reduction (>30%) in production and 11-15% of total post-harvest losses of food grains were reported in India, which equates to about 20 million tonne (Basavaraja et al. 2007) and more than AUD10 million per year (Singh 2010). Thus, saving wheat from diseases can significantly contribute to the 2050 food security goal.

Abstract

Wheat rusts, caused by Puccinia spp., are one of the major constraints for sustained wheat production. Significant progress has been achieved in the management of wheat rusts and understanding of wheat-Puccinia host-pathogen systems. The key research frontiers of wheat rusts research comprised disease epidemiology, the discovery of novel sources of resistance and their transfer into superior cultivars, pathogen surveillance for monitoring the virulence profiles of variants of rust pathogens, and the application of genomic technologies in cereal rust research. This chapter gives an overview of the research and development outcomes achieved to minimize the yield losses caused by wheat rusts during the last 90 years in the Indian subcontinent. Wheat rusts have been mainly controlled via genetic means; however, an integrated approach by combing the fungicides was carefully considered when needed. All efforts of managing wheat rusts in the future must cover the identification and transfer of genetically diverse rust-resistance sources with a reputation of durability into agronomically superior genotypes. The understanding of wheat rusts epidemiology globally and the region-specific virulence pattern of Puccinia spp. should be considered for gene deployment. The next-generation tools such as CRISPR-cas9 and other genome editing approaches are likely to be part of wheat rust management within a few decades.

Abstract

Non-structural carbohydrates are the primary product of photosynthesis in plants. Glucose, fructose, sucrose, and so on are examples of Non-structural carbohydrates (NSC). These are free carbohydrates having a low molecular weight that are involved in the creation of structures. Plants’ principal photosynthetic product, the NSC, is involved in metabolic processes and plays a critical role in plant functional characteristics. In a recent laboratory inter-comparison, NSC concentration measurements had very minor uncertainty due to different extraction and quantification techniques. Different techniques such as High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS), Near Infra-red spectroscopy (NIRS), anion exchange chromatography, chemical approaches such as the Anthorn assay approach, and certain kits are used to detect NSC in plants. This review will cover the methods for measuring NSC in plant tissues and attempting to infer its dynamics, as well as how to apply these tools to go beyond simply monitoring plant carbon connections such as “how much NSC is there and where it is located” to “under what conditions and to what extent is NSC used” to support plant function.

Introduction

Hematology is the study of blood and its constituents. Blood is a specialized fluid connective tissue, which consists of plasma (55-70%) and the formed elements (30-45%) that flow all over the body in the vessels of the cardiovascular system. Plasma comprises water (90-92%), proteins (6-7%), enzymes, hormones, lipids, and organic & inorganic constituents. The three major classes of plasma proteins include albumin, globulin, and fibrinogen. The organic elements include non-protein nitrogen (NPN) compounds (like urea, uric acid, creatine, creatinine, amino acids, glutathione, and xanthine), glucose, neutral fats, phospholipids, cholesterol and others. The inorganic constituents include calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, sodium, chlorine, sulfur, iodine, iron, copper, cobalt, manganese, zinc, selenium, and molybdenum; they contribute about 1 percent of the plasma.

Blood performs various functions by its constituents. The constituents of the blood are highly dynamic, and they inter shift from their reference values very quickly in any adverse condition. This is why; studies of blood cells and complete blood count (CBC) are important for accessing general health, diagnosing various diseases, and providing prognostic information when coupled with a thorough physical examination. The blood examination is performed routinely to diagnose hematological diseases, including certain hereditary diseases of the blood, and to determine the body’s ability to respond to a hematological insult. The key parameters evaluated in the hemogram are ESR, PCV, Hb, TEC, MCV, MCHC, TLC, and DLC.

Introduction

The cardiovascular system is comprised of the heart and blood vessels (arteries, capillaries, and veins). The heart pumps blood to blood vessels which allow blood to flow throughout the body. Both heart and blood vessels are work together to keep the blood circulating, ensuring the interchange of O₂, CO₂, electrolytes, and nutrients between the blood and the tissue fluids & cells, and removing waste products from the body via the excretory system.

The purpose of the study of the cardiovascular system is aimed at understand the pathophysiology of the heart and vascular system. A physical examination, arterial blood pressure, and electrocardiography are routinely employed to examine the cardiovascular system. The physical examination of the heart includes palpation, percussion, and auscultation.

Introduction

The digestive system and its auxiliary organs main functions include digestion and the absorption of nutrients required for cell metabolic processes. Digestion is the mechanical and chemical or enzymatic breakdown of large nutritional macromolecules into simpler molecules that cells can absorb. It takes place in the aqueous milieu of the digestive system and is secreted by the salivary glands, stomach and mucosal glands, pancreas, and liver.

Digestive enzymes are secreted almost throughout the digestive tract. Salivary enzymes such as lingual lipase and α-amylase initiate the breakdown of fat and carbohydrates in the mouths of young animals (e.g., calves) and omnivores (e.g., rats, pigs, and humans).The optimum pH for oral digestion is 6.7 (6.2-7.6).

The gastric juice contains pepsinogen, HCI, and intrinsic factors. The pepsinogen enzyme is secreted by the stomach’s chief cell. Pepsinogen is converted to pepsin at acidic pH ranges of 2.0 to 3.5 and initiates the digestion of proteins in the stomach of monogastric animals. Also, the stomach’s parietal cells secrete HCI and intrinsic factors. Cyanocobalamin, is a synthetic form of vitamin B₁₂ requires an intrinsic factor in ruminants to be absorbed. The abomasum of young ruminants secretes proteolytic enzymes such as rennin or chymosin. Rennin acts on milk at a pH of 6.5.

Introduction

The main function of the respiratory system is to exchange O₂ and CO₂ between the atmosphere, blood, and cells, which are necessary for animal survival. The circulatory and respiratory systems work together to provide oxygen to cells while eliminating CO₂. O₂ consumption and CO₂ production are determined by cell metabolic activity.

Respiratory volumes or lung volumes refer to the volumes of gas in the lungs at any given point during the respiratory cycle. These volumes vary according to the animals’ physiological state, ambient factors, and health status. This is why; measurements of lung volumes are helpful in understanding the pathophysiology of the respiratory system.

Introduction

The kidneys play a vital role in maintaining water and electrolyte balance (such as chloride, potassium, calcium, hydrogen, magnesium, and phosphate ions). It also regulates the acid-base balance of the blood, arterial blood pressure, and osmotic pressure of the nd water-soluble waste products, which are removed from the bloodstream by the kidneys and excreted as urine. Normally, the kidneys receive about 22% of the cardiac output. According to Arthur Cushny (1866-1926), there are three steps involved in urine formation in the nephrons: glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion. When the kidneys are injured, their regulatory activities are disrupted, resulting in a change in the quality and quantity of urine. Urine is composed of the following components:

This is the reason why a urine analysis is a common test to evaluate the pathophysiology of the urinary system in general and the kidneys in particular, as well as to aid in the differential diagnosis of certain diseases.

Introduction

Endocrinology is the study of the endocrine system, which includes the glands and their secretions known as hormones. Hormones are essential for animal behaviour, growth and development, metabolism, lactation, reproduction, excretion, and reabsorption of inorganic ions. Therefore, if a certain hormone concentration in blood or another body fluid is detected, it provides the pathophysiology of the representative endocrine gland.

Endocrine glands, the cells or tissues they govern, and the secretory substances (hormones) they produce are investigated using a number of methodologies. They are as follows:

1. Surgical methods (e.g., hypophysectomy, gonadectomy, etc).
2. Chemical ablation or impairment (e.g., alloxan or streptozotocin agents that selectively destroy the insulin-secreting beta-cell, etc).
3. Hormone replacement therapy (e.g., estrogen during menopause to reduce the risk of bone fracture related to osteoporosis, etc).
4. Immunological neutralization of hormone activity (e.g., contraception both male and female, injection of antibodies against NGF resulting in failure of sympathetic nervous system development, etc).
5. Tissue extraction and purification (e.g., progestin is a synthetic hormone that mimics progesterone, etc.).
6. Histological-cytological studies (e.g., employment of a battery of histological stains to characterize each pituitary cell, etc).
7. Bioassays (e.g., oxytocin-induced contraction of rat uterine myometrial tissue strips, etc).

Introduction

Reproduction is the biological process that results in the formation of new progeny or individual organisms. Male and female gametes unite to form a zygote, which develops or produces offspring.

Introduction

Growth is the irreversible gain in body weight, size, length, and circumference. It is accomplished by two fundamental processes: hypertrophy (increase in tissue, cell volume and progressive accumulation of intercellular substances) and hyperplasia (growth as a result of cellular multiplication by mitotic division). Animal growth is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors.

Animal body growth and weight gain play a critical role in reproductive performance. It also acts as one of the traits to evaluate the breeding value, optimize management & feeding practices, and prepare the correct dose of therapeutic pharmaceuticals to treat animal diseases. As a result, measurement of body growth is essential for the selection of superior germplasm, feeding & housing management, health care management, and optimizing other environmental conditions that have an impact on animal growth for an economically viable animal industry.

Introduction

Climate change induces significant and long-lasting shifts in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to million years. It is believed to be the cause of long-term temperature changes, changes in rainfall patterns and volume, prolonged summer seasons, increasing sea levels, and increased frequency and intensity of floods, droughts, and heat waves, etc.

Animals are intimately and inseparately associated with their physiological and chemical environments from conception until death. As a result, climate change has an impact on animals both directly and indirectly. Since, animals have had to alter their behavioural and physiological mechanisms in order to maintain homeostasis.

Climate change has emerged as a serious threat to the livestock industry. It reduces animal productivity by lowering growth, milk yield, meat production, egg production, wool production, reproductive performance, and health. About 20 to 30 percent of plant and animal species would likely be at risk of extinction with an increase of 1.5 to 2.5°C, which will result in severe consequences for food and nutritional security in developing countries. This is why; measurements of meteorological variables are needed for effective scientific management of livestock and poultry to cope with the negative impacts of climate change while enhancing growth and productivity.

Introduction

Animal behaviour is the study of how animals interact with one another, other living things, and their environment. Animals display a variety of behaviours in response to both external stimulus and their own pathophysiological state. Almost all domestic animals express a variety of behavioural responses throughout their lifespan, like feeding, sexual behaviours, etc. But every species responds to the same stimuli in a different way. This is why; the study of animal behaviour helps in efficient breeding, feeding, and reproductive management. It also serves as a reliable indicator of overall health and well-being.

Modern silvicultural tools involve in a paradigm shift from a highly manual to mechanize or digital data recording and tight operational control. Now a days many machines or digital tool are being used in silviculture like pitting machine, tree planter, Laser geo hypsometer, Satellite system etc.

Observation recording: For correct identification of any tropical tree species, it is necessary to observe the type of leaf, leaf arrangement, surface ornamentation of leaf and various types of margins. The type of leaf, margins and leaf arrangement can be seen without help of any lens whereas to observe the ornamentation a hand lens will be require.

Objective: To study the morphological description and field identification characteristics of various temperate tree species.

Observation recording: For correct identification of any temperate tree species, it is necessary to observe the type of bark, type of leaf, leaf arrangement and surface of leaf. For easy understanding of the students some examples are given in table:

Observation recording: Phenological events are typically quantified by observing the date of onset and the duration of particular phenophases, which include both vegetative and reproductive events like leaf shedding, leaf emergence, flowering and fruiting. To record the phenological events students should note down the emergence of leaf, flowering and fruiting at the interval of 15 days by vising the targeted tree species.

Observation recording: Phenological events are typically quantified by observing the date of onset and the duration of particular phenophases, which include both vegetative and reproductive events like leaf shedding, leaf emergence, flowering and fruiting. To record the phenological events students should note down the emergence of leaf, flowering and fruiting at the interval of 15 days by vising the targeted tree species.

Observation recording: To record the response of various tree species to the light, fire, drought, frost and wind, frequent visits of the forest areas which are affected by fire, drought and frost should be conducted. Studies relevant to light requirement in various growth stages of tree and ability to stand against various intensities wind are very lengthy that requires long time periodic studies.

Observation recording: To record the response of various tree species to the light, fire, drought, frost and wind, frequent visits of the forest areas which are affected by fire, drought and frost should be conducted. Studies relevant to light requirement in various growth stages of tree and ability to stand against various intensities wind are very lengthy that requires long time periodic studies.

Observation recording: To record the response of various tree species to produce root sucker, coppicing, pollarding, pruning and browsing of various tropical tree species requires field visits and conducting experiment to observe which species is producing root suckers, coppice etc.

Observation recording: To record the observation on seed germination, Pollination and dispersal needs to conduct frequent field visits in different seasons for recording the various pollination and dispersing agents and conducting experiment on seed germination.

Objective: To study the seed germination, pollination and dispersal type of various temperate tree species.

Observation recording: To record the observation on seed germination, Pollination and dispersal needs to conduct frequent field visits in different seasons for recording the various pollination and dispersing agents and conducting experiment on seed germination.

Observation recording: Today green felling is completely banned. Fuelwood species are managed under clear-felling systems and tree species infected by insects and pests are felled selectively. The students are advised to visit the fuelwood plantations and forests areas where selective felling is going on.

Observation recording: Now a days green felling is completely banned. Fuelwood species are managed under clear-felling systems and tree species infected by insects and pests are felled selectively. The students are advised to visit the fuelwood plantations and forests areas where selective felling is going on.

Observation recording: The students are advised to visit the different forests areas and identify various insects and pests damaging trees in various ways like leaf feeding (defoliator), stem boring (stem borer) damaging seeds (seed borer) etc and various pathogens.

Observation recording: The students are advised to visit the different forests areas and identify various insects and pests damaging trees in various ways like leaf feeding (defoliator), stem boring (stem borer) damaging seeds (seed borer) etc and various pathogens. Collect the specimens from field bring them in laboratory and identify with the help of inhouse specimens in college laboratory or standard literature viz. The Ecology and Control of the Forest Insects of India and the Neighbouring Countries by Beeson CEC, Forest Pathology: Principles and Practice in Forestry by Bakshi, BK.

Observation recording: Students are advised to visit the teak forest or plantation for seed collection then sowing the seeds in nursery and record the various nursery practices and conduct tending operations in teak plantation.

Objective: To study the planting and stand management practices of Kala Shisham (Dalbergia latifolia).

Observation recording: Students are advised to visit the shisham plantation or forest for seed collection then sowing the seeds in nursery and record the various nursery practices and conduct tending operations in shisham plantation.

Observation recording: Students are advised to visit the Sandalwood plantation or forest for seed collection then sowing the seeds in nursery and record the various nursery practices and conduct tending operations in Sandal wood plantation.

Observation recording: Poplar rarely raised by seeds. It is generally raised by stem cuttings. Students are advised to visit the Poplar plantation for collection of stem cuttings then raised in polythene bags and record the various nursery practices and conduct tending operations in Poplar plantation.

Observation recording: Students are advised to visit the Mahogany plantation for collection of seeds/stem cuttings then raised in polythene bags and record the various nursery practices and conduct tending operations in Mahogany plantation.

Observation recording: Students are advised to visit the Khair plantation for collection of stem cuttings then raised in polythene bags and record the various nursery practices and conduct tending operations in Khair plantation.

Observation recording: Students are advised to visit the Safeda plantation for collection of stem cuttings then raised in polythene bags and record the various nursery practices and conduct tending operations in Mahogany plantation.

Observation recording: To know the suitability of the tree species for plantation of various problematic areas, students are advised to visit the various nearby problematic sites or forest and record the naturally growing tree species.

Observation recording Lay the quadrats with the help of rope. Identify all the plant species, and count their number in each quadrat, dbh

Observation recording: Students are advised to visit the nursey and forest plantation to record the various tending operations which are adopted by the forest department or Plantation Company.

Energy is a critical component of the economic infrastructure, as it is the primary input required to support economic growth. Economic development and energy use have a close relationship. The higher a country’s per capita energy usage, the more developed it is and vice versa. Human civilization is dependent on several energy sources.

Introduction to Energy Sources

Consumption of nonrenewable energy sources has caused more environmental harm than any other human activity during the last century. Electricity generated from fossil fuels like coal and crude oil has resulted in excessive levels of hazardous gases in the environment. As a result, several issues exist now, such as ozone depletion and global warming. Vehicle pollution has also been a significant issue.

As a result, alternative energy sources have become increasingly vital and relevant in today’s society. These sources, such as the sun and wind, can never be depleted and are hence referred to as renewable. They produce fewer emissions and are readily available locally. Their application has the potential to significantly reduce chemical, radioactive, and thermal pollution. They stand out as a promising source of infinite clean energy. These are also known as non-conventional energy sources.

Energy in Agricultural Context (FAO)

Agriculture’s fundamental and foremost function is to produce food and other primary products, so contributing to food and nutritional security. Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development (SARD) attempts to promote ecologically non-degrading, technically suitable, commercially successful, and socially acceptable development in the agriculture, fishery and forestry sectors. Achieving food security necessitates policies that promote social, cultural, political, and economic stability. Integrating agriculture’s economic, social, and environmental roles can help to attain these objectives.

Agriculture may provide a variety of non-food commodities and services. This can include its application as a viable, long-term source of energy. According to the FAO, agricultural activities and related land use directly contribute to non-agricultural functions such as social, environmental, economic and cultural products and services. They can have major advantages or disadvantages. Research reveals that, in addition to food security, agriculture contributes significantly to attaining sustainability at the local, national and global levels in rural development, energy and the environment. The efficient operation of the market encourages the identification and strengthening of these many functions, as well as the development of new techniques and technologies. Plant and crop-based resources are utilised as raw materials in a wide range of industrial goods, including wood for paper and board production, starches for adhesives, and vegetable oils for paints and resins.

5.1. Introduction

The energy equivalent can be considered to be an alternate energy unit, precisely related to units such as the joule, calorie, or Btu. In energy talks, many units are employed. They are divided into two categories: (a) basic units and (b) source-based units.

6.1. Calculation of Energy Requirements for Field Operations
The energy needs for a certain field activity can be determined by adding the amounts of human, bullock, mechanical, and/or electric energy consumed.

Operational Costs for Various Power Sources
Manual power

In the case of human labour, the wages of unskilled employment are charged on an hourly or daily basis (as determined by the location).In the case of research farms, the costs for operating a pair of bullocks are determined on the basis of the cost of a pair of bullocks, the salary of an operator, the cost of bullock feed, and any other expenditures (as imposed in a given location). For the farmer’s fields, however, the real hiring expenses are used as the foundation.

7.1. What is Energy Conservation?

In order to protect resources for future use and to lessen environmental degradation, energy conservation refers to actions performed to limit energy use.

.2. What is Energy Efficiency?

The definition of energy efficiency is the use of less energy to carry out a task or achieve a goal. Homes, buildings, and manufacturing facilities that use less energy to manufacture things require less energy to heat, cool, and operate appliances and electronics.

10.1. Acts, Policies and Schemes that Benefit Farmers
10.1.1. PM-KUSUM

As part of its Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs), India agreed to increase the installed capacity of electric power from non-fossil fuel sources to 40% by 2030. The Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha Evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan Scheme aims to ensure energy security for Indian farmers while also upholding this commitment. The PM-KUSUM Scheme was launched in 2019 with 3 components:

Appendix - 1:
Physical Properties of Seed – bed / Puddled Soil

Tillage is the process of getting the soil ready for planting and maintaining it loose and weed-free while the crop is growing.  The main goal and core function of tillage are broken down into three phases:

1. Creating a suitable seedbed,
2.  Eliminating weed competition, and
3.  Enhancing the physical quality of the soil.

1.1 Introduction
Irrigation is the artificial application of water needed to the crop field. It is the process of uniformly wetting the root zone depth. The wetting may be done over the land surface or below of it. The application of water in excess to the requirement or accumulation of water in crop field due to rain or unplanned seepage is not considered as irrigation. However, irrigation is supplemental to rainfall. Irrigation water is considered as single most important input for crop production.