eChapters

1. INTRODUCTION

Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) has become a widely practiced Hi-tech horticulture practice. It refers to maintenance of soil fertility and plant nutrient supply to an optimum level for sustaining the desired crop productivity through optimization of the benefits from all possible sources of plant nutrients in an integrated manner. Another important aspect of INM is for enhancing of the fertilizer use efficiency (FUE) by proper placement of fertilizer in close proximity to the rhizosphere of the highest root activity. Today, Integrated Nutrient Management has become one of the common practices among progressive horticulture producers.

INM involves proper combination of chemical fertilizers, organic manures, crop residues, nitrogen fixing crops and bio-fertilizers suitable to the system of land use under ecological, social and economic conditions. INM involves maintenance or adjustment of plant nutrient supply to an optimum level for sustaining the desired crop productivity.

1. INTRODUCTION

Leaf and soil analysis are the tools to estimate the fertilizer needs of fruit crops. Leaves are selected for analysis because:

• Leaf is the principal site of plant metabolism.
• The changes in nutrient supply are reflected in the leaf composition.
• The changes are more pronounced at certain stages of development.
• The concentration of nutrients in the leaf at specific growth stages are related to performance of the plant.

1. INTRODUCTION

Canopy management is the manipulation of tree canopy to optimize its production potential with excellent quality fruits. In many fruit crops, increase in production with enhanced fruit quality is obtained by managing canopies of short statured trees. Small trees capture and utilize the sunlight properly and results into better fruit production.

The fruit growers desire to regulate the growth and development of their trees in a scientific manner. This is because it is not always wise to allow a plant to develop naturally, since unwanted portions may develop which may affect the production. The removal of unwanted parts of plant is thus known as pruning. The practice of pruning as and when performed in an appropriate manner, keeps the plant in such shape and condition as to yield fruits of desired quality.

Canopy management depends on the nature and growth pattern of plant, number of plants /ha and pruning techniques used by the farmers in their fields. Pruning should be done when trees are young to establish their basic shapes and sizes, and continued as trees mature. Trees that grow too close together shade out the lower canopy portions and in turn decrease their fruit setting. These trees are required to be pruned to allow the light to reach the top and lower sides of trees. Pruning is done either to encourage the growth (thinning) or to reduce the tree size (heading back). Thinning of bearing trees encourages vegetative growth, and removes interior branches, encouraging the outward growth of plants. Heading back reduces the outward canopy growth through topping and hedging of branches.

1. DEFINITIONS

Propagation : Propagation of plants may be defined as the controlled reproduction of plants by man to perpetuate selected individual or groups of individual plants which have specific value to him or it is the perpetuation of plants as independent units by means of seeds, bulbs, layers, cuttings, or grafts.

• Seed: A seed has been defined as a young plant packed ready to start growing when required.
• Apomixis: Development of seeds without the complete sexual process is known as apomixes and seed produced in this manner is called apomictic seeds.
• Seed dormancy: The embryo of the seed remains in inactive stage from the time of its development to the time it germinates. This failure of the embryo is termed as dormancy of the seed.
• After-ripening: Some seeds germinate fully when freshly harvested, but they germinate after a period of dry storage. The change taking place in such seeds are known as after- ripening.
• Embryo dormancy: Conditions existing within the embryo.
• After-ripening dormancy: Seeds fail to germinate when freshly harvested, but they germinate after a period of dry storage. Such seeds are known as after-ripening dormant seeds. This is due to the physiological changes taking place in embryo.

1. INTRODUCTION

The demand for high quality planting material is steadily increasing due to interest in vegetable gardening. The need of setting up plant nurseries to meet the demands of the people has been felt by small and marginal farmers as well as by gardeners and farm house owners. In order to meet this demand, there is ample scope for introduction of small nurseries which will serve to augment the incomes of needy sections of rural society. Almost all vegetables crops are propagated by seeds, except sweet potatoes, asparagus, garlic, potato etc., which does better if propagated vegetatively. Among the vegetable crops which are propagated by seeds, cucurbits, beans, peas, radish, turnip, carrots and leafy vegetables seeds are sown directly in the fields. Other vegetables like cabbage, cauliflower, tomato, onion, chilli etc. are first sown in nursery beds where seedlings are raised and then transplanted.

1. INTRODUCTION

Nursery management is the backbone of fruit industry. The nurseries will have to play vital role in planned work for increasing the area under orchard. They are indeed the hub on which the success of an orchard depends. It provides continuous supply of healthy and certified planting material. So, one should give utmost attention while raising fruit plants.

The fruit plants are the foundation on which an orchard is built. If the plants are reliable and of guaranted performance, they will be high yielding and will produce quality fruits. There are many nurserymen in several fruit belts of the country who multiply thousands of fruit plants vegetatively for sale. It is desirable to raise only reliable, true-to-type, disease resistant and vigorous and precocious plants in order to have success in the fruit development programme in the country. At present there are several research stations and progeny- cum-demonstration orchards, Govt nurseries and also private registered nurseries engaged in the propagation of fruit plants.

Stone fruits like peaches, plums, apricots, almonds and cherries liked by one and all throughout the world for its colour, taste and nutritional value and grown in all part of the temperate zone and lower hill area of the country. The common procedure to raise nursery trees is to grow rootstocks from seeds or cuttings and then to bud known suitable varieties upon them. The stone fruits do not come true- to-type when raised from seed and therefore, nursery plants are generally raised through vegetative methods of propagation either on their own roots by cuttings or layering techniques or on the roots of other plants (rootstocks) by budding and grafting techniques. Rootstocks play an important role in quality fruit production. The stone fruits are generally propagated on rootstocks rather than on their own roots to have an advantage of rootstocks, like growth control, precocity, cropping and resistance to insect-pest and diseases.

1. IMPORTANCE

Nutrients are known to influence each and every physiological process within plant system. A considerable amount of various nutrients has been reported to drain off every year with the yield, pruning wood and fallen leaves from the plant and soil system. Therefore, for successful fruit culture, assessment of nutritional status of an orchard assumes significance. The key to mineral nutrition of any orchard is the judicious application of fertilizers on the basis of leaf and soil analysis. The nutrients requirements of fruit trees may vary from crop to crop and includes the soil as well as foliar application of the required major and micro-nutrients. Low level of nutrient results in low yields which are much below the realizable potential. There are a number of reasons why better nutrient management in horticultural crops deserves serious attention. The nutrition management of fruit crops is important:

1. To obtain higher yields and higher returns.
2. To increase the returns from established orchards.
3. To help improving the nutritional standards of the people by providing adequate supply of fruits and vegetables at affordable prices.
4. To provide greater and better quality raw material for fruit and vegetable processing industries, and
5. To help earning foreign exchange through the export of high quality produce in fresh or processed form.

1. INTRODUCTION

Fruit production is not only the growing of fruit plants but it is an outcome of well planned orcharding system. The designing of an orchard for successful fruit production depends upon various physical as well as climatic conditions and resources which help in building up of fruit growing systems. An orchard is a long term investment, mistakes committed at initial stage of planning, selection of site and soil reduces the return greatly from investment, beside wastage of time and energy. Thus, a faultless planning with utmost care and attention become quite imperative while planning a new orchard.

2. PLANNING OF ORCHARD

Before undertaking the actual planting of fruit trees, it is advisable to plan the complete process/steps, which will enable the grower to provide not only the most economic orchard management, but also for the economic layout and location of roads, drains, irrigation channels, hedges and wind breaks. For establishing an orchard of fruits, the major consideration must be given to four important aspects like climate, site or location selection, soil condition and basic facilities (economic and market consideration).

1. IMPORTANCE

India is bestowed with a varied agro-climate, which is highly favourable for growing a large number of horticultural crops such as fruits, vegetables, root tubers, ornamentals, aromatic plants, medicinal herbs, spices and plantation crops like coconut, arecanut, cashew and cocoa. It has emerged as an indispensable part of agriculture, offering a wide range of choices to the farmers for crop diversification. It also provides ample opportunities for sustaining large number of agro-industries which generate substantial employment opportunities. India has emerged as the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables; with largest producer of coconut, arecanut, cashew, ginger, turmeric, black pepper and tea, among plantation crops.

The changing scenario encourages private investment, to go for Hi-tech Horticulture with micro-propagation, protected cultivation, drip irrigation, fertigation and integrated nutrient and pest management, besides making use of latest post harvest measures particularly in the case of perishable commodities. As a result, horticulture crop production has moved from rural confines to commercial ventures and has attracted youth since it has proved to be intellectually satisfying and economically rewarding. It is essential to appreciate the contribution of horticulture, landscaping and gardening in the hospitality industry. Aesthetic use of horticulture freshens up the atmosphere, enhances the look of the property and creates a lasting impression on guests. It also has a beneficial effect on the health.

Abstract: Zinnia, multipurpose ornamental annual is noted for its garden performance. The uses of zinnias range from dwarf cultivars used for containers, borders or edging, bedding to tall cultivars used for cut flowers. Breeders and seed companies successfully introduced hybrid cultivars in the mid 20^th century. Some modes of inheritance of floral doubleness, floral colour, male sterility, self incompatibility, leaf morphology, disease resistance have been discussed/ clarified; research succeed in interspecific hybridization, polyploidy, mutation breeding and seed production are presented. Somaclonal variation for generating mutants has created new horizons in zinnia breeding. Important traits for both production and landscape use include flower colour and bloom time, plant habit and form, seed germination, disease and virus susceptibility.

Keywords: Breeding, cytology, inheritance, polyploidy, F₁ hybrids, seed production.

Abstract: Water lily, bulbous ornamental, constitute element of aquatic gardens. A variety of flower colour, flower forms, modes of reproduction and leaf sizes exist in Nymphaea. This species is a complex hybrid group. A wide range of polyploidy (including aneuploidy, trisomy, polysomaty), polymorphism and heterozygosity exists within the cultivars of water lily. Genetic information and trait heritability is almost unknown for this crop. Breeders have created synthetic water lily hybrids. Low fecundity, limited fertility, reproductive barriers, low seed set, relatively low elemental (founding) species among elite germplasm often pose significant challenges to flower breeders. Breeding objectives with high priority include tolerance to drought, year round flowering and lower seed tannins. Future breeding and genetic studies are needed to further transform this crop.

Keywords: Nymphaea, correlation, sterility, interspecific hybridization polyploidy.

Abstract: Verbena, popular annual is suitable for landscapes, hanging baskets and ground cover as bedding type. Due to seed propagation and out crossing, progeny can segregate widely for traits due to heterozygosity. Important traits for landscape use include flower colour and extended bloom time, large and highly showy flowers, plant architecture (matting habit), environmental adaptation to stressful condition (heat tolerance) and disease resistance. Genetic information and trait heritability is almost unknown for this crop. The use of interspecific hybridization, polyploid, breeding for disease resistance and mutation breeding are presented. Tissue banks and genetic evolutionary race history have been maintained. Transgenic plants have been developed.

Keywords: Phylogeny, breeding, F₁ hybrids, transgenic.

Abstract: Tulip (Tulipa) is ornamental bulbous plant cultivated for cut flower, potted plant, garden plant and for landscaping. Species from different sections display complementary agronomic characteristics. The main goals of breeding are introgression of resistance against diseases, short forcing period, flower longevity, new flower colours and flower shapes. Long juvenile phase, slow rate of propagation, long breeding phase, slow rate of propagation, long breeding cycle, knowledge of mode of inheritance, reproductive and germination barriers pose significant challenges to breeders. The use of molecular cytogenetic tools, methods to overcome crossing barriers, polyploidization, biotechnological tools and marker assisted breeding are discussed.

Keywords: Geophyte, monocot, genomic analysis, interspecific hybridization, intergenomic recombination, gene transfer, forcing, tulipa.

Abstract: Tuberose, native of Mexico, occupies prominent position due to long spikes of fragrant flowers, potential in perfume industry and nearly year round growth in tropical and sub-tropical climate. Flowers are used for artistic garlands, floral ornamentals, bouquets and cut flowers for table decoration. Flowers remain fresh pretty long time and stand long distance transportation. Lack of genetic diversity in flower type, size, colour, self incompatibility, sterility, low seed set and limited information on genetics of characters pose significant challenges to breeders. Breeding objectives with high priority include dwarf plant type, novel colours, attractive forms for pot culture/ bedding purpose intense fragrance and high essential oil content. Only two white flowered cvs. Single and Double types are cultivated for commercial production. Salient breeding achievements through planned hybridization and mutation breeding are discussed.

Keywords: Polianthes, cultivars, interspecific/ intervarietal hybridization, transgressive segregants, gamma rays.

Abstract: Limoniums, popularly called as statice/ Sea lavender are morphologically diverse and admired for their ornamental value. Perennial annual statice is widely cultivated worldwide for both, garden decoration and indoor decoration. This chapter includes a short overview of the taxonomic and reproductive behaviour of the genus. Majority of the species are triploids and reproduce apomictically. Limoniums exhibit incompatibility linked with pollen and stigma dimorphism, heterostyly and biparental inbreeding and species cross compatibility leading to genetic variability. Many F₁ hybrids are available for commercialization as potted lines. Use of tissue culture, molecular markers, embryo rescue, cryopreservation, super compact transgenic clones has been discussed. No genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop. Traits of interest to flower breeders for crop transformation include: plant architecture, panicle length, number of branches per panicle, novel colours of both calyx and corolla, high number of flowers per stem, environmental adaptation to stressful conditions, etc.

Keywords: F₁ cultivars, interspecific hybridization, polyploidization, self incompatibility, potted plants.

Abstract: Snapdragon, a decorative ornamental, is used as model plant for genetic and biochemical study. These are popular flowering potted plants, bedding plants and cut flowers around the world due to their flowering floriferousness, wide range in flower colour, size, and shape with numerous phenotypes (Tall Giant/ Grandiflora, Super Giant, Dwarf, Semi-dwarf, Miniature, etc.) series (Butterfly, Rocket Hybrid, Sweet Heart, Pixie, etc.) and cultivars available in market. Hybrid seed production transformed the crop; continued domestication by flower breeders produced a wide range of flower colours and flower patterns. The increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits and molecular genetics techniques are valuable tools aiding modern snapdragon breeders. Snapdragons are of the few floriculture crops which have genetic evolutionary race history, precise elucidation of taxonomic relationships between taxa, genomic maps, and advanced molecular genetics. In particular elucidation of the genes involved in control of floral development and in anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway has enabled precision in the creation of new flower colours or modification of floral symmetry and expression.

Keywords: Antirrhinum, taxonomy, flower shape, structural genes, molecular biology.

Abstract: Ornamental salvia, native to Brazil is cultivated as bedding plant in the world. Many species have horticultural, commercial and medicinal values. Continued breeding and improvement of salvia is focused on disease resistance, new flower colours, seed oil content and abiotic stress tolerance. Interspecific hybridization is hampered by genomic differences, heterostyly, self incompatibility and low seed set. Breeders have created polyploid cultivars and mutants which have high ornamental value. Continued use of these and other modern techniques will ensure creation of new phenotypes for the market.

Keywords: Salvia, polyploidization, male sterility, inheritance, seed production.

Abstract: Rose is a popular cut flower and flowering garden plant. Fragrance, wide colour range, plant forms and wide adaptability make it a versatile floriculture crop. The diagnostic traits of the different classes are described with reference to their potential commercial value. Increasing genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop and molecular genetic techniques are valuable tools aiding modern rose breeders, cultivars are almost exclusively asexually propagated. A gametophytic self incompatibility is found within this species. Numerous cultivars developed through hybridization and mutation techniques are discussed. Rose breeding efforts have been focused on miniature forms, floral fragrance, recurrent blooming, diverse colours, thornlessness, potential rootstocks, mutilple disease, pest resistance and winter hardiness. Transgenic research is highlighted. The journey of rose is endless and rose breeding may continue forever.

Keywords: Rose, intervarietal hybridization, mutation, inheritance, self incompatibility, rootstock, seed production, genetic transformation.

Abstract: Calendulas, popularly known as pot marigold, are admired for their ornamental value. The leaves, seeds and flowers are source of oil, pigments, dye, flavonoids, and ingredient in cosmetics, human, and animal medicines and dietary composition. Currently, there are intraspecific hybrids in the market. Traits of interest to flower breeders for crop transformation include plant architecture, flowering, flower colour and size, large and bold seed with high oil, pest and virus resistance.

Keywords: Calendula, intraspecific hybridization, mutation, molecular marker.

Abstract: Phlox, garden annual, is used as an ideal crop for cytogenetical study. The modern cultivars are grown for ground cover in beds, borders, rock gardens or as edging in landscaping. Phlox taxa serve as a model for speciation through hybridization and contribute to domestication of wild species through interspecific hybridization which revitalized the crop. Limited fertility, reproductive barriers, germination challenges, low seed set often pose significant challenges to breeders. The increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits and molecular genetic techniques are valuable tools aiding modern phlox breeders. Breeding objectives with high priority include dwarf stature, novel forms, winter hardiness and disease resistance.

Abstract: Petunias, popular bedding plants, with variety of forms, sizes and shapes are employed for landscape planning, garden designs and container gardening. The numerous phenotypes viz., Grandifloras, Multifloras, Millifloras, Waves, Hedgifloras, etc. are complex hybrids. The outstanding marketable series of P. x hybrida have been developed for upright, spreading and semi-trailing to trailing habits. The leaf colour ranges from light to dark green and also variegated types. Flower colours with charming shades and patterns, picotte, star and pronounced venation of darker colours are available on world market. Petunias are strictly cross pollinated and progeny can segregate widely for traits due to heterozygosity. Increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits and molecular genetics techniques are valuable tools aiding modern breeders. Numerous genes have been identified in the genus with some sequenced genes being used to create transformants with modified plant morphology, floral structure development, floral scent, and flower shelf life. Genes involved in the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway has enabled precision in the creation of flower colours or modification of pigment production and expression. An exploitation of sterility and incompatibility for production of F₁ hybrid seeds is discusses in detail.

Abstract: Periwinkles are popular seed propagated bedding plants with numerous hybrid varieties and series (First Kiss, Garden leader Splash, etc.) and cultivars available on world market and accepted by landscapers. A continued domestication by flower breeders produced a wide range of flower colours and flower patterns. The breeding objectives with high priority include alkaloid content, plant organs rich in pharmaceutical compounds, blooming potted plants with long display life, novel flower shapes/ form. Research focused on genetics of characters, genetic divergence, intervarietal/ interspecific hybridization and seed production has been discussed.

Abstract: Viola or garden pansy, commonly known as sweet violet or king of annuals, are widely cultivated worldwide for landscape planting, garden design and container gardening. Today, numerous OP varieties, F₁ hybrids (Europa, Toto, Wasa), F₂ strains, series (Waterford, heat tolerant S series) and cultivars introduced by seed companies are available on the world market. Pansy breeding efforts have been focused on F₁ hybrid seed production, heat tolerance, flower colour, flower size and form, double flowers, earliness, disease resistance, floriferous nature and interspecific hybridization. Increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits and molecular genetics techniques are valuable tools aiding modern pansy breeders. Research is needed to exploit heterosis for productivity and gene transformation to create new genetic variability.

Abstract: Orchids, one of the largest commodities in international cut flowers and ornamental plant market, in which genera Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Phalaenopsis, and Vanda are most traded. Orchids occupy prime position among ornamental plants of the modern world. Both warm and cool temperature cultivars are grown in vitro germinated seeds or clones. Breeders have created polyploid cultivars (amphidiploids, triploids) which have greater flower number/raceme, large flowers and other valuable traits. Numerous genes have been identified in the genus with some sequenced genes being used to create genetic transformants. Genome breeding and wide crosses are routinely used to create new genetic variability. Future crop ideotypes are proposed to continue transformation of this crop during the next millennium.

Abstract: Among the annual flowers, marigold is commercially important loose flower crop in India. Marigold types with odourless foliage with orange to light lemon colour are available in world market. Being cross pollinating and seed propagated, progeny can segregate widely for traits due to heterozygosity. Improvements in marigold as cut flowers, larger flowers, more intense flower colour, an expanded flower colour range, more uniform plant habit, earlier flowering, more xanthophylls and extended bloom time are future breeding objectives. The use of intraand interspecific hybridization, heterosis, polyploidy and genetics of traits have been presented with a focus on creating novel transformations for this crop in future.

Abstract: Lotus, aquatic economic flower, associated with religion, art, and culture, is native to India. Most cultivars are diploid, seed and vegetatively propagated. Lotus is cross pollinated and progeny can segregate widely for traits due to heterozygosity. Low seed set often pose significant challenge to breeders. Breeding efficiency remains unknown. Flower breeders have created new colours with interspecific hybridization including yellow, pink, white and rose colour changing to creamy yellow. Traits of interest for crop transformation include environmental adaptation to stressful condition, low seed tannin, and flowering (colour, size, timing, etc.). Genetics of characters is unknown. Future breeding and genetic studies are needed for further transformation of this crop.

Abstract: Lilium is one of the six major genera of flower bulbs produced worldwide. Species are native to diverse habitat within Northern hemisphere. Liliums have a lengthy association with various world cultures. As a result, flower breeders have created numerous genotypes during the millennia of breeding this crop which has enabled its establishment in the top ten cuts, potted flowering and garden crops worldwide. The crop arises from multiple species. Research has focused on development of late flowering genotypes with forcing ability, improvement of flower form/ shape, pollenless cultivars, disease resistance and floral longevity. The limited genetic information and trait heritability have been established for this crop. Wide crosses are routinely used to create new genetic variability. Breeders have created complex hybrids such as LA, OT, OTO, FA, FAA, FO and OA hybrids through in vitro embryo rescue techniques. Molecular biology is being used to engineer Lilium against LSV and TBV. Crop ideotypes prescribe numerous traits for incorporation by flower breeders and geneticists including short forcing time, late flowering in Asiatic lilies, enhanced shelf life, genetically controlled height, rapid propagation and cultivars requiring no vernalization for flowering.

Abstract: Genus Jasminum contains 90 species to be true in existence and use, range from landscape to hair adornments, and perfumes. It is native to Indo-Malayan region. Morphological variants from different species have been developed in different regions in India. Unfruitfulness, cross incompatibility, pollen and seed sterility, delicate flower parts, peak and active night flowering, endosperm antagonism often pose significant challenge to breeders. Genetic information and trait heritability is almost unknown for this crop. Phenotypic traits requiring future improvement include recurrent flowering for fresh flower market, high concrete recovery, biotic and abiotic stress tolerance. Future breeding and genetic studies are needed for further transform this crop.

Abstract: Hollyhocks are seed propagated garden annuals with numerous hybrid phenotypes, series (single and bicoloured Halo series), Spotlight, Carter’s Double, Double Triumph, Giant Double Powder Puff, Halo Bush (tricoloured), Halo Mixed (eight colours) and cultivars are available in the world market. Unusual plant height, delayed flowering compared to other winter annuals handicap its popularity. While little genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop, breeding continues to produce new variants for commercial production. Gene pool of hollyhock exhibits great diversity. Breeding objectives with high priority include dwarf stature (2 feet height), compact growth, double and large flowered inflorescence, precocious flowering and resistance to leaf rust disease.

Abstract: Ornamental hibiscus (shoe flower) is native of Asia, probably China, but now conspicuous in all warm countries. Hibiscus is cross pollinating, evergreen shrub and progeny can segregate widely for traits due to heterozygosity. High polyploid constitution of species predominant vegetative reproduction and rampant hybridization irrespective of chromosome number are features of this crop. The important traits for continuous crop improvement include plant with good growth habit, floriferous nature, desirable flower colour, size, shape and good keeping quality. A variety of flower forms, flower colours and growth forms exist. Very little genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop. Use of somatic hybridization, mutation breeding and marker assisted breeding are discussed. The continuous use of these techniques will ensure creation of new phenotypes for the market.

Abstract: Gomphrena, indigenous to India, is popular choice for borders, edging, making crafts and potpourris. Only few species are cultivated under tropical and sub-tropical regions. A little work has been done in its improvement. Research should be focused on varietal development for long photoperiod cultivation, tolerant to high temperature stress and medicinal values of the crop. Prospects of hybridization and mutation breeding need to be explored.

Abstract: Gladiolus, commonly known as ‘sword lily’ is native to South Africa. Most members of genus are heteroploids. It has pivotal place as cut flower with novel phenotypes (Grandifloras, Primulinus, Butterfly, Miniature, Face Ups, Orchideola), cultivars available on world market. Modern types are evolved through conventional breeding and very few through mutation breeding. Their continued popularity has warranted extensive breeding and development of fragrant, winter hardy and disease resistant cultivars. Breeders have reported close linkages in variety of traits. Cross pollinating nature coupled with high heterozygosity makes heredity transmission unpredictable. Future crop idiotypes are proposed to continue transformation of this important crop during the next millennium.

Abstract: Gerberas are popular seed and vegetatively propagated flower crop with numerous phenotypes, series and cultivars available on the world market. Crop improvement is currently focused on bicoloured mini gerbera, semi-double and spider type forms, and hybrid cultivars with expanded colour range to boost productivity and profitability. Application of genetic engineering techniques and tools are aiding in modern gerbera breeding. The need for new cultivars remains strong as production system become more specialized and new markets develop. Breeding objectives with high priority include cut flower cultivars highly resistant to diseases, tolerant to low temperature, and floral longevity.

Abstract: Pelargonium (syn. Geranium), has become mainstay in temperate landscapes because of its ease of production and cultivation, long lasting bloom, range of plant habits and diversity of uses (perfumery, cosmetic, pharmaceutical and food industries). Confusion exists about nomenclature and taxonomic revision has attempted. Pelargoniums are popular seed and vegetatively propagated bedding and pot plants with numerous phenotypes (Fish type, Ivy leaved, Regal, Angels, Fancy leaves, Scented, Oak leaf) and cultivars (Double/ Bar/ Centre/ Ring/ Vein/ Picotee pattern/ Tulip/ Carnation/ Phlox/ Birds egg flowered) available on the world market. Their continued popularity has warranted extensive breeding and development of novel phenotypes particularly trailing growth habit, reduced plant size, compact form, manipulation of flowers (size, number, coloration, longevity, timing) and disease resistant cultivars. Increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits, molecular genetic techniques and biotechnological applications are valuable tools aiding modern pelargonium breeders. The need of new cultivars remains strong as divergence among pelargonium market types increases, production system becomes more specialized and new market develops.

Abstract: Gaillardia, commonly known as ‘Blanket flower’, is excellent for cut flower, mixed borders, edging and bedding plants. Huge quantum of variability exists in this crop in India. Currently, there are many interspecific hybrid cultivars and open pollinated varieties available in the market. Biparental inbreeding depression has complicated the progress of crop development. Traits of interest to flower breeders for crop transformation include, plant architecture, flower morphology (colour, size, quality), attractive seed heads and drought stress.

Abtract: Dahlia, tuberous flowering plant, is valued for potted flowering and garden crop worldwide. The genus contains ~85 species native to Mexico, central America and Columbia. Numerous phenotypes (star/ anemone/ paeony/ decorative/ pompon/ cactus/ water lily flowered) and cultivars (giant/ large/ small/ miniature/ ball/ pompon/ mignon single) are available on world market. Cultivated dahlias are allotetraploids with great diversity in flower colour/ forms. Limited genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop. Precise elucidation of the genes involved in the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway has enabled in the creation of new flower colours or modification of pigment production and expression discussed. Research succeeded in mutation breeding and interspecific hybridization and colourful dahlia varieties have been developed by individual enthusiasts, nurserymen and flower breeders. Complicated genetics, heterozygosity often pose significant challenges to breeders. Future crop ideotypes are proposed to continue transformation of this important crop during the next millennium.

Abstract: Crossandra, traditional flower crop of India, produce beautiful flowers in remarkable range of colours of almost all the year. Flowers are ideal for garland making and hair adornments. Only few species are cultivated across the world. Improvement is focused on drought tolerant ornamental types for landscape/ container use, better keeping quality, heavy yield and vivid range of flower colours, long spikes, earliness and big flower size. Breeders have created mutant cultivars and F₁ hybrids having valuable traits. Lack of fragrance and meager seed set require biotechnological interventions.

Abstract: Cosmos, popular as garden annual in many parts of the world, has its origin in Mexico. Cosmos is cross pollinating and progeny can segregate widely for traits due to heterozygosity. Self and cross incompatibility, self and intersterility, limited fertility, reproductive barriers and seed sterility often pose significant challenges to breeders. The breeding objectives include development of suitable indoor plants, less susceptible to powdery mildew and more tolerant to abiotic stress. The biotechnological skills can be attempted in breeding.

Keywords: Breeding, self incompatibility, sterility, hybrid seed production.

Abstract: Chrysanthemum, commonly known as Queen of East, is perhaps oldest flowering plant, commercially grown in different parts of the world in a wide range of floricultural product including potted plants, cut flowers and garden plant. Vast range of shapes and sizes of flowers, brilliance of colour tones, long lasting bloom, ease of production and cultivation all the year round, range of plant habits from pot mums to tall shrub, hardy nature, and versatility of use make this a versatile floriculture crop, wide range of polyploidy level (diploid to decaploid) is found in different cultivars and are almost exclusively asexually propagated. The crop arises from multiple species, its allopolyploid nature has complicated progress in crop development due to inbreeding depression, genetic load and aneuploidy. Precise genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop; plant breeding continues to produce new variants for commercial production. Currently, numerous varieties have been developed through complex interspecific crosses among elemental species, open pollination, indiscriminate Intervarietal hybridization, spontaneous and induced mutation, selection, and management of chimera. Number of traits targeted for genetic intervention have been presented and discussed. Crop idiotypes for product classes prescribe numerous traits for incorpotion by flower breeders and geneticists including compact framework to withstand bloom for pot mums, long lasting bloom colour with enhanced shelf life for cut flower and sweet scented blooms with extended blooming season for garland use.

Abstract: The most popular ornamental monotypic species chinensis, is an important annual flower, used commercially as cut flower for interior decoration, bedding, potting and landscape purpose. Currently, there are many interspecific hybrid cultivars from this species on the market. The influence of breeding methods on the selection criterion and selection procedures is discussed. Information on variability and correlation is included. Ample genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop. Traits of interest to flower breeders for crop transformation include plant architecture, flowering (colour, size, timings), attractive flower heads, extended bloom time, horizontal placement of flowers, floral longevity, earliness, healthy foliage or other morphological traits. Future crop ideotypes are proposed to continue transformation of this crop for large scale cultivation.

Abstract: Carnation, is one of the commercial flower crops of the world. There are many forms of carnations, which are excellent for cut flowers, bedding pots, edging and rock gardens. The history of crop improvement and development is highlighted. Their continued popularity has warranted extensive breeding and development of novel phenotypes particularly standards (Sims), sprays, midis, annual, picotees, perpetual, chabaud, malmaison, multiflora, microcarnations, etc. Continuous breeding and improvement of carnation focus on floral fragrance, floral doubleness, dwarf stature, high growth rate, floral colour, reduced calyx splitting, floral longevity and disease resistance. Ample genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop. Molecular genetics techniques are valuable tools aiding modern carnation breeders. Numerous genes have been identified and being used to create transformants. Wonderful results achieved through interspecific hybridization, mutation and polyploid breeding are discussed. Poor pollen production, inbreeding depression, linkage between traits, limited gene pool, inadequate seed production, reproductive barriers often pose significant challenges to breeders. Crop ideotypes prescribe numerous traits for incorporation by flower breeders and geneticists, including straight stem, symmetrical flower shape/ form, early/ uniform flowering with high productivity, enhanced shelf life and resistance to physiological disorders and various diseases.

Abstract: Zantedeschia, commonly known as calla lily, is one of the popular ornamental plant in the world. Zantedeschia are commonly associated with the New Zealand, even though they are native to South Africa. The vegetatively propagated crop is currently the most important rhizomatous geophyte in the world. Most cultivars are grown for cut flowers, variegated or spotted foliage for floral arrangements, flowering potted plants and landscaping. Continued breeding and improvement of Zantedeschia focused on disease resistance, improved floral longevity, novel spathe colour, better bloom quality, longer stems, more flowers/ rhizome and determinate growth habit. Intersectional/interspecific hybridization is hampered by post fertilization barriers, hybrid breakdown, albino hybrid embryo and F₁ sterility. Crossing barriers have been overcome with the use of in vitro embryo rescue. Haploidization and molecular techniques are being used to create homozygous plant and marker assisted selection, respectively.

Abstract: Bougainvilleas are morphologically diverse and admired for their ornamental value. The considerable diversity exists in bougainvillea species for leaf shape, degree of hairiness, bract colour, spine shape and blooming. These attributes have enabled the ornamental bougainvillea to be used as pot plants, hedge, pergola, standard and bonsai for display. Currently, there are many intra and interspecific hybrid cultivars and numerous mutations from numerous species in the market. Limited fertility, heterozygous nature, strong self incompatibility and seed sterility often pose significant challenge to breeders. Traits of interest to flower breeders for crop transformation include; plant architecture, flower timing, colour diversity, multibracts and multicolour in single variety, environmental adaptation to stressful condition (cold tolerance, heat tolerance, drought tolerance, etc.).

Abstract: Impatiens are popular seed and vegetatively propagated bedding plants with numerous series (Shadeglow, Firefly, Peach Ice, Circus, Hawaii, Pixie, Show Topper, Elfin, Shady Lady, Fanciful, Fantasia, Fiesta, Futura, Jewel, Minarette, etc.) and F₁ hybrid cultivars available on world market. The history of balsam development as a crop is highlighted. Continued domestication by flower breeders produced a wide range of flower colours and flower patterns. Ample genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop; plant breeding continues to produce new variants for commercial production. Continuous breeding and improvement of balsam focus on flower colour/ size/ pattern, double flowers, plant growth habit/ branching and disease resistance. Important traits for both production and landscape use include flower colour/ size and bloom time, larger flowers, resistance to biotic and abiotic stress and other valuable traits. Results achieved through interspecific hybridization and polyploid breeding are discussed. The chapter concludes with future prospective for research and breeding in the genus.

Abstract: Anthurium, popularly known as aristocrat of the plant world, is admired for its unique ornamental value. The Netherlands remains the world’s largest grower and primary source of new colours and cultivars to the international market; while Hawaii remains the epicenter for published research on various aspects of anthurium genetics, propagation and improvement. Flower breeders have created numerous genotypes during the millennia of breeding this crop, which has enabled its establishment as pot plant and cut flower industry. Continued breeding and improvement of anthurium focus on floral fragrance, disease resistance, new flower shapes/ colours and improved floral longevity. Wonderful results achieved through interspecific hybridization, multiway crosses, polyploidy breeding and molecular genetic techniques have been discussed. Cultivars are almost exclusively asexually propagated. Anthuriums are cross pollinating perennial shrubs and progeny can segregate widely for traits due to heterozygosity. Long life cycle of plants, slow seed formation and maturation, slow suckering often pose significant challenges to breeders. Biotechnology has created a new horizon in anthurium breeding. Increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits and molecular genetics techniques are valuable tools aiding modern anthurium breeders. Future crop idiotype is proposed to continue transformation of this monocot aroid crop during the next millennium.

Hippeastrums, commonly known as Royal Dutch amaryllis/ Trumplet lily/ Belladonna lily, are bulbous ornamentals grown around the world for cut flowers, potted plants, window gardens and floral arrangements. The numerous hybrid phenotypes (miniature, orchid flowering, imbricated/ reginae, long trumpet/ belladonna type, etc.) are available in the world market. The history of its development and new trends of breeding are described as an aid for continued crop development. Tissue banks of cultivars are genetic evolutionary race history have been charted out for future improvement. Most cultivars are diploids and tetraploids cross incompatibility, sterility, reproductive barriers, self incompatibility often pose significant challenges to breeders. Little genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop, plant breeding continues to produce new variants for commercial production. The use of intra and interspecific hybridization, breeding for specific traits, polyploidy and mutation breeding are presented with a focus on creating novel transformations for this crop in the future.

An understanding of intellectual property rights for plant breeders has become increasingly important over the last few decades. It is also a confusing topic to many in the industry. Confusion is understandable when we are presented with various types of protection, many acronyms, terms used interchangeably and incorrectly, regulations that vary internationally and a lack of understanding or consistent interpretations of laws that govern these rights.

Plants are unique from other marketed products due to their complex nomenclature, ease of propagation and the many levels of distribution and promotion involved in their marketing. The protection is required for a plant cultivar needs to be considered in relation to all of these factors in order to be correctly implemented and maintained. Breeding and commercialization of new ornamental plant varieties is an economically important activity both for the industry and the well being of our society. Breeding or developing a new variety requires a long time. In horticultural crops, it takes 3-10 years from initial crossing of parent cultivars to develop a commercial variety. It is important to encourage development of new variety by providing incentives such as Plant Breeders’ Rights (PBR) over exclusive production and marketing of seed of an improved variety. When the new cultivar is introduced and commercialized, plant breeders finally begin to get paid for their years of hard work in the form of royalties. Legal protection for new plant varieties provides the means by which companies, institutions, and independent plant breeders can receive a return on their investments of time and money as well as justify their involvement in research and new plant development. In addition, legal protection enables plant breeders to be recognized for their craft and skill and encourages plant breeding as a profession. Plant variety protection provides an incentive for continued breeding and to ensure the availability of new varieties that meet future demands and keep the industry thriving.

Like in other crops, international research centres can contribute substantially towards solving the problems that limit ornamentals production because several research constraints are global in nature and need the research support by well staffed and adequately equipped research centres, which can make the work of national research programmes more efficient and accelerate the development of solutions. These international research centres can build a critical mass of scientists that is very important for effective research. It has almost established that successful research in individual crops has usually required the team efforts of specialists working in a range of disciplines like genetics, breeding, agronomy, physiology, pathology, entomology, economics, soils, statistics and chemistry, etc. These research centres are required to 1) Serve as catalyst for change 2) Collect, evaluate, maintain and utilize germplasm, 3) Generate and disseminate information 4) Provide training 5) Stimulate the formation of critical mass for research and 6) Assist national programmes achieving desired goals faster and more efficiently.