eChapters

Abstract

The analysis of IRS - 1A satellite imagery has indicated the existence of two NE - SW trending sub parallel faults along which the coast is undergoing land subsidence as revealed by the concavity in the shore line, preferential migration of the river systems and the drainage congestion, absence of beach ridges, occurrence of off shore shoal etc. The study has further indicated chains of tectonically induced environmental problems such as ground water logging, coastal zone flooding, storm surges, harbour sedimentation etc.

INTRODUCTION

Coastal zones are always dynamic and active, because of the multivariate morpho tectonic and morpho dynamic processes, viz: tectonic, fluvial, marine and aeolian which act in varying degrees and duration along the coasts. As these geomorphic / morpho dynamic processes act in varying permutations and combinations in different segments of the coasts, the land - ocean interactive phenomenon vary greatly in time and space, which in turn frequently and dynamically alter the coastal environment, and cause fragility to the coastal ecosystems. Further, as the coastal zones act as the junction between the Continents and the oceans, even mild earth movements exhibit exemplified expressions in land - water distribution pattern along the coasts. The green house effect and the much apprehended sea level rise and the disasters like cyclones also contribute in their own way in accelerating such land - water distribution / land - ocean interactive phenomenon.

OBSERVATION

The examination of the IRS - 1A imagery under raw and the digitally enhanced modes vividly display heavy concentration of suspended sediments in certain sectors along the east coast of Tamil Nadu. Such pockets of suspended sediments are seen as long and linear bodies trending parallel to the coast to the strike length of 20 - 30 km and width of 5 - 10 km. Such Phenomenon of suspended sediments concentration are strikingly observed in two sectors. One in between Tuticorin harbour and Vaippar river mouth and the other just at the mouth of Ponnaiyar river along Cuddalore-Pondicherry coast. Both of them are observed along conspicuous (Fig.1& 2) concave coasts.

The resources on the land have started showing sign of faster depletion owing to the population explosion, over exploitation of mineral and water resources and also the improper exploitation and the related wasting of the natural resources. Hence a time has come to search for more and more newer natural resources amongst which the ocean resources gain supreme importance as this treasure is yet to be hunted due to the non - availability of suitable technology for the same.

Such ocean resources mainly include the mineralogical and biological resources. The ocean biological resources, their birth, growth, population and migration greatly depend as chlorophyll content, total dissolved oxygen, total suspended solids, salinity etc. These parameters which constitute the marine environment drastically change in a quick span of time owing to the dynamically changing marine forces.

Abstract

The present study has revealed that the NE-SW and WNW-ESE trending sinistral faults are very active along the Tamil Nadu coast and the same have caused considerable slope modifications along the Coleroon and Karungalar rivers which are well-manifested in the land, water and mudflat distribution pattern. Similarly, the progradation of the land in Vedaranniam nose is due to the rise of Pattukottai-Mannargudi area and the time transgressive modifications of the Vedaranniam backwater indicates the opening up of the N-S trending Pleistocene-Holocene faults.

Abstract

The art of remote sensing has opened up many vistas in the study of river migration as satellite photographs, both in their normal and digitally enhanced modes, vividly show the rivers and their migratory signatures. The rivers migrate for various reasons amongst which tectonic movement is one of the main causes. In the present study an attempt has been made to exhibit the palaeochannel network of the rivers of Western India and integrate them with lineament fabric, so as to understand the Quaternary tectonics of the region. The study has shown that Western India shows considerable signs of Quaternary tectonics.

The great Indian epic ‘Ramayana’ says that ‘Lord Rama’ has tried to cross over the Bay of Bengal so as to reach Sri Lanka from India from three points along the southeastern fringe of the Indian coast. Firstly, he is said to have tried to cross from Vedaranniyam which is mythologically called as ‘Kodiyakkarai’ Secondly from Manamelkudi and finally crossed over to Sri Lanka from Rameswaram Island (Fig.1), as the former two coastal locations were widely separated from Sri Lanka by Bay of Bengal and the Rameswaram Island was nearer to Sri Lanka during that period. But, the recently acquired satellite data shows the huge accretion of sediments and rapid land building activity off Vedaranniyam coast (Fig. 2 and 3). The geomorphic interpretations carried out using IRS 1A imagery and 14^C archaeological dating of such geomorphic features have shown that such ongoing sediment accretion phenomena off vedaranniyam nose might in future connect the Vedaranniyam part of Indian Peninsula with Jaffna Peninsula of Sri Lanka if the sediment accumulation continues unabated. The sediment accretion in this area, therefore, requires detailed studies particularly in the context of the coastal ecosystem (Fig. 1).

Abstract

The Remote Sensing and the followed up field based investigations show that the Tamil Nadu coast, India, is facing series of geoenvironmental problems due to tectonic movements and morphodynamic processes. Such problems pose a challenge to the engineering geologists. The paper discusses such challenging engineering geological problems and plausible remedial measures.

Abstract

The tectonic and the geomorphic features observed along the west coast of the area between Mangalore and Cape Comorin show that the NNW-SSE trending west coast has been carved out by the Western Ghats orogeny and the related NNW-SSE trending release fractures. The sinuosity of the otherwise straight coast line is due to Quaternary cymatogenic arching caused by the thrust related to the northerly movement of the Indian plate. The coast line has further attained peaks, projections and serrations due to the ENE-WSW trending series of Precambrian extension fractures which were reactivated gaining the northeasterly directed forces from the rising Carlsberg ridge. Overall, the west coast is being tectonically evolved even today due to the rise of Carlsberg ridge and the Indian plate movement.

Abstract

There is a consensus amongst the geoscientists that overall there has been progradation along the east and west coasts of peninsular India. However, the present day configuration of the coasts and some of the geomorphologic features such as absence of spit and delta along west coast and absence of major estuaries and petroliferous structures along east coast still remain controversial. The present study, based on the appreciation of certain geomorphological and tectonic features on Landsat imagery and aerial photographs of southern part of Indian Peninsula, suggests that the evolution of the coastline has been mainly controlled by tectonism.

The tapering nature of the coastline is attributed to the Precambrian orographic axis. The serrated nature of the post Precambrian coast line is due to the Precambrian transverse faults, whereas the serrated margin of the post Gondwana, Post cretaceous and post Tertiary coast lines are attributed once again to the Precambrian faults reactivated time and again. During the Quaternary period the coast line has undergone many modifications. The coast line attained sinuosity due to Pleistocene folding which is well manifested by river migration. The coast line was subsequently faulted and shifted with en echelon pattern due to N-S regional compression which is referable to the collision of Indian Plate with Tibetan plate.

Amaranth is an annual herb with erect growth and scarce to profuse branching habit. Flowers are borne terminally and in axils of leaves in clusters. Basic unit of inflorescence is called as glomerule. Flowers are small, unisexual and monoecious. Proportion of male and female flowers varies in an inflorescence. Each glomerule consists of a staminate flower and a number of pistillate flowers. The extent of cross pollination is governed by proportion of male and female flowers in an inflorescence and position of inflorescence in plant

Onion is one of the oldest cultivated plant species. Onion forms the bulb in the first year and the seed in the second year. The leaves arise from a shortened crown stem. The sheaths of the older or outermost leaves enclose the younger ones. The basal portion of the leaves encircles the stem, and thickens to form the bulb. The stem elongates during the second year forming the flower stalk. The onion has a fibrous root system extending to a depth of over one meter, but most of them are found in upper surface about one-half meter area.

Remote sensing has proved its credibility beyond doubt in natural resources survey and environmental monitoring owing to its synoptivity, multispectral photographic capability and repetitive coverage. While its synoptivity gives unbiased information on the regional panorama of the earth surface, its multispectral possibility aids precise interpretation of various objects, as different terrestrial objects exhibit various spectral responses in different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum. Amongst various terrestrial objects, water has a characteristic spectral response of its own, i.e. it permits the blue / red part of EMR (electromagnetic radiation, 0.4-0.8 µm) to penetrate inside. On the contrary, it totally absorbs the infrared part of EMR (0.8-1.5 µm). As such blue/red part of EMR penetrates the water bodies, the impurities and suspended sediments are seen very clearly in various shades of gray as and when the water bodies are shallow. Many workers, therefore, have used blue / red band of the satellite data in such water-quality studies^l-3. Hardy⁴ has observed that the infrared light in the spectral regions of 0.6-1.4 µm has the potential to map the turbidity in the ocean water, whereas Kritakos et al ⁵ have used the rationed data of visible and near infrared bands (0.4-1.1 µm) and obtained better results for water quality monitoring. Keeping such facts in mind, the blue/red band (band 2) of the IRS 1A satellite data was used to configurate the bathymetry along Madras coast in Bay of Bengal (Figure 1 a).

In the present study, the IRS lA band 2 data (0.52-0.59 µm) of March 1991 was used and subjected to edge enhancement studies for the coastal zone of Madras (Figure 1 a). Such edge enhancement normally sharpens the edges of two contrasting objects or sharpens the edges of objects of contrasting relief. In such edge enhanced data, few

Pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima Duch.) is a well known and widely cultivated vegetable variety of the family Cucurbitaceae. The seed production can be done in summer season (February - March) and in rainy season (April - May). In Tamil Nadu, sowing during July – August is best for seed production.

Botany: Bottle gourds belonging to the family cucurbitaceae is an annual vine having white flowers and smooth, large, hard-shelled gourds. Brownish seeds are numerous in a whitish green pulp. Each seed is somewhat rectangular in shape with grooved notches near the attached end. Grown most often in warmer climates, this squash grows from 6 to 36 inches long and 3 to 12 inches in diameter.

Seeds leaves, flowers and young stems are all edible. Helpful in shedding extra calories. It contains higher concentrations of Dietary Fiber, Vitamin A, Vitamin C, Vitamin K, Vitamin B6, Folate, Potassium, Manganese, Protein, Vitamin E, Thiamin, Riboflavin, Pantothenic Acid, Calcium, Iron, Magnesium, Phosphorus and Selenium. A rich source of minerals and vitamins, bottle gourds contains many healing and medicinal properties. The cooked vegetable is not only easy to digest but also contains cooling, calming (or sedative), diuretic properties. It contains low calories also has iron, Vitamin C and B complex. Regular consumption of this vegetable provides relief to people suffering with digestive problems, diabetics and convalescents.

Botany:Snake gourd belonging to the family Cucurbitaceae native to Southeastern Asia and Australia but cultivated throughout the world for its curved and oddly shaped fruits that appear like snakes hanging on the supports or ground. This subtropical plant grows very fast in warm climates and produces lots of fruits for a long time. It is suitable for growing for home garden and fresh market.

Climate and soil: Snake gourd is adapted to wide variety of soil and climatic conditions. It requires a minimum temperature of 18^oC during early growth, but optimal temperatures are in the range of 24–27^oC. Snake gourd tolerates a wide range of soil but prefers a well drained sandy loam soil that is rich in organic matter. The optimum soil pH is 6.0–6.7, but plants tolerate alkaline soils up to pH

Varieties: CO1,CO2, PKM 1, PLR 1 and PLR 2.

Ribbed gourd (Luffa acutangula (L) Roxb.) belonging to the family Cucurbitaceae is a well known vegetable variety in India. The seed production can be done in both summer and rainy season.
Method of seed production

Bitter gourd is a cross-pollinated crop which occurs through bees. Seeds should be allowed to set by open-pollination in isolation. The isolation distance maintained between the fields of other varieties and the fields of the same variety not conforming to the varietal purity requirements for certification is 1000 metres for foundation and 500 metres for certified seed production.

Bitter gourd (Momordica charantia) is a widely grown vegetable variety in India. It is one of the important members of the family Cucurbitaceae. The seed production can be done throughout the year in tropical climate and during spring, summer and rainy season in subtropical climates. In Tamil Nadu September – October is suitable for seed production. In hills seed production can be done during summer season.

Abstract

The East Coast of Tamil Nadu exhibits a spectacular network of deltas formed by the easterly flowing river systems. The study of raw and digitally enhanced Landsat TM and IRS data shows, that these deltas were formed due to multivariate dynamic processes of fluvial, marine and aeolian actions. The wide fan shaped delta observed northwest and north of Madras city spanning out over an area of 700 sq.km is a feature, standing testimony to the PaleoCauvery river systems.

The regional slope and the overall arcuate arrangement of the crescent shaped lakes in the area and the tentacles of paleochannels show, that it is overall a fan shaped delta and its successive growth towards the sea might have been due to the constant progradation of lobes by continuous reworking of preceding lobes. The depressions in between successive concentric lobes have become the lakes. The absence of any beach ridges in such palaeo deltaic regime suggests that, it would be a sub aerial delta only. The overall arcuate shape of the shoreline in between Madras city in the south and Pulicat lake in the north is due to this fan delta. This feature once again symbolises the active river dominated delta. The Palar delta is a ‘cuspate’ one. The Ponnaiyar river has developed a linear delta, along a narrow depression found in between Tertiary uplands. While the avulsion phenomenon indicates the ancient shoreline near Villupuram, the east-west trending micro sandy uplands within the delta suggest, that it is a tide dominated delta.

Abstract

Satellite photographs depict exciting evidence on the migratory melodrama of river systems. A study has been conduced in parts of Tamil Nadu using IRS-IA Satellite pictures, archaeology and Tamil literature, which reveals that from Pleistocene to 2700 years B.P.(Before Present) the river Cauvery flowed in a northeasterly direction from the Stanley reservoir via Chinnar, Palakkodu, Mattur, Tiruppathur (Tiruppattur), Gudiyatham (Gudiyattam), Vellore and Walajapet to meet the sea at Madras. From 2700 to 2300 years B.P., it flowed via Uttangarai and Tirukkovilur to meet the bay of Bengal near Pondicherry, over which the present-day Ponnaiyar is a misfit stream . From 2300 to 1300 year B.P. it has flowed via Erode, Tirukkampuliyur, Alagarai , Tiruchy, Kiranur and Pudukkottai meeting the sea in the region where the present-day Agniar and Ambuliar meet the sea. Subsequently, between 1600 and 1300 years B.P., the Cauvery flowed along the present-day tracts of the Vennar and Vettar, after which it seems to have flowed as the Kodamurutti, Arasalar and PalanCauvery from 1300 to 1000 years B.P. From about 900 years B.P. it flowed via Tirupurampayam (Tirupurambiyam), Achalpuram till around 750 years B.P. and then it is stabilised as the Colleroon (Kollidam). Such periods and phases of river migration as well as their implications in the search for archaeological remains are discussed in this paper.

Much has been talked about the mighty river systems and their migratory histories, since Purana and Vedic times. In Mahabharata the places where the Lord Krishna is said to have played with Gopis in the banks of River Yamuna are now forming flat lands many kilometers away from the present day Yamuna. In the same way, there is a mention in ancient literature about the ‘Indo-Brahm’ river which was originated from the Himalayas and flown through Brahmaputra valley, Indo-Gangetic plains, Rajasthan desert and met the Arabian Sea in Rann of Kutch. Such a mighty river is said to have fragmented into Brahmaputra, Ganges and the Indus rivers due to Tectonic activity in Himalayan regions. Similarly there are many evidences in the Tamil literature. For example in ‘Kalingathuparani’ it is mentioned that the river ‘Palar’ was flowing north of Kanchipuram but the same river is now flowing south of it.

All these facts show that the rivers have the tendency to frequently change their courses. The advent of modern Remote Sensing Technology has opened up new vistas in studying such migratory rhythms of the rivers, as such old and buried rivers exhibit spectacular ribbon like, linear, curvilinear and contorted features with typical darker tone in black and white images and reddish tone in false color composites (FCC) and other color coded images.

Abstract

The art of remote sensing has opened up many vistas in the study of river migration as satellite photographs, both in their normal and digitally enhanced modes, vividly show the rivers and their migratory signatures. The rivers migrate for various reasons amongst which tectonic movement is one of the main causes. In the present study an attempt has been made to exhibit the palaeochannel network of the rivers of Western India and integrate them with lineament fabric, so as to understand the Quaternary tectonics of the region. The study has shown that Western India shows considerable signs of Quaternary tectonics.

Abstract

The anomalies observed in the reverine systems have been demonstrated to be the potential tool in deciphering the tectonically active zones. Such various drainage anomalies viz: radial drainages, anomalous compressed meanders, eyed drainage and the youthful floodplains observed in Annamali – Palani - Varushanad hill ranges of the Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu show that the N-S and NE-SW trending faults are tectonically active in the recent years.

Abstract

It has been established beyond doubt that the drainage architecture and the fluvial histories of river systems give excellent indications not only on the surficial lithology but also on the ongoing morphotectonic processes of the planet earth. Among the various drainage patterns, the ‘eyed drainage’ pattern is considered to be one of the most significant anomalies and such ‘mega eyed’ drainages interpreted from IRS-IA imagery in some of the major river systems in Tamil Nadu, Indian Peninsula, are found to signify ongoing tectonic movements in an otherwise seismically inert shield area.

Abstract

Satellite imagery interpretation has shown the existence of a major Palaeochannel system in the Great Indian desert. These palaeochannels belong to the mythological Sarasvati river, which seems to have flowed southwesterly close to the Aravalli hill ranges and joined the sea in the Great Rann of Kutch. Subsequently it seems to have shifted northwesterly, and more precisely in an anti-clockwise direction and got buried in the desert in Anupgarh plains. While its oldest course is the now misfit Luni river, its final trace is now represented by Ghaggar river. Whereas its overall northwesterly migration is attributed to NE-SW trending cymatogenic arching along the Great Rann of Kutch in the southwest to the Siwalik hills in the northeast, its multivariate palaeodrainage is attributed to block faulting and land subsidence in the Bikaner sector.

Abstract

The recent earth movements and the related seismicities in the Southern part of the Indian Peninsula has been a matter of enigma for a century and more. While one school was strongly holding the opinion that the southern Indian Peninsula is free from recent earth movements as it is a shield area, the other school has narrated the possibilities for the ongoing earth movements. Under these circumstances, the various anomalies observed from satellite data and ground based information on geomorphology, subsurface lithology, geophysics, hydrogeology, geochemistry etc. have suggested a possible Pleistocene / Holocene graben along Pondicherry in the northeast and Cumbum Valley in the southwest in the southern tip of the Indian Peninsula.

Botany: The ash gourd(Benincasa hispida) belonging to the family cucurbitaceae is an annual creeping vine that can either climb structures or be allowed to spread out on the ground. This plant features large green leaves and thick stems covered with coarse hairs. The showy, golden yellow blooms appear early in the summer, and female flowers give way to round or spherical fruits. Young ash gourds are covered with a soft down that disappears with maturity. Fully matured gourds have a white, waxy coating covering the surface.

Field preparation:The field selected for seed production must not have been sown with ashguard in the previous season. This is done to avoid volunteer plants that cause admixture.After proper ploughing, at a spacing of 2.5 x 2 m distance take pits having 45 cm length, width and height. Ten days after that, apply 10 kg FYM and urea 30 g. Super phosphate 72 g and potash 19 g per pit. Then mix the above nutrients with soil and fill the pits and level them.

Soil and climate:Soil with neutral pH must be selected. Loam or clay loam soils are best suited. Higher organic matter will lead to production of vigorous seed.Seed is very sensitive to whether. Hence selecting the right season is necessary. Though ashgourd can grow through out the year, seed crop should be grown such that the seed matures in cool dry climate. This will facilitate proper ripening of fruits and reduce the pest and disease infection. Seasons are selected with this idea in mind. In

The geologists of the Indian subcontinent have all along been of the opinion, that, the southern part of the Indian Peninsula is a stable shield area. But, the recently acquired IRS-1A image of June, 1988 vividly displays spectacular geomorphic anomalies suggesting that this part of the Indian subcontinent is prone to earth movements. In order to unearth more evidences on such earth movements / neotectonism in Tamil Nadu, the IRS-1A image of Coromandel coast of Tamil Nadu was analysed ( Fig. 1).

OBSERVATIONS

• The IRS-1A image conspicuously displays three contrasting morphotectonic domains in the study area marked by the western undissected Tertiary upland (Vallam upland), central highly dissected Tertiary upland (Pattukottai -Mannargudi upland) and the eastern Cauvery delta (Fig 1 and 2). These three domains are separated by two conspicuous N-S trending lineaments (E and F, Fig.1 and 2) namely the Tanjavur - Avadaiyarkovil lineament in the west and Kumbakonam -Muttupet lineament in the east.
• In addition, two more E-W trending lineaments (G and H, Fig.1 and 2) are also observed trifurcating the undissected Vallam upland into three blocks.
• Along these lineaments, especially the Tanjavur -Avadaiyarkovil and Kumbakonam -Muttupet lineaments, the rivers show conspicuous drainage anomalies in the form of drainage deflection, drainage compression etc., wherever they transect the lineaments.

Botanical description :Botanically, cluster bean is known as Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L) Taub. (2n = 2x = 14) belongs to the family Papilionaceae.

Floral biology :Cluster bean is a self-pollinated crop having about 9 percent maximum natural out crossing. The plants are normally fully fertile, a few semi-sterile ones have also been reported.

Isolation distance :Cluster bean is a self-pollinated crop. Isolation distance of 50 metres for foundation and 25 metres for certified seed is essential.

Sowing :Cluster bean can be sown twice in a year, February - March in Northern plains and December - January in Southern plains.

Seed rate : In order to sow one hectare area about 30-40 kg seed of cluster bean is required.

Nutrition : The yield of cluster bean has been maximum when the crop was applied with 40 kg nitrogen and 60 kg phosphorus per hectare. The application of micronutrient to cluster bean crop proves very beneficial. Two sprays of molybdenum at 0.15 percent at 15 and 30 days after seedlings emergence give better yield.

Abstract

The southern part of the Indian Peninsula has long been regarded as a stable area free from Pleistocene tectonics as it represents the Precambrian shield region. But the frequent earth tremors even up to a magnitude of 6.5 (Richter scale) which occurred in Tamil Nadu have started encouraging the geologists to think that it could possibly be a seismic prone zone. In addition, images acquired by the polar orbiting satellites offered valuable information on the fracture systems and fluvial anomalies suggesting possible Pleistocene tectonism in South India. Hence, a study has been undertaken to evaluate the signatures of Pleistocene tectonism in South India using IRS-lA, LISS-1 FCC imagery (Indian Remote Sensing Satellite lA, Linear Imaging Self Scanning 1, False Colour Composite) involving band 2, 3 and 4 under blue, green and red bands respectively.

The study has brought out a series of E-W trending cymatogenic arches and N-S trending extension, NE-SW trending sinistral, NW-SE trending dextral and E-W trending release fractures with characteristic signatures supporting Pleistocene tectonism in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

On the basis of such morphotectonic features, a Pleistocene tectonic model has been presented with a N-S trending greatest principal stress and an E-W oriented least principal stress related to the movement of the Indian plate towards the Tibetan plate. Based on the model developed for Tamil Nadu and Kerala, a series of E-W trending cymatogenic arches and deeps have been proposed for Cochin- Rameswaram in the south to the Himalayas in the north. Further studies for seismotectonics, geothermal resources and hydrocarbon search have also been suggested along such arches and deeps.

Abstract

The tectonics of the geological past from Archaeozoic to early part of Cenozoic era has been studied due to their penetrative documentation in the form of folds and faults. But the tectonic history of the latter part of the Cenozoic era (i.e Pleistocene period) has remained a matter of conjecture owing to the poor response of the rocks to Pleistocene movements. In the present study the authors presented a model for the Pleistocene earth movements of South India through the study of river migration, coast line changes and lineament fabric derived from the space borne photographs.

In the area of study, the northerly migration of Paleru and Pennar and southerly shift of Palar, Ponnaiyar and Cauvery rivers, marine regressions restricted within this segment and the closely spaced crest line fractures suggest a lineament controlled E-W trending Quaternary upwarping along Mangalore-Madras alignment. Similar E-W cymatogeny is inferred in the southern tip of the Peninsular India on the basis of once again such observations. Such E-W trending Pleistocene arching phenomenon suggests a N-S oriented regional compression which could be related to the collision of Indian plate with Tibetan plate.

Lablab purpureus usually knowna s Dolichus bean, Hyacinth bean or Field bean belonging to the family fabaceae, one of the most ancient crops among cultivated plants. It is a bushy, semi-erect, perennial herb, showing no tendency to climb. It is mainly cultivated either as a pure crop or mixed with finger millet, groundnut, castor, corn, bajra or sorghum in Asia and Africa. It is a multipurpose crop grown for pulse, vegetable and forage. The crop is grown for its green pods, while dry seeds are used in various vegetable food preparations.

Season:Seed is very sensitive to weather. A grain crop can be sold for a lower price even if it damaged by rain. But a seed crop, if affected will lead to low seed quality. Hence selecting the right season is necessary. Generally, the seed should mature in cool dry climate. Seasons should be selected with this idea in mind. In Tamil Nadu the best seed crops are grown during March--April and September - October as the seeds mature during the cool months of January - February.

Botanical description

Cowpea belong to genus Vigna and species unguiculata (L) Walp (Syn V. sinensis Savi) of the family Leguminosae sub family Fabacae.

Floral biology

The flowers of cowpea are hermaphrodite. Self-pollination is effected though with some cross-pollination.

Climate and Soil

Cowpea is a warm season crop, and therefore it can be grown both in spring and in rainy seasons in the plains of India. It cannot tolerate cold weather, heavy rainfall and water logging.

Bhendi is known by many local names in different parts of the World. For example it is called Lady’s finger in England, Gumbo in USA, bhendi in India Okra (Abelmochus esculentus L. 2n= 1 30) belongs to the family Malvaceae. Origin of okra is West Africa. Okra plant is an erect, herbaceous annual, 1-2 meter tall and forms fairly heavy tap root.

Chilli or Pepper (Capsicum Sps.) originated in South America and spread into the New World tropics before subsequent introduction to Asia and Africa. Chillies are now widely grown throughout the tropics, sub-tropics and warmer temperature region of the world. The genus Capsicum is a member of the family Solanaceae.

The brinjal, eggplant or aubergine (French name) has originated in the Indian sub-continent and China (Thomson and Kelly, 1957, Purewall, 1957 and Martin and Rhodes, 1979). Brinjal is an important vegetable crop of the Far East, Bangladesh, India, China and the Philippines. Brinjal belongs to the family Solanaceae and is known under the botanical name Solanum melongena L. (2n = 24). There are 3 main botanical varieties under the species melongena(Chowdhury, 1976). The round or egg-shaped cultivars are grouped under var. esculenturn, the long slender types are included under var. serpentintumand the dwarf brinjal plants are put under var. depressum.

Tomato is one of the most popular and widely grown nutritious vegetable in the world. Tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum Linnacus Karst.) belonging to the family Solanaceae is one of the most nutritious and remunerative vegetable crop. It is the world’s important vegetable next to potato. The crop is cultivated throughout the year. In Northern plains, the crop is cultivated during autumn, spring and summer. In South India, the crop is grown in June – July, October – November and January – February. The optimum season for seed production in southern India is October – December. Nursery raised in late October and transplanted in the first week of December will produce a good seed crop.

16.1 Introduction

It is well known fact that planners as well as end user’s have to consider any resources as technology from economic point of view. Therefore, it is important to have techno – economic analysis of each energy source option. In the feasibility study of particular energy option, three tier judgement approaches is required, which include technical feasibility, economical viability and social acceptability. Hence in the rural energy planning programme one has to considered techno socio economic analysis of an individual energy option. Since in integrated rural energy planning, locally available energy resources are used, presuming that it is socially recognized. Hence in the IRPE project, the need and scope of techno economic analysis in terms of economic analysis of different technical feasible options, before between “economic” and “financial” analysis should be kept in mind. An economic analysis is needed to verify that a particular energy source will provide “net benefit” to society as a whole, before its final integration in the energy context, while a financial analysis integrated in the energy practices. In simple wards, a financial analysis is concerned with goods and services, money inflow and outflows and the transfer of payments. An economic analysis also considers the social benefits and costs of goods and services which are not traded in a market.

15.1 Fuel Cell

Fuel cell is a electrochemical device that convert chemical energy of a reaction directly into electrical energy. The basic physical structure of a fuel cell consists of an electrolyte layer in contact with a porous anode and cathode on either side. A schematic representation of a fuel cell with the reactant or product gases and the ion conduction flow directions through the cell is shown in Fig. 15.1

14.1 Introduction

Indoor air pollution causes significant health problems for the two billion people worldwide who rely on biomass fuels for their cooking and heating needs. Over the last 30 years awareness of the environmental and social costs of using traditional fuels and stoves has grown. At the same time, studies of the problem have resulted in proven strategies to reduce both fuel use and harmful emissions. Unfortunately, the local stoves currently available do not always represent the best designs that modern engineering can offer. Although open fires are often used wastefully, carefully operated open fires can be fuel efficient and clean burning when tested in the lab. In many situations, cooks are not overly concerned with fuel use, and studies have shown that when fuel is plentiful three-stone fires can use an excessive amount of wood to cook a small amount of food. But in other places where fuel is scarce, open fires can be carefully controlled so that fuel efficiency rivals many first generation improved cook stoves.

Modern cook stoves are designed to clean up combustion first. Then the hot gases can be forced to contact the pot and increasing efficiency without increasing harmful emissions. Fires can be clean burning when expert cooks push the sticks of wood into the fire as they burn, metering the fuel. The open fire can be a hot fire useful when food or drink needs to be prepared quickly. The energy goes into the pot, not into the cold body of a stove. The open fire can burn wood without making a lot of smoke; hot fires burn smoke as it is released from the wood (Fig.14.1). Unfortunately however, many fires used for cooking are built emphasizing simplicity of use and are wasteful and polluting. Modern stoves score higher when tested than even the most carefully operated fire in the laboratory.

13.1 Introduction

Winds are the motion of air around the earth. This movement in air is caused by the uneven heating of the planet’s surface by the sun. The idea of using wind as a form of power is not new. The traditional applications of wind were primarily as sources of kinetic energy for rural, agricultural and a limited number of industrial uses such as pumping water and grinding grain.

Presently wind energy can be used for two major applications, such as wind mills for pumping water for drinking as well as for irrigation purposes and second application is as aero-generator for electricity generation for domestic and industrial uses. In addition to this, presently wind energy battery charger are also available, which can store energy for lights, radio communication, hospital equipment and to power various emergency related equipment.

The wind energy has an enormous resource, but the problems of utilizing the winds are many and varied. Wind energy is very diffuse in nature and local topographical features significantly alter the prevailing winds thus leading to the extremely site specific nature of wind energy.

Scientirsts have estimated that as much as 10 per cent of >the world’s electricity could be provided by wind generators by the middle of 21 century. India has estimated wind power potential of 45,000 MW. India now, ranks fourth in the world in wind power generation.

The world’s largest wind farms are in California, where wind turbines can generate power upto about 1120 MW. The first wind mill used as source of electric power was built in Denmark in 1890. Presently in India about 2382 MW of electricity is being produced through wind energy.

12.1 Introduction

Nature has a provision for destroying and disposing off wastes and dead plants and animals. This decay or decomposition is carried out by tiny micro-organisms called bacteria. Making of farm-yard manure (FYM) and compost is also through decomposition of organic matter (OM). When a heap of vegetable or animal waste and weeds etc., die or decompose at the bottom of backwater or shallow lagoons, bubbles can be noticed rising to the surface of water. Sometimes these bubbles burn with dancing flame at dusk. This phenomenon has puzzled man for a long time. It was only during the past hundred years that Scientists unlocked this secret as the decomposition process. The gas thus produced was and is still called “Marsh Gas.” The technology of harnessing this gas under artificially created conditions is known as Biogas Technology.

11.1 Biodiesel Chemistry

Biodiesel is a mixture of methyl esters of long chain fatty acids like lauric, palmitic, stearic, oleic and so on. It is produced by the transesterification of animal fats and vegetable oils – all of which belong to a group of organic esters called triglycerides. Typical examples are rape/canola oil, soyabean oil, sunflower oil, palm oil and its derivatives, etc. from vegetable sources, beef and sheep tallow and poultry oil from animal sources and also from used cooking oil. The chemistry is basically the same irrespective of the feedstock. The chemistry of biodiesel is given in Fig. 11.1.

10.1 General

The term “biomass” generally refers to renewable organic matter generated by plants through photosynthesis. Materials having organic combustible matter is also referred under biomass.

Biomass is an important fuel source in our overall energy scenario. Biomass is produced through chemical storage of solar energy in plants and other organic matter as a result of photosynthesis. During this process conversion of solar energy in sugar and starch, which are energy rich compounds takes place. The chemical reaction of photosynthesis can be written as:

9.1 Introduction

Solar energy can be directly converted into electrical energy through photovoltaic route. Energy conversion devices which are used to convert sun light into electricity by use of the photovoltaic effect are called solar cells. The advantages of solar cells are:

1. They are reliable, convenient and durable.
2. It is green, sustainable and pollution free technology.
3. Directly solar radiation can be converted into electricity (conversion of global solar light by flat plate photovoltaic).
4. Maintenance cost is quite low therefore suitable even in isolated and remote area, since no moving parts are involved.
5. Solar cells are quite compatible with almost all environments, respond instantaneously with solar radiation.
6. Considerable expected lifetime i.e. 20 years or even more.
7. No distribution system is required, because they are decentralized source of energy and located at the place of use.

8.1 Introduction

The concept of social justice led to a raise the standard of living of the masses. This is only possible by meeting the energy needs of industry, agriculture, transport and domestic use. The energy of demand has been increasing tremendously all over the world science mid – nineteenth century due to rise in industrial and agricultural activities and was being met to a great extent by fossil fuels.

Three factors led the mankind to look for alternative renewable sources of energy like solar, wind, hydro etc. (1) there is a danger that the rate at which the non renewable sources of energies are being consumed presently may lead to a global shortage in the near future. This has already happen in case of oil. (2) Use of fossil fuel involves emission of toxic gases polluting the environment causing health hazards of living being. and (3) the demand and supply gas of energy is continuously widening, thus necessitating to exploit renewable sources of energy.

Out of various renewable energy sources, solar energy has been a promising one and lot of development has been taken in its technology for various uses. The numbers of technology engaged in developing solar energy for meaningful use are aiming to achieve the following objectives-

7.1 Introduction

Energy has become a critical input for the economic development of the India because of the wide spread scarcity of oil and electricity and other commercial form of energy.

The rural areas are often the worst affected because of these shortages and the rural population continues to depend on the inefficient non-commercial energy from like fire wood, cow dung, human and animal for meeting their energy requirement for subsistence, production and devolvement needs.

The rural energy crises or “The energy crisis” has been getting increased attention from the policy makers to tackle the problem in a planned and integrated manner.

The rural energy sector is concerned with two major planning issues.

1. Provision of energy for meeting substance needs for cooking, heating and lighting of the rural areas of the country. This problem is also directly linked to the problem of deforestation and environmental destruction being caused in the rural area because of indiscriminate and wide spread use of non conventional energy sources.
2. Meeting energy requirements for production activities which would create employment and productivity in rural areas.

6.1 Introduction

Energy planning is possible only with knowledge of past and present energy consumption and future energy demand. There are number of factor which affects the energy consumption pattern significantly. These include energy prices, availability, reliability of supply, uniformity of quality, convenience in use, technical and economic characteristics of energy using equipment & appliances, population growth, income rate of urbanization, educational status, social acceptance, social habit, present knowledge of beneficiary etc.

The energy planning differ in planning sectral wise and planning sources wise. For sector planning purposes, estimates are needed of the short and long run price elasticity for every specific energy resource. Where as in planning sources wise, one must consider its long term availability & its costs.

In general, to cope up future risk and uncertainty, we need to predict the future event. The likely future event has to be given from and content in terms of projected course of variables i.e. the forecasting. Projection is of two types – forward & backward. It is the forward projection of data variable, which is named as forecasting.

These three requirements are required to be followed in sequence for getting maximum benefits. However, integrated rural energy concept is a new area of work and not much experience is available in this field as compared to other rural development activities. It is difficult to give any guidelines for planning. One can only recommend approaches and not solutions to planning.

The rural area in developing countries are almost always rich in one or another sources of energy, which could be used separately or in combination with other sources in decentralized small scale units, or even on a household scale. Thus, the problem is one of good planning, management and a strong educational and promotions campaign, rather than the non availability of resources or the lack of technology. Further, after planning, prefect development of device and their effective operation is required.

The purpose of the Integrated Rural Energy Planning project should be clearly defined. It may design either for research and development or demonstration for Popularisation of system, education and training, promotion, health or combination of these.

It is usually better to start with a small size to gain experience and build up confidence before undertaking the large scale project. As defined earlier, one of primary requirement of Integrated Rural Energy Planning is to develop energy demand pattern, energy supply system and optimally match demand with supply.

4.1 Introduction

The energy census survey has become the basis for planning & implementation of the village development based on conventional and non conventional sources which are appropriate to the local needs. The continuous and widespread use of non commercial sources of energy in the rural area is resulting in the large scale destruction of the environment. While the rural people get non conventional fuels at almost zero private cost, the social cost for meeting their energy needs has been increasing over the year. Hence the non conventional fuels acquired a special significance in the energy context.

The rural energy problem is multi dimensional & needs to be tackled through a multi dimensional integrated approach which would include augmentation of energy supply resources, technology transfer for optimum & productive use of resources, R & D inputs in particular for developing low cost energy options for the rural poor, education & training for rural users, linkage with various rural development programmes including village & small scale industries programme and adequate institutional & financial support. The multi dimensional approach for making a village self sufficient in energy planning is illustrated in Fig.4.1.