eChapters

INTRODUCTION

Mizoram is a hilly terrain lying in the north eastern part of the country. The total geographical area of the state is 21, 087 sq. km and lies between 92º 15/ to 93º 29/ E longitude and 21º 58/ to 24º 35/ N latitude. Out of six agro climatic zones of the NEH region, Mizoram comes under sub tropical hill zone and posses a sub tropical and humid climate due to high rainfall (Fig. 1). These climatic conditions are very conducive for the cultivation of a large number of agri-horticultural crops. The physiography of the state is divided into hills and valley lands. About 90 % area of the state comes under hills and only 10 % area is under valley. The valley lands are sporadically distributed in small patches except in Champhai district. The slope of the hills in Mizoram is much steep as compared to the other states in the North Eastern region. The land use statistics of the state is presented in Table1.

INTRODUCTION

Edible mushrooms are higher fungi occurring seasonally all over the world in various habitats varying from sandy plains to thick forests. About 2000 fungal species in the world have been identified as edible, of which, only a few (20) are cultivated commercially (Chang and Miles, 1991). These mushrooms are generally considered as the good source of protein, vitamins and minerals in addition to their flavour and condiment value. About 3.

Introduction

In the last two decades global climate change has perceptible and marked impact on the monsoon pattern in India. Delayed and inadequate monsoon has become a recurrent feature and the country is in the grip of drought-flood cycles. Right from the beginning of large scale irrigation that brought green revolution and food self sufficiency to the country, there is a strong feeling that full potential of rivers of the country is not tapped (Table 1).

33. GEOTECTONICS

Introduction

Geotectonics is the branch of geology which deals with the structure and movements of the earth’s crust. It includes the study of large-scale features like mountain chains, mid-oceanic ridge and oceanic trenches. Investigation regarding the form, pattern and genesis of these, and other tectonic units have enabled geo-scientists to ascertain the important characteristics of earth’s crust and reconstructs its evolution and geological history.

33. GEOTECTONICS

Introduction

Geotectonics is the branch of geology which deals with the structure and movements of the earth’s crust. It includes the study of large-scale features like mountain chains, mid-oceanic ridge and oceanic trenches. Investigation regarding the form, pattern and genesis of these, and other tectonic units have enabled geo-scientists to ascertain the important characteristics of earth’s crust and reconstructs its evolution and geological history.

My definition of a ‘Developed India’ is “when the quality of life in our rural areas becomes comparable to that in the non-urban areas of already developed countries”. Another way of looking at development is to look at ‘Measures of Development’. Unlike the three used by United Nations, viz. per-capita Gross National Product, life expectancy at birth and adult literacy, I have been suggesting for a long time that the appropriate measures of development for a developing country are only two – per capita electricity consumption and female literacy. Availability of electricity is essential to provide the basic amenities like pure drinking water and proper health care and to develop rural industries. And also, without near-hundred per cent literacy and without societal equity – evidenced inter-alia through gender non-discrimination – the fruits of science and technology (S&T) will not fully reach rural India.

Technology Foresight to Become a ‘Developed’ Country

Choosing the right technologies to put the nation on the part of rapid development requires technology Foresight. Technology foresight must be distinguished from Technology Forecasting, which attempts to predict future technological developments, without worrying about the impact of these developments on the economy, society or the environment. Technology foresight adds assessments from economic, social, environmental, security and even ethical points of view to technology foresight. One may often get different answers from such analysis depending on whether you are from India or say, from the United States of America, to the need for technologies like, for example, fast breeder reactors or rural food processing.

ABSTRACT

Over the last three decades, SAC has been engaged in the development and dissemination of remote sensing and GIS technologies for national development. These developments have originated from various initiatives related to national projects, sensor related research and in-house research and development on applications. A large multidisciplinary team of scientists develop technologies in various fields of applications like agriculture, coastal zone management, urban planning, forest and environment, etc. In addition, significant efforts are directed towards technology development for generic applications like photogrammetry and applications involving synergistic usage of remote sensing, GIS, GPS and satellite communication. Some specific examples of recent technological developments pertain to simulation modeling of crop yields, horticultural crop management, site selections for aquaculture, location of cold storage plants, large area crop production forecasting, base map creation, telegeoprocessing, mobile satellite services for fleet management, automated procedures for linear infrastructure planning, urban land use allocation planning.

An overview of these technologies and the modalities for their effective utilization by government, industries and users are summarized. Dissemination of these technologies for public bodies and private sector has been taken in the form of promotion of consultancy services in different application areas. Some major areas where these sectors have benefited through consultancies are estimation of cash and other field crops, city development planning, site selection for industry, land use change detection studies for environmental impact assessment, coastal regulation zone compliances and land use scenario, forestry related applications like catchment area treatment, forest fires monitoring, etc. Examples of consultancy services for private sector are included.

Keywords : Technology dissemination, technology development, remote sensing applications.

Agarose gel electrophoresis is the easiest and commonest way of separating, capable of resolving mixtures of DNA fragment that cannot be separated conveniently by other procedures. The purpose of the gel might be to look at the DNA, to quantify it or to isolate a particular band. The DNA is visualised in the gel by addition of ethidium bromide. This binds strongly to DNA by intercalating between the bases and is fluorescent meaning that it absorbs invisible UV light and transmits the energy as visible orange light.

Agarose, which is extracted from seaweed, is a linear polymer whose basic structure is shown in figure.

Principle

Monomeric acrylamide (which is neurotoxic) is polymerised in the presence of free radicals to form polyacrylamide. The free radicles are provided by ammonium persulphate and stabilised by TEMED (N’N’N’N’-tetramethylethylene-diamine). The chains of polyacrylamide are cross-linked by the addition of methylenebisacrylamide to form a gel whose porosity is determined by the length of chains and the degree of crosslinking. The chain length is proportional to the acrylamide concentration: usually between 3.5 and 20%. Cross-linking bisacrylamide is usually added at a ratio of 2g BIS 38g acrylamide.

Principle

The SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) performs:

Separation of proteins according to their molecular weight

Ascertain whether a given protein is actually present in a sample,

Assessment of purity of the preparation

Estimation of the approximate quantity of the protein, and

Measurement of the size of the protein.

Principle

Western blot analysis (also called protein immunoblot) is a useful tool for the detection of proteins in biological samples. It uses gel electrophoresis to separate native or denatured proteins by the length of the polypeptide (denaturing conditions) or by the 3-D structure of the protein (native/ non-denaturing conditions). The proteins are then transferred to a membrane (typically nitrocellulose), where they are probed (detected) using antibodies specific to the target protein.  It is a technique for analyzing and identifying protein antigens: the proteins are separated by electrophoresis in polyacrylamide gel, then transferred (“blotted”) onto a nitrocellulose membrane or treated paper, where they bind in the same pattern as they formed in the gel. The antigen is overlaid first with antibody, then with anti-immunoglobulin or protein A labeled with radioisotope, fluorescent dye, or enzyme. 

The method originated from the laboratory of George Stark at Stanford. The name “Western blot” was given to the technique by W. Neal Burnette and is a play on the name “Southern blot”, a technique for DNA detection developed earlier by Edwin Southern. Detection of RNA is termed northern blotting and the detection of posttranslational modification of protein is termed “Eastern blotting”.

Origin and Distribution of Camel

A camel is an even-toed ungulate within the genus Camelus of the family Camelidae bearing distinctive fatty deposits known as “humps” on its back. There are two species of camel, viz. Camelus dromedarius (single humped dromedary) having habitat in dry hot arid lands of Africa and Asia, and Camelus bacterianus (double humped or bactrian) habitat of cold arid lands of Central palaerctic (a zoogeographical region consisting of Europe, Africa north of the Sahara, and most of Asia north of the Himalayas) region. Family Camelidae also includes other species which are camel like mammals. Those are Lama (Lama glama), Alpaca (Lama pacos), Vicuna (Vicugna vicugna) and Guanaco (Lama guanicoe). These four species are termed as new-world Camelidae having habitat in South America. The Indian camel belongs to Camelus dromedarius. A very small numbers of double-humped camels are also available in Ladakh area of Jammu and Kashmir.

Camel is an important component of desert eco-system. It is capable of traveling long distance in hot, arid and sandy regions carrying men, material and providing energy to agricultural operations. They provide milk, meat, hair and used as work animals. It is believed that Camels were domesticated during the period from 3000 to 2500 BC. Average life expectancy of a camel is 40-50 years. The height at the shoulder and hump of a fully grown adult camel is 1.85 and 2.15 metres, respectively. Camel can run at a speed of up to 65km/h for a short distance and can sustain a speed of up to 40km/h for long distance.

INTRODUCTION

Crossandra is an important traditional flower crop of south India. It is small evergreen shrub that is quite hardy and has the ability to produce beautiful flowers with a remarkable range of colours almost all the year. This has made it extremely popular in southern states of India where the flowers are widely used in temple offering and for making gajras and venis to use as hair adornments.

Owing to their attractive colours, light weight and good keeping quality, crossandra flowers are ideal for garland making. Even though the flowers lack fragrance, they are widely used in garlands either alone or along with jasmine to produce charming colour contrasts. Steady market demand and assured and regular income have made crossandra a profitable venture for south Indian farmers.

INTRODUCTION

Freesias are extremely popular bulbous plants that are best known as florist flowers. They bear bell-shaped tubular flower and are grown commercially on a vast scale. They are grown both for flower trade as well as in house gardens. Freesias are suitable for pots, shallow pans, beds, indoor decoration and window boxes. Freesia flowers are prized for their curious elegant form, peculiar arrangement of the blossoms on their stalks and a vast range of delicate colours ranging from creamy white to yellow, orange, red, purple, brown, lavender and vermillion. They are highly valued cut flowers.

Freesia flowers are so strongly scented that only a few potted or cut blossoms can bring fragrance to an entire room. Its unusual appealing shapes make them suitable line flowers for any arrangement. They also make fragrant additions to bouquets and their wide range of colours increases their versatility for design uses.

INTRODUCTION

Lotus is the foremost symbol of beauty, prosperity and fertility. According to Hinduism, within each human inhabiting the earth is spirit of sacred lotus. It represents eternity, purity and divinity and is widely used as a symbol of life, fertility, ever-renewing youth and to describe feminine beauty especially the eyes. Egyptians considered it a symbol of rebirth, since it closes in the evening and falls to the water, then reopening again in the morning, thus emulating the behavior of the sun. All lotuses are day-bloomers that open early in morning and close by mid afternoon for three successive days, with first flower closing earlier. It possesses an amazing ability to flourish in a variety of environment ranging from clear ponds to muddy marshes. The exquisite flowers with long herbaceous stalk arise from the rhizomatous stems and a flat and peculiar seedcase at its center.

Lotus, the national flower of India, has been a part of Indian culture, religion and history from ancient times. It is considered sacred not only by the Hindus of India but also by the Buddhists of China and Japan. To early Egyptians, a lotus bud or Sesen was a symbol of rebirth. Lotus is offered to Goddess Lakshmi and is considered as her symbol. Besides, lotus has found place in one of the postage stamps in India. Every year some prestigious awards are given to the distinguished personalities of the country like Padmashree, Padmabhushan, Padmavibhushan and Swarna Kamal (Golden Lotus).

Biotechnology can be defined as utilization of materials and methods for benefit of mankind by the utilization of microorganisms and biological agents. It is an area with a tremendous potential in solving basic problems of food, fibre, fuel and medicines in developing countries. According to the office of the Technology Assessment of the US Congress, biotechnology can be defined as any technique that uses living organisms to make or modify a product, to improve plants or animals or to develop micro organisms for specific uses. Flower industry has always increasing demand for new forms, colours and types of flowers. Biotechnology has made significant advances in the improvement of ornamental crops and development of new varieties has great potential to be utilized in future. Utilization of this technology can be done in floriculture under two broad subheads viz., tissue culture and genetic engineering.

TISSUE CULTURE

The major commercial utilization of tissue culture has been micropropagation, which is an alternative to vegetative propagation. Micropropagation permits true to type multiplication of a desired genotype using in vitro culture techniques. Micropropagation process can produce a large number of propagules in a relatively short time and space under controlled conditions. It has already revolutionized production process of several nurseries. The dream of multiplying disease free plants in required quantity on the specified time schedule in an industrial way has become true due to micropropagation. Some of the important floricultural crops that are successfully propagated in vitro in Indian laboratories are given below with their explant source:

Carnation: Leaf segments, internodes, petals

Gerbera: Leaf, petiole, flower stalk segments

Gladiolus: Inflorescence stalk, leaf sections

Orchids: Epidermal peelings, leaf segments, root tips

Rose: Internodal segments, petals, leaf segments, immature embryos, root segments

Flowers symbolize beauty, purity, peace and love. These are intricately associated with social beliefs and no social function is complete without the use of flowers; especially in a country like India, where it is a popular saying that flowers are associated with man from birth till death. Floriculture can be defined as a specialized branch of horticulture which deals not only with the cultivation of flowers, foliage, climbers, trees, shrubs, cacti, succulents, etc., but also with their marketing and production of value-added products from them.

Floriculture is increasingly regarded as a viable diversification from the traditional field crops due to higher returns per unit area and increasing habit of “saying it with flowers”. Flowers play a cardinal role in human behaviour and culture, bringing tranquility and peace of mind. From a symbol of love, flowers have transformed into an industry, generating both income as well as employment. India is blessed with a diversity of agroclimatic conditions prevailing in different regions of the country ensuring production of almost all the ornamental crops through out the year. Floriculture in India is a dynamic and expanding industry recording impressive annual growth rate.

The floriculture industry comprises of:

1. The florist trade traditional and contemporary cut flowers and cut foliage, both fresh and dried and value-added products like bouquets, floral baskets, flower arrangements and garlands.
2. The plant nursery for propagation and supply of plant material including tissue culture plants, seeds, bulbs, corms and other propagated material.
3. Plant rental service for supply of house plants on annual rent for a specific period.
4. Flower perfume and gulkand.

As a result of political changes in India, many entrepreneurs are changing to floricultural activities, which have become a high priority for the Indian government. Due to availability of sufficient winter and summer sunshine, high temperature, good soil fertility, good water quality, different climatic zones for different type of products and low labour and investment costs, India has great potential for floriculture. In the flower industry, significant changes are occurring in the competitive relationships worldwide. European integration, democratization in eastern Europe and the liberalization of world trade in the context of the GATT negotiations will have consequences on international trade. A number of traditional markets are displaying signs of saturation while, on the other hand, new countries are trying to get their place on the market. At the same time, we see new developing markets and in some parts of the world (USA, Japan) it is expected that per capita consumption will go up. Enormous genetic diversity, versatile human resources and varied agro-climate offers India unique scope for diversification not explored yet fully.

1.    Mass transfer co-efficient is expressed as

(a) m/s₂

(b) m/s

(c) kg/s

(d) kg/ms

2.    Heat is related to

(a) Flow rate

(b) Energy

(c) Temperature

(d) Momemtum

3.    The units of mass transfer coefficients are

(a) Moles transferred / (time x area x concentration)

(b) Moles transferred / (time x area x mole-fraction)

(c) Moles transferred / (time x area x pressure)

(d) All of the above

13.1. CONTAMINATION

MICROFLORA: The flora of living fish depends upon the microbial contents of the waters in which they live. The slime in the outer surface of the fish contain bacteria of the genera: Pseudomonas, Alcaligenes, Micrococcus, Flavobacterium, Corynebacetrium, Bacillus, Sarcina, Serratia and Vibrio. The same species of bacteria are found in shrimps, crabs, lobsters and similar sea foods. Oysters and Shell fish that pass large amount of water through their bodies, pick-up soil and water microorganisms in this way including human pathogens. Common spoilage microorganisms of fish include species of Pseudomonas, Moraxella, and Acinetobacter, found mainly in marine fish, and Bacillus and Micrococcus, found in freshwater fish. Fish may also contain pathogenic (disease-causing) microorganisms such as Salmonella and Escherichia coli. Pathogenic contamination is of special concern with mollusks because they are often eaten raw and as whole animals.

SOURCES: Boats, boxes, bins, fish houses and fishermen are the sources of contamination of these bacteria. The bacterial population ranges from few hundred to few million per square centimeter. Because of their soft tissues and aquatic environment, fish are extremely susceptible to microbial contamination. At the time of harvest, fish carry a high microbial load on the surface of their skin, in their intestinal tract, and in their gills. The type and number of microorganisms that live in fish vary according to the season, the species, and the natural habitat. Additional contamination may occur during the harvesting, handling, or processing of the fish. Harvested fish must be immediately stored in a low-temperature environment such as ice or refrigerated seawater. This chilling process slows the growth of microorganisms that live in fish and inhibits the activity of enzymes. Because fish have a lower body temperature, softer texture, and less connective tissue than land animals, they are much more susceptible to microbial contamination and structural degradation. If immediate chilling is not possible, then the fish must generally be sold and eaten on the day of the harvest.

16.1. CANNED FOODS-PRESERVATION

Canning is a method of preserving food from spoilage by storing it in containers that are hermetically sealed and then sterilized by heat. The process was invented after prolonged research by Nicolas Appert of France in 1809, in response to a call by his government for a means of preserving food for army and navy use. Appert’s method consisted of tightly sealing food inside a bottle or jar, heating it to a certain temperature, and maintaining the heat for a certain period, after which the container was kept sealed until use. It was 50 years before Louis Pasteur was able to explain why the food so treated did not spoil: the heat killed the microorganisms in the food, and the sealing kept other microorganisms from entering the jar. Samuel C. Prescott and William Underwood of the United States set canning on a scientific basis by describing specific time-temperature heating requirements for sterilizing canned foods.

Most vegetables, fruits, meat and dairy products, and processed foods are stored in tin cans, but soft drinks and many other beverages are now commonly stored in aluminum cans, which are lighter and do not rust. Aluminum cans are made by impact extrusion; the body of the can is punched out in one piece from a single aluminum sheet by a stamping die. This seamless piece, which has a rounded bottom, is then capped with a second piece as its lid. The tabs used in pop- top cans are also made of aluminum. Bimetal cans are made of aluminum bodies and steel lids.

Canneries are usually located close to the growing areas of the product to be packed, since it is desirable to can foods as quickly as possible after harvesting. The canning process itself consists of several stages: cleaning and further preparing the raw food material; blanching it; filling the containers, usually under a vacuum; closing and sealing the containers; sterilizing the canned products; and labeling and warehousing the finished goods. Cleaning usually involves passing the raw food through tanks of water or under high- pressure water sprays, after which vegetable or other products are cut, peeled, cored, sliced, graded, soaked, pureed, and so on. Almost all vegetables and some fruits require blanching by immersion in hot water or steam; this process softens the vegetable tissues and makes them pliable enough to be packed tightly, while also serving to inactivate enzymes that can cause undesirable changes in the food before canning. Blanching also serves as an additional or final cleansing operation.

GENETIC ENGINEERING

Genetic engineering is a means of improving the food supply even before harvest or slaughter by improving yields, increasing disease resistance, and enhancing the nutritional qualities of various foods. Broadly speaking, genetic engineering refers to any deliberate alteration of an organism’s DNA. Genetic engineering has been practiced for thousands of years, ever since humans began selectively breeding plants and animals to create more nutritious, better tasting foods. In the past two decades, genetic engineering has become increasingly powerful as scientific advances have enabled the direct alteration of genetic material. Genetic engineering is alternately called as ‘ recombinant DNA technology’ or ‘gene cloning’. Genes have been cut and pasted from one species to another, yielding, for example, disease- resistant squash and rice, frost-resistant potatoes and strawberries, and tomatoes that ripen-and therefore spoil-more slowly.

Genetically modified organism (GMO) is a microbe or more complex plant or animal in which DNA has been altered for a particular purpose such as manufacturing proteins, making improvement to the organism, research into the nature of genes and biological process, correcting genetic defects.

Metabolic Processes in Bacterial Cells

All living cells are continually undergoing processes of replication, breakdown, synthesis and repair. The overall term used to describe these processes is metabolism and refers to all the different reactions that must occur in order for a cell to grow and reproduce. The pathways of metabolism are remarkably similar in all living cells. The differences that do occur usually reflect the availability of nutrients or the need for a cell to provide for a specific function. This may be secretion, storage, structural support, energy for movement, or reproduction. Our knowledge of many of the metabolic processes that occur in human cells has been derived from research on the major pathways that also occur in microbial cells.

Catabolism is the process of breakdown of complex molecules, usually with the release of energy. Anabolism refers to the synthesis of new or replacement molecules. This is an energy-requiring process. A metabolic pathway is a series of reactions in the process of metabolism.

The energy from the sun that is trapped and used to produce glucose is released when a molecule of glucose is broken down during metabolism. This complex process is called oxidation, or respiration, and consists of a number of interrelated biochemical pathways, including those of glycolysis, fermentation and aerobic respiration. Reactions that occur in the presence of oxygen are termed aerobic; those that occur in the absence of oxygen are anaerobic. Many of these reactions require the involvement of various cofactors as well as enzymes, and result in the production of energy which is captured by the synthesis of a small molecule called adenosine triphosphate (AT). ATP is termed an ‘energy-rich storage molecule’ because breakdown of ATP releases energy for use in other reactions in the cell.

What are Genes? Genes are linear sequences of nucleotides of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Each gene consists of a specific sequence of nucleotides and is responsible for determining a particular characteristic of cell. Nucleotides consist of nitrogen –containing compounds called bases, joined to the sugar, deoxyribose and to phosphate. The nucleotide bases are the purines, adenine and guanine and the pyrimidines, thymine and cytosine.

A number of genes are joined together to form a structure called a chromosome.

DNA consists of two strands of nucleotides twisted around each other into a double helical structure. The nucleotide bases are arranged in a specific sequence in each strand. The strand has a backbone of sugar and phosphate from which the bases protrude.

Culture methods employed depend on the purpose for which they are intended. In the laboratory the indications for culture are mainly to

1.Isolate bacteria in pure culture.

2.Demonstrate their properties

3.Obtain sufficient growth for preparation of antigens and for other tests.

4.Type isolates by methods such as bacteriophages and bacteriocin susceptibility.

5.Determine sensitivity to antibiotics

6.Estimate viable counts

7.Maintain stock solution

This chapter presents a case of Jind region of Haryana State, Northern India which had experienced mild tremors of ~ 3 on Richter scale magnitudes in the recent past with a gap of 1 to 2 years. Rejuvenation of the lineament controlled volcanoseismic process is identified as the probable cause of these tremors. This chapter describes seismotectonic characters, micro and mega seismicity of the area and few mitigation measures.

INTRODUCTION

The Haryana state consists of Delhi Super Group (DSG), Indo- Gangetic alluvial plain in the form of alluvial fan, sand dune, alluvium of Ambala, Yamuna and Ghagghar rivers and Siwalik Super Group (SSG) in the southern, central and northern parts respectively (Fig.1). The study area Jind is located in the central part of Haryana and comprises 200 – 600 m thick Indo-Gangetic alluvium. The alluvium is of Quaternary Period and composes alternating layers of clay, silt, sand and kankar. The Bhiwani and Tosham areas, located south of Jind, show the occurrence of Neoproterozoic granite and rhyolite of Malani Igneous Suite (MIS). The rocks occur in the form of ring structure/ring dyke on the hillocks amidst the alluvium. The metasediments (mica schist and quartzite) of Delhi Super Group are underling MIS at Tosham (located at 70 km southwest of Jind). As Jind region experiences mild tremors and there is no previous published work pertaining to the geology, tectonics and seismicity of the area the chapter records these aspects for better understanding and mitigation of earthquake hazard.

1.1 Geomorphology

Geomorphology is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features created by physical or chemical processes operating at or near the earth's surface.

The surface of the earth is unstable and affected by a combination of surface and geologic processes that cause tectonic uplift and subsidence. Surface processes are mainly physical and chemical action of water, wind, ice, igneous activity and activities of living organisms on the surface of the earth. Upliftment of mountain ranges, the growth of volcanoes, isostatic changes in surface elevation and formation of deep sedimentary basins are categorized under Geological processes.

Main geomorphological processes occurring in nature are as follows:

1.1.1 Aeolian processes

Aeolian processes include activities of the winds, its ability to shape the surface of the earth. Wind acts as an effective agent of erosion, transportation and deposition materials, and large supply of fine, unconsolidated sediments. Aeolian processes are important in desert (arid) environments.

1.1.2 Fluvial processes

Moving water in a river channel, is able to mobilize sediment and transport it downstream. The rate of sediment transport depends on the availability of sediment itself and the discharge by river.

River originates from mountain with V shaped valley, which later increases in size, merging with other rivers. The network of rivers thus formed is known as drainage system. These systems show four general patterns viz. dendritic, radial, rectangular, and trellis etc. In the mature stage, the river form alluvial flood plains, meanders and ox-bow lakes. Finally when it merges to ocean, forms delta.

Abstract

The dating of fluvial landforms by archaeological, epigraphical, historical, thermo-luminescence, radiocarbon, etc. are of greater significance because it not only provides information on the date of origin of such fluvial landforms but also isostatic, eustatic, climatic histories of the Quaternary period. Hence, the Geoscientists have always been giving greater importance to the dating of the fluvial landforms. In India, the Cauvery is one such river studied for its migratory melodrama with the help of satellite data and inferred that the river Cauvery has earlier flowed along the Hogenekkal-Chennai tract (PCS-1-Palaeo Channel System-1) during 500 thousand to 3000 YBP (years Before Present), then migrated towards southerly and flowed along the present day paths of Thoppurar, Vaniyar and Ponnaiyar rivers (PCS-2) during 2700-2300 YBP and further migrated southerly and entered into Tiruchirappalli-Thanjavur plains after 2300 YBP and finally anticlockwisely migrated in different parts of the present day Cauvery delta and stabilized as river Coleroon during 2100-750 YBP. Such broad chronological history was brought out on the basis of archaeological, epigraphical, historical, literature and few radiocarbon dating. In the present study, more number of radiocarbon dating was done in various palaeochannels of river Cauvery which has over all coincided with above observations and further provided discrete information on (1) the southerly migration of river Cauvery from PCS-1 to PCS-2 after 8000 YBP, (2) tectonic arching and splitting up of channels in Chennai region during above period, (3) gradual younging nature of palaeochannels from PCS-1 of Chennai region to PCS-3 of Tiruchirappalli – Thanjavur region, etc.

IMF : Short for International Monetary Fund, referee and, when the need arises, rescuer of the world’s financial system. The IMF was set up in 1944 at bretton woods, along with the world bank, to supervise the newly established fixed exchange rate system. After this fell apart in 1971–73, the IMF became more involved with its member countries’ economic policies, doling out advice on fiscal policy and monetary policy as well as microeconomic changes such as privatisation, of which it became a forceful advocate. In the 1980s, it played a leading part in sorting out the problems of developing countries’ mounting debt. More recently, it has several times co-ordinated and helped to finance assistance to countries with a currency crisis.

Immunity, active : Resistance developed in response to stimulus by an antigen (infecting agent or vaccine) and usually characterized by the presence of antibody produced by the host.

Immunity, herd : The resistance of a group to invasion and spread of an infectious agent, based on the resistance to infection of a high proportion of individual members of the group. The resistance is a product of the number susceptible and the probability that those who are susceptible will come into contact with an infected person.

Immunity, passive : Immunity conferred by an antibody produced in another host and acquired naturally by an infant from its mother or artificially by administration of an antibody-containing preparation (antiserum or immune globulin).

Common groundwater investigations include necessary considerations of the system’s influx sources, flow regime, discharge points and geomorphological characteristics of the area. Often, hydrogeomorphological mapping of an area is required as to determine these characteristics. The primary data can be acquired from the survey of India toposheet map and the satellite images. The secondary data set includes the satellite imageries, the preparation of digital elevation model (DEM) and digitized precipitation maps.

The first step in the procedure of hydrogeomorphological mapping is to calculate the watershed/basin area, which serves as a mask to define the area of interest. The watershed/basin calculation relies on the digital elevation data and assumes that topographic aspect (dip direction of the cell surface) completely controls the extent to which surface flow emanating from each point in the study area can reach the low point in the valley. The calculation of the potential annual recharge of the aquifer combines techniques described above with data for recharge areas, DEM aspect, and precipitation. First, the catchment area of the recharge zones must be calculated in a process similar to the watershed analysis, returning the area associated with the catchment coded as “1”. A simple multiplication overlay with the precipitation data and the catchment areas yields a result giving the amount of precipitation for each catchment cell. Before using the precipitation data, we converted it to meters so as to keep units consistent. The precipitation amounts within the catchment area (i.e. each cell value) are to be summed, yielding the amount of water available for influx into the groundwater system. Finally precipitation per year data can be acquired.

Identifying surface areas of groundwater discharge is based on the observation that such areas provide a relatively constant source of moisture, which is readily exploited by vegetation in semi-arid region. Thus areas with year-round green vegetation are assumed to be indicators of discharge. The relative amount of vegetation in a scene can be estimated by calculating a vegetation index (Reddy et al, 1989 and Tucker 1979).

The world is head98ing towards a water crisis. Africa and West Asia are likely to be worst affected by water scarcity, but with increasing population, water may fall short even in the other parts of the world. According to the recent UN report, the supply of clean and fresh water is depleting at such an alarming rate in some regions, that within 30 years, about two third of population will suffer moderate to severe water stress.

In hydrogeomorphological context of social environment the water is an essential natural resource for sustaining life. The available water resources are under tremendous pressure due to increased demands. The time is not far when water, which is the free gift of nature, will become a scare commodity. Therefore, conservation and preservation of water resources are urgently required to be done at priority basis. Water management has always been practiced in our communities since ancient times. But such practices have faded away during the past few decades mainly due to lack awareness. Hydrogeologists feel that the water harvesting practices must be urgently implemented to overcome the problem of water crises. In India the Ministry of water Resources is endeavouring to make rainwater harvesting a part of every day life in villages and cities as a people’s movement. Hydrogeomorphological aspect of social environment include (a) Social - Cultural -Administrative Consideration (b) Education and Training in Hydrogeology for Professionals and Technicians (c) Education for Farmers and Women (d) Education for Masses. These are described as below:

This is a branch of veterinary science that deals with the biology of animal when they are in good health condition, disease status and also deals with the selection of the laboratory animal, important care to be taken and also the usage of these laboratory animals in experiment and also for other research activities.

IMPORTANCE / SCOPE FOR STUDY

Veterinarian with special training/ advanced training in laboratory animal medicine and management are required by medical school, pharmaceutical industries, private and government organization, hospitals, research institutes.

This field of veterinary science has become highly dynamic and it provides good opportunities to satisfy academic professional career.

Usage of these laboratory animals goes back to 2^nd Century. However, the systematic and systemic usage came into existence a century back when research workers started working on polio vaccine. Since then, a debate is going on between scientists of different organizations regarding the usage of laboratory animals.

CLASSIFICATION

• Wistar albino
• Sprague Dawley
• Long Evans
• Charles

Wistar Albino

Wistar albino is common strain found in most laboratories and used extensively for research. They have the following characteristics: (i) Less resistance of inflammation, (ii) No incidence of spontaneous tumor.

Sprague Dawley

GUINEA PIGS

Guinea Pigs are herbivores and they can be fed with green grass, vegetable wastes, sprouted grains and commercially available diet and diets made of locally available cereals, pulses. Guinea Pig are not able to synthesize vitamin C. So it has to be supplemented externally through diet and supplementation should be 120 mg of body weight.

Guinea Pig are highly fastidious animals (strict about their diet and their requirement i.e., they are choosy in their diet).

Minimum Requirement

Pr - 16-20%

Fat - 4%

CHO - 30-35%

Fibre - about 10%

CARE AND MANAGEMENT

Pregnant female should be fed with green, fresh vegetable, green leaves. Only with good management, healthy young ones can be expected. Similar to birds, rabbits have Nest building behaviour. Around 25 days of pregnancy, keep the pregnant animal in cage provided with bedding material separately. Around 28 days, the female makes nest by pulling the fur from abdominal region and also bedding material. The fur from abdominal region is pulled to make teats clean for young ones to suck milk. If female makes good nest, it can be concluded that it will be a good mother. Some females due to disturbance are unable to make nest and also abandon young ones, go astray.

Act of parturition in rabbit is kindling and it takes place in early hours of day and late evenings. Full process is completed in 90 minutes. In some females, aggressive behaviour is seen. Such aggressive females have good mothering ability.

HANDLING OF ANIMALS

Objectives

• For carrying or shifting the animal
  Sexing the animal – to know the sexing of animal.
• Administration of substances
  To conduct experiments.

Materials required – Laboratory animals, apron, tattle and clean towel, weighing balance.

Objectives

To acquaint with the various methods of sterilization and disinfection used in laboratory animals.

Materials Required

Boiler, autoclave, hot air oven, chemical disinfection.

Sterilization

It is a process of the complete removal or destruction of living organisms including viruses, vegetative forms and spores. Sterilization is an absolute term. Nothing can be “partially sterile’’, either, it is or it is ‘not’. An article must be protected from recontamination after sterilization.

The term Anesthesia means loss of sensation.

GENERAL ANESTHESIA

In the technique of anesthesia, a drug is capable of causing loss of sensation together with loss of consciousness, sufficient to allow a surgical operation to be carried out.

Routes of General Anesthesia (G.A.)
Inhalation

Ether, Nitrous oxide, Halothane, Chloroform etc.

Genetic Transfer and Mapping in Bacteria a

Bacteria can transfer genetic material during conjugation

Hfr strains contain an F factor integrated into the bacterial chromosome

Hfr strains can transfer a portion of the bacterial chromosome to recipient cells

Conjugation experiments can map genes along the E. coli chromosome

A genetic map of the E. coli chromosome has been obtained from many conjugation studies

Bacteria may contain different types of plasmids

Bacteriophages transfer genetic material from one bacterial cell to another via transduction

Cotransduction can be used to map genes that are within 2 minutes of each other

Bacteria can also transfer genetic material by transformation

Bacteria may acquire new genes by horizontal gene transfer

Sex Chromosomes

Sex can be considered at chromosomal, gonadal, phenotypic, and gender identity levels.

Human females are homogametic (XX) and males are heterogametic (XY).

The Y chromosome contains few identified genes, while the larger X chromosome contains several thousand genes. Pseudoautosomal regions at both tips of the Y chromosome contain genes that have counterparts on the X chromosome.

The male determining gene, SRY, has been found on the Y chromosome.

Overview of Transcription

Gene expression requires base sequences that perform different functional roles

The three stages of transcription are initiation, elongation, and termination

RNA transcripts have different functions Transcription in Bacteria

A promoter is a short sequence of DNA that is necessary to initiate transcription

Bacterial transcription is initiated when RNA polymerase holoenzyme binds at a promoter sequence

The RNA transcript is synthesized during the elongation stage

Transcription is terminated by either an RNA-binding protein or an intrinsic terminator

The Genetic Basis for Protein Synthesis

Archibald Garrod proposed that some genes code for the production of a single enzyme

Beadle and Tatum’s experiments with Neurospora led them to propose the one gene-one enzyme hypothesis

During translation, the genetic code within mRNA is used to make a polypeptide with a specific amino acid sequence

Exceptions to the genetic code are known to occur, which include the incorporation of selenocysteine and pyrrolysine into polypeptides

Synthetic RNA helped to decipher the genetic code

The use of RNA copolymers and the triplet binding assay also helped to crack the genetic code

A polypeptide chain has directionality from its amino terminal to its carboxyl terminal end

The amino acid sequences of polypeptides determine the structure and function of proteins

Cellular proteins are primarily responsible for the characteristics of living cells and an organism’s traits

Genome Sequencing: A Continuation of Genetics

• The human genome project involves the assembly of a DNA sequence map for the 3 billion base pairs present in all 23 human chromosomes.
• Two groups, the International Consortium and Celera Genomics, used two opposite strategies to obtain a draft sequence of the human genome.
• The use of bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs), shotgun clones, and positional cloning has yielded a detailed look at the human genome and is facilitating the identification of disease causing genes.

The Sanger Method of DNA Sequencing

The Sanger method of DNA sequencing involves an enzymatic extension reaction to generate complementary copies of an unknown DNA sequence.

Incorporation of “dideoxy” base causes chain termination and separation of extension products on polyacrylamide gels reveals the sequence bases in the unknown DNA.

DNA sequencing occurs on a vast scale today through the use of automated DNA sequencing machines.

2.1 Introduction

Automation of agricultural field with IoT and microcontroller is new era of technology. Arduino based solution to agricultural field is open source platform. It can be used for developing data loggers and new sensors environment. The rate of solutions with Arduino and sensors is high as it is open source platform. The use of Arduino in agriculture can accelerate the growth of automation. Arduino can be interfaced with sensors like:

• Temperature
• Humidity
• Soil Moisture
• Water Pressure
• Water Flow and Water Metering
• Rain Gauge

5.1 Introduction

The chapter describes the development of local web server on the laptop, to control the actuator from the server. Web server is used as remote control for the system. The system is designed to control water pump with respect to the soil sensor values. It comprises of NodeMCU, soil sensor, LCD, two relay boards for pump in and out the water from field.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is the period during which a flower is fully open and functional, in terms of pollen maturation and dispersal.
2. Flowers with _____ anthesis generally have brightly coloured flowers to attract insects, such as butterflies.
3. Flowers with _____ anthesis generally have white or less colourful flowers.
4. _____ is the mechanism, in which the stamens and pistil of a flower mature at different times.
5. The best example for protandry is _____.
6. _____ is the mechanism in which the stigma become receptive before pollen release.
7. _____ is the process by which plant pollen is transferred from the male reproductive organs to the female reproductive organs to form seeds.
8. In Bengal gram, the method of pollination is _____.
9. Red gram is _____ pollinated crop.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is the method of propagating plants with the use of organs other than the seed and spore.
2. The word asexual, which means _____.
3. In asexual, the _____ of the male and female sexual gametes (fertilization) is not a requisite to the production of new plants.
4. In vegetative propagation, the union of the male and _____ sexual gametes (fertilization) is not a requisite.
5. _____ without fertilization is known as vegetative propagation.
6. In vegetative propagation, _____ cell division takes place.

I. FILL UPS

1. The seed colour of cv COH₂ is _____.
2. The special appendage present in castor is called _____.
3. Modified phenol test was identified by _____ for pearl millet hybrids.
4. _____ test is for the varietal identification of sorghum.

Seed processing is specialized activity and also a tool to improve seed quality further to an acceptable standard. Seed quality parameters like germination, vigour or genetic purity can be improved using processing. Say a seed lot having a minimum standard of 90% germination, but the competition in the market offering seed quality 92 or 95 % then to meet the market demand we can process the seed lots using re-milling or re-conditioning techniques. Also sometimes simple techniques like liquid density separation which uses specific density of the seed to separate good seed from inferior quality can be considered. Various case studies on processing to improve seed quality are given here.

Inventory management system is a computer based system for creating work orders at a processing plant, tracking inventory levels in the go downs, , sales and seed movement out of the processing plant. These modern systems avoid book maintenance and save lots of space. It will also tool for avoiding overstock or delay in movement of seed material for packaging. In most of the processing plants SAP is the most popular inventory management tool which is more efficient than others. SAP is basically a tool of enterprise resource planning which help in material management. The customised software can be used very effectively in a processing plant for the following operations.

INTRODUCTION

1. Nematodes belong to the animal kingdom, and phylum Nematoda.
2. The body of nematodes is elongate ( thread like; nema in Greek means thread) without any segment.
3. It is cylindrical, tapering at each end especially towards the tail.
4. Most of the important parasitic genera belong to the order Tylenchida and few under Dorylaimida.