eChapters

Sustainability in agricultural production is guided by the overriding philosophy of ‘feed the soil to feed the plant’. Adequate supply of plant nutrients is required to ensure efficient crop production. Plants use individual chemical elements and ions as their food. In 1939, Arnon and Stout laid down three criteria for the essentiality of a plant nutrient.

The arid region of India covers about 12 % of countries geographical area and occupies over 3.17 lakh Km² of hot desert located in the parts of Rajasthan (61%), Gujarat (20%), Punjab and Haryana (9.0%), Andhra Pradesh (7%), Maharashtra (0.4%) and Karnataka (3.0%). In addition to this an area of about 78 thousand Km² of cold desert in Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh presents an entirely different set of agro climatic conditions as compared to hot arid zone. The hot arid region is characterized by low and erratic distribution of rainfall (< 100 to 400 mm), high temperature, low relative humidity, high potential evapo-transpiration, high sunshine and high wind speed during summer. Soils of this region are dry for most part of the year and suffer from water stress. Besides growing annual crops, a great emphasis is being laid on the development of agroforestry systems in this region which also includes cultivation of arid fruit crops in cropping systems. Horticulture based production systems are considered to be the most ideal strategy to provide food, nutrition and income security to the people (Chundawat, 1993). Integration of annual crops with fruit trees yields multiple outputs that ensure production and income generation.

Soil

Soil is the upper most crust of earth surface which supports plant growth. It is defined as a three phase system in which plants grow. These phases are solid, liquid, and gas are essential. Solid part is frame which provides space for other two. It consists of minerals, clay minerals and organic matter. The soil is also a living system with millions of microbes that breakdown organic matter. The microbes are very essential and survive only when soil is well aerated and rich in organic matter and devoid of waterlogged conditions. Texture of soil depends on the size of solid particles and classified as gravel, coarse and fine sand, silt and clay. Soils are classified according to the relative distribution of these particles. Likewise, arrangement of these particles is referred as structure. Generally loamy soils and crumb structure are most growing preferred for fruit crops. According to level of organic matter, soils are classified as mineral soil or organic soil and soil having more than 20% organic matter is organic soil like peat and muck etc. Minerals and salts lend chemical properties to the soil like pH, alkalinity, sodicity, salinity and cation exchange capacity which influences the availability of nutrients in soil. Therefore, for making choice for soil, soil analysis in terms of following criteria isessential to decide on land capability. Maximum numbers of fruit orchards in India are depleted from micro and macro plant nutrients which interrupted the growth and development of the fruit plants and their quality. Therefore, like growers are not attain profit desired. To obtain marketable fruits, nutrients managements are highly beneficial to the fruit growers rainfed areas. Analysis of soil is useful to determine the level of the elements available in the orchards to get maximum yield.

10.1 What is nutrient management?

• Nutrient management is an important component in orchard management for high efficiency and high fruit quality. Fruit trees are perennial woody plants which can store nutrients and then release them for growth.

• Therefore, the nutrient uptake of fruit trees includes the total nutrients of the fruits, leaves, new branches, and time increments of storage. Nutrient uptake is different under different yield levels. For example, the N uptake of apple trees was 100–120, 110– 130,120–140, and 130 150kg/ha under yield levels of 30, 45, 60, and 75t/ha, respectively.

• Basal fertilization is considered to be important for high-quality fruit production by providing nutrients for tree growth and also improving soil structure which promotes better root development. It is usually recommended and immediately applied during the dormant season up to autumn, after fruit harvest.

• Top dressing applications are usually chemical fertilizers which are applied two to four times before bud break or prior to or after blooming and at the fruit enlargement stage, depending on the requirements of each type of fruit tree.

• Using this INM method, the total nutrient demand is calculated according to target fruit yield level and NPK fertilizers are recommended based on soil fertility index (High, Moderate, and Low soil fertility) and nutrient demand with different stages. For moderate apply trees, most of N fertilizer is applied in autumn after picking to add N storage and renew tree vigor, and most of the P fertilizer is applied in spring with flowing stage to improve flower bud quality, and most of the K fertilizer is applied in summer fruiting period to improve fruit quality. Management of high yielding fruits using suitable pruning, and irrigation, are combined in this INM

The fundamental idea behind integrated nutrient management, or INM, is to optimize plant nutrient supply in order to maintain the targeted crop yield. It entails using chemical fertilizers, organic manure, and biofertilizers in the right amounts according to the land use system and the environmental, social, and economic circumstances. Vermicomposting is a natural fertilizer that is devoid of chemicals and made from organic wastes that decompose. It is an environmentally benign process. Beneficial microflora, including those that fix nitrogen, dissolve phosphorus, and break down cellulose, are abundant in vermicompost. In addition to having earthworm cocoons, which boost the number and activity of earthworms in the soil, it also has important vitamins, enzymes, and hormones like auxin and gibberellins, which improve the soil’s structure, texture, aeration, and ability to hold water while preventing soil erosion. Additionally, because of its high organic matter content, it increases the soil’s capacity to retain water, improves the macro- and micronutrient quality of the soil, and encourages greater root development and nutrient absorption. Porosity, aeration, drainage, and water-holding capacity are all extremely high in vermicompost (Sinha, 2009). Profile of Nutrients in Vermicompost: C:N ratio of 15.5. N = 1.6%, P = 0.7%, K = 0.8%, Ca = 0.5%, Mg = 0.2%, Fe 175.0 ppm, Mn 96.5 ppm, Zn 24.5 ppm, Cu 5.0 ppm, T = 0.5%. Biofertilizers are substances that include living microbes that, when added to soil, colonize the plant’s interior, or rhizosphere, and increase the host plant’s availability or supply of primary nutrients, so promoting growth. Biofertilizers provide soil with nutrients by utilizing the body’s natural mechanisms of fixing nitrogen, phosphorus solubilization, and growth-promoting material production. It can symbiotically link with plant roots because it is a living entity. Complex organic material could be simply and safely converted into a simple chemical by the involved microorganisms, making it easier for plants to absorb them. Long-term microorganism function leads to an increase in soil fertility. It preserves the soil’s natural habitat. In addition to increasing plant development, it substitutes artificial nitrogen and phosphate by 25% and enhances crop output by 20% to 30%. According to Hazarika and Ansari (2007), biofertilizers have the capacity to fix 20–200 kg N/ha/year, solubilize

According to the present state of our knowledge, sixteen-elements are considered to be essential for plant growth and development. These nutrients are chemical elements, which are absorbed by the plants in more or less quantity to transform light energy into chemical energy and to keep up plant metabolism for the synthesis of organic material. These elements are regarded as essential in higher plants.

These are Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potash, Calcium, Magnesium, Sulphur, Zinc, Manganese, Copper, Iron, Boron, Molybdenum and Chlorine. Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen are obtained from air and water. Carbon makes up the great bulk of the plant and is obtained from carbon dioxide in the air. Hydrogen is derived mainly from the breakdown of water. Oxygen is obtained from air as well as water. Other thirteen elements are obtained from mineral and organic components of the soil. These elements are further grouped into major/macro and minor/micro-elements. The nutrients that are required in relatively larger quantities are termed as macro elements. Micronutrients that are required in relatively lesser quantities are termed as micro nutrients.

Pineapple is considered as one of the important tropical fruits which are extremely demanded in the international market. This is due to its various quality characteristics like sweeter taste, blemish-free flesh, a cylinder shape with golden yellow pulp, a very pleasant aroma when ripe, low acidity, and a longer shelf life compared to other varieties (Banful et al., 2011; Malezieux et al., 2003). Pineapple can grow well in low as well as high fertile soil but the best production is obtained with high fertile soils. Souza et al. (2007) found that a fruit’s weight is directly correlated with the plant vigour at the time of f loral differentiation with a minimum D-leaf length. Therefore, it is proved by Souza et al. (2007) that nutrients play animportant role in pineapple cultivation to increase the growth and yield of the crop. It is also noted that the pineapple plants have a large nutrient uptake demand, especially for potassium, followed by nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, and phosphorus.

The focus on pineapple production should not only aim for stable volumes but also sustainable growth while maintaining quality standards amidst a growing population. The ‘Green Revolution’ with high inputs has plateaued, emphasizing the need for a natural balance to sustain life and property. Effective plant nutrient management is crucial for environmental, economic, and social reasons. Pineapple’s nutrient requirements, high in nitrogen (N), potassium (K), and iron (Fe), with lower needs for phosphorus (P) and calcium (Ca), make soil organic matter desirable. Repeated cultivation exhausts soil nutrient reserves, leading to decreased yields. Heavy synthetic fertilizer use may cause soil impaction and acidification. Combining organic manure with chemical fertilizers is recommended for profitable and sustainable crop production while preserving soil fertility. However, excessive nitrogen application poses health risks. As farmers transition to organic farming, the negative impact of inorganic fertilizers on pineapple size, yield, and quality is evident.

Salt affected soils occupy 962.2 m ha globally which accounts for 33% of the arable land. In India 8.373 m ha is affected with salts. Of which 2.359 m ha are alkali soils, 3.829 m ha are saline soils and 2.185 m ha coastal saline soils. Reclamation of these soils provides additional area for food grains production and employment.

India is a leading vegetable producing country in the world. Presently it occupies 7.981 million hectare area with the annual production 129.077million tones (2008-09). The country being belessed with the unique gift of nature of diverse climate and distinct seasons, make it possible to grow an array of vegetables number exceeding more than hundred types. However, potato being the staple food and easy to mix in several preparations ranks first (26.6%) in total production of vetetables followed by onion (10.5%) and other important Solanaceous vegetables like tomato (8.6%), brinjal (8.0%). Cauliflower and cabbage are most preferred winter vegetables and their total share in the country’s vegetable production is 5.1 and 5.3%, respectively. Other important vegetables, which are primarily grown in the country, are okra, onion, vegetable peas and a good range of cucurbits (Fig. 1)

There is miss-match in area production and productivity of vegetables among various states of the country. The West Bengal ranks first in the total production of vegetables in the country and its production during the year 2008-09 was in tune of more than 22.704 million tones, contributing the more than one-fifth of total country’s vegetable product ion. Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa in north India and Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Karanataka in south India are the other leading vegetable producing states in the country. In last one decade, there has been considerable progress in enchancing the productivity of vegetables which is presently 16.2 tonnes hectare^-1. Incessant growth of urbanization, ceaseless fragmentation ofland holdings and depleting natural resources are the major challenges before the expansion of any agricultural commodity either cereals or vegetables. Hence, our attention must be focused on vertical expansion strengthened with the boon ofthe technology instead of horizontal expansion just by increasing the crop area. To ensure the nutrition security of the burgeoning population of the country, it is estimated that up to 2020, the country’s vegetable demand would be around 155 million tones (Rai et al., 2004; Pandey et al., 2009). To achieve this target, it is sine qua non to integrate the various technologies right from production to post-harvest.

SUMMARY

Vegetables play a pivotal role in food and nutritional security of the ever increasing population of our country. The vegetarian society largely depends on vegetables for the want of their nutritional requirements. Vegetables are exhaustive crop with an exceedingly high turnover of plant nutrients, Thus , nutrient element required for optimum growth and development of vegetables should supplied to soil and plants in right time and in a balanced and integrated mode. Neither the chemical fertilizers are alone nor the organic sources exclusively able to sustain the soil fertility/productivity. The national average productivity of different vegetable crops of our country at present is much below the potential productivity. It may be increased up to 2-3 times more by adoption of appropriate nutrient management practices. The majority of our Indian soils are deficient in about 7-8 macro and micronutrients which leads lower productivity. Integrated nutrient management (IPNM) is one of the recent methods of supplying nutrients to the plants by organic as well as inorganic means together to fulfill the nutrient requirements. Organic manures are the key characteristics including the long term fertility of soil by maintaining organic matter levels, fastening soil biological intervention, nitrogen fixation as well as effective recycling of organic materials including crop residues and live stock wastes and weed. Micro - organisms play an important role in various chemical transformations in soil and thus, influence the availability of major nutrient like N, P, K. and S to the plant.

Importance of nutrient management in crop production can be very well explained by conducting various field trails by different fertilizer nutrient, methods of application and sources of fertilizer. Experiments on nutrient management are being carried out to study the impact of nutrient application, new techniques of fertilizer application, sources and doses of fertilizers on plant growth, yield and soil fertility and their efficiency over existing one was elucidated through various efficiency indices. The following efficiencies are normally being used in nutrient management studies.

Plant Nutrition

The term “fertility” refers to the inherent capacity of a soil to supply nutrients to plants in adequate amounts and in suitable proportions. Nutrition in plants may thus be defined as a process of synthesis of food, its breakdown and utilisation for various functions in the body. There are two types of nutrition:

1. Autotrophic nutrition: It is a type of nutrition in which the living organisms manufacture their own organic food from simple inorganic raw materials. The green plants exhibit autotrophic mode of nutrition and hence called the autotrophs.
 
2. Heterotrophic nutrition: Certain non green organisms like fungi and many bacteria fail to synthesize their own organic nutrients from inorganic substances.  These organisms are thus dependent on some other external sources for their  nutrition. Such plants are called heterotrophic plants and the mode of nutrition is called heterotrophic nutrition.

Manures and Fertilizers

Even though pomegranate grows well in soils of low fertility, production can be increased by application of manures and fertilizers. Initial soil analysis is desirable for proper scheduling of fertilizers. The nutritional recommendation depends on fertility of the soil and also the age of the plant. For young plants (2-3 months old) application of 200 g Neem cake along with 3-4 kg FYM/plant is recommended. After 3 months, each plant may be given 250 g DAP along with 250 g Neem cake and 5 kg FYM. Again after 9 months, application of 500 g DAP, 250 g Potassium sulphate, 1 kg Neem cake and 10 kg of FYM/plant is recommended.

Nutrient management is one of the key aspects that ensure good quality produce in optimum quantity. Nutrient availability influences growth and productivity of crops. Sixteen elements are recognized as essential nutrients for growth and development of plants. These essential elements are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, iron, zinc, manganese, copper, boron, molybdenum and chlorine. While carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are derived from air, soil and water, other elements are taken by the plant roots from the soil, according to the requirement of the plant. The soil contains these elements in varying quantities depending on the origin of the soil. According to the quantity of requirement of these elements by plants for its various growth processes,the elements are classified into different categories.

Major nutrients or primary nutrients - These are required by plants in large quantities because they are involved in all the processes of plant growth and development. Major nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.

Secondary nutrients - These are required by plants in relatively smaller quantities for growth and development. Secondary nutrients are magnesium and sulphur.

Micro nutrients - As the name suggests, these are required by plants in minor quantities for their physiological processes. These elements are iron, zinc, manganese, copper, boron, molybdenum and chlorine.

Each of the plant nutrients has a definite quantitive role and specific function in the physiological processes of plants. If any of the essential element is deficient or absent in the soil sysem, the plant growth is affected negatively and this is reflected as inferior quality produce. On the contrary, if a nutrient is excess in the soil system, it hinders in absorption of other nutrients and also may itself be toxic. Hence to get the required growth, quality and quantity of the produce, optimum availability of all the nutrients should be ensured.

1. Introduction
Aquaculture has become one of the most significant contributors to global food production, responding to the escalating demand for fish and seafood. As a rapidly growing industry, aquaculture plays a crucial role in ensuring food security, nutrition, and livelihoods. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), aquaculture production has expanded at an average annual rate of 5.3% over the past 30 years. This growth has positioned aquaculture as a primary source of protein, essential fatty acids, and micronutrients for billions of people worldwide. Despite its rapid expansion, the aquaculture industry faces significant environmental challenges, primarily due to the large amounts of organic waste generated by fish farming. This waste includes uneaten feed, fish excreta, and the remnants of dead organisms, all of which can contribute to nutrient pollution when not properly managed. Nutrient pollution is associated with serious ecological consequences such as eutrophication, where excess nutrients lead to algal blooms, oxygen depletion, and the degradation of aquatic habitats. These environmental issues threaten biodiversity and undermine the sustainability of aquaculture systems.
Nutrient recycling has emerged as an innovative and sustainable solution to address these challenges. This approach transforms waste into valuable resources, particularly in the form of nutrient-rich feed ingredients. By harnessing nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic matter from aquaculture waste, nutrient recycling not only reduces environmental impact but also improves the economic efficiency of aquaculture operations. Nutrient recycling promotes a circular economy model, where waste from fish farming is reintroduced into the system, closing nutrient loops and reducing the reliance on external inputs.

The requirements for a given nutrient is the minimum quantity of that nutrient that will maintain normal growth and reproduction, when all other nutrients are supplied in adequate quantities and at the same time, prevent the development of symptoms of nutritional deficiency.
 
The accurate way to express the nutrient requirements is in amount per day per animal. Poultry are fed in groups and hence, it is not practicable to express the requirements in amounts per day per animal. So, they are expressed in relation to energy content of the diet as poultry eats within limits to satisfy their energy needs. However, the estimation of energy content of the diet is not possible on routine basis and the calculated values may very much from estimated values. Because of these difficulties, the nutrient requirements of poultry are expressed on unit weight basis. 

Pigs are highly prolific among meat producing livestock and also excellent to all other type of farm animals in the efficiency of converting feed into high quality pork. The Nutrient requirements expressed for the mono-gastric animals like poultry and pigs as percent of the diet or the amount per kg of the diet, since they are generally fed in groups rather than individual feeding practiced in case of cattle and buffaloes (where absolute requirements are given). The latest requirements available are NRC nutrient requirements for swine, 1998 (10th revised edition), BIS, 1986 specifications for pig feeds and ICAR, 1998 for growing and finishing swine. Similarly ARC requirements are also available. NRC requirements are on 90% DM basis and are for breeds like Large White Yorkshire, Landrace, Berkshire etc., while BIS specifications are on 100% DM basis and for indigenous pigs, improved pigs and crossbred pigs.

Goats are valued as economical milk producer and main source for meat for a large section of population. The dry matter intake varies from 3% (Meat goat) to 4-6% (Dairy goat) in different breeds of India and it is higher than that of larger farm animals.

1. Nutrient requirements for maintenance

Adult body weight of goats may vary from 15 to 45 kg in different breeds. There are also does and bucks that weight up to 60kg. Nutrient requirements for maintenance of adult goats are, therefore given for body weights ranging from 15 to 60 kg. On an average for maintenance 76 g DM is required for each kg of metabolic body weight and similarly the requirements for DCP and TDN is 3 and 30 g, respectively.

2. Nutrient requirements for pregnant does

Since adult body weight as indicated already varies from 15 to 60 kg, the requirements for pregnant does are also given for body weights ranging from 15 to 60 kg.

Indian breeds of sheep have much lower adult weight (30-40kg) and growth rate in comparison to many foreign sheep breeds (70kg). Hence the requirements are lesser then foreign breeds.

1. Nutrient requirements for maintenance
On the basis of several balance studies and digestibility trials the requirements for Indian sheep breeds has been developed and calculations are made on the basis of 2.73 g of DCP per kg of metabolic body weight and TDN and ME requirements are 27.3 g and 98 Kcal per kg of metabolic body weight respectively. The requirements for different body weight are given in the table below:

Nutrient requirements of the animals in terms of protein, energy, minerals and vitamins are the basis for scientific feeding. The total requirement of an animal includes two components (i) maintenance (ii) production. While maintenance requirement varies with body size of the animal, the requirement for production depends upon its physiological state and production levels.

Such recommendations are based on the results of a large number of feeding experiments, conducted throughout the world. Feeding standards developed by Nation Research Council (NRC) of USA and Agricultural Research Council (ARC) of UK, for livestock and poultry are considered to be the best general guides for computation of ration. However, limited investigations carried out in this country suggest that adoption of foreign standards always leaves a fair margin of safety so far as the feeding of Indian species are concerned. This owes mainly due to differences in size, breed, nutritional values of feeding stuffs and other practices in the agro-climatic conditions of this tropical country. Some efforts have been made by India scientists in this area.

Duck production has an immense role in improving the socio-economical status of rural farmers. In India, duck farming occupies an important place next to chicken farming. Duck contributes about 7-10% of the total poultry population of the world. Ducks are water fowl, hence, they need a semi-aquatic lifestyle. They need a pond, lake, river, canal or any such type of water bodies for their survival. Thus, they are mainly concentrated in West Bengal, Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Kerala, Tripura, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Jammu & Kashmir and Manipur. Ducks are reared for both eggs and meat purposes. Unfortunately, duck farming is not done in an organized way in our country.

The requirement of micronutrients is always in low amounts while their moderate decrease causes the deficiency symptoms and a moderate increase causes toxicity. In other words, there is a narrow range of concentration at which the elements are optimum. Any mineral ion concentration in tissues that reduces the dry weight of tissues by about 10 per cent is considered toxic. Such critical concentrations vary widely among different micronutrients. The toxicity symptoms are difficult to identify. Toxicity levels for any element also vary for different plants. Many a times, excess of an element may inhibit the uptake of another element.

Soil is the fundamental resource in the agricultural production systems and monitoring its fertility is critical to the sustainability of agriculture. Plant nutrients undergo different transformation processes through which they are converted from unavailable to available forms. Nutrient cycling thus involves the transformation and availability of nutrients and is mediated by microbial action. Understanding the dynamics of nutrient and soil organic matter transformations requires an understanding of the biological, chemical, and physical processes involved.

7.1. Soil Nitrogen

The objective of nutrient use is to increase the overall performance of cropping systems by providing economically optimum nourishment to the crop while minimizing nutrient losses from the field and supporting agricultural system sustainability through contributions to soil fertility or other soil quality components. NUE addresses some but not all aspects of that performance. The most valuable NUE improvements are those contributing most to overall cropping system performance. Therefore, management practices that improve NUE without reducing productivity or the potential for future productivity increases are likely to be most valuable. An excellent review of NUE measurements and calculations was written by Dobermann (2007). Table  is a summary of common NUE terms, as defined by Dobermann, along with their applications and limitations. The primary question addressed by each term and the most typical use of the term are also listed below.

12.1 INTRODUCTION

Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) is a heavy feeder and needs a balanced and adequate supply of nutrients for growth and yield. Fertilizer is one of the most costly inputs, which accounts for greater part of production costs in the cultivation of oil palm. Large amount of nutrients are removed by the fruit bunches harvested from the mature palms. It is estimated that 25 tonnes fresh fruit bunches per hectare per year removes 93.5 Kg Nitrogen, 11.0 Kg Phosphorous, 92.7 Kg Potassium, 19.3 Kg Magnesium and 20.3 Kg Calcium.

Economic yields of oil palm are achieved when the supply of nutrients from the soil, palm residues and fertilizers are properly integrated in required quantities. Leaf analysis is an analytical tool for detecting the nutrient requirements in oil palm and other perennial crops, which are slow growing and can provide easily, defined standard leaf material for analysis due to leaf phyllotaxis. Nutrient deficiency symptoms are also an important means for determining the nutritional problems in oil palm, since the crop presents easily identifiable N, K and Mg deficiency symptoms. However, by the time symptoms are evident, nutrient deficiency might have already affected growth and yield.

Also the nutrient supply may be insufficient before the appearance of leaf symptoms. So there is a need for a thorough inspection of the leaf canopy to corroborate the results of leaf analysis and identify the areas with severe nutrient deficiencies. The research on oil palm nutrition was carried out under rainfed conditions at Palode, Kerala and irrigated conditions at Pedavegi, Andhra Pradesh.

In India, a great variety of soils ranging from red sandy loams/sandy clay loams (Alfisols), alluvial silt loams (Inceptisols / Entisols), heavy black soils (Vertisols) and acidic red laterite soils (Oxisols) are put to oil palm cultivation. In Andhra Pradesh, it is grown in red sandy, red loamy, red loam with clay base, deltaic alluvium pH - 6.5 to 9.0. In Karnataka, it is grown in red and brown sandy loams and black clayey soils, with pH - 6.5 to 9.0. Red soils, red loamy soils and clay loam soils are used for growing oil palm in Tamil Nadu. Laterite soils are used for oil palm cultivation in Kerala.

Post independence era brought about a radical change in agricultural scenario which improved economy and living standard of Indian farmers to a great extent. Green revolution, (field crops) during early sixties followed by white revolution (milk) and thereafter yellow (oilseeds) and blue (fish) revolutions made the country not only self sufficient in most of the food commodities but also exporter in many. Several calamities including droughts, floods, and ill effects of national and international conflicts faced by the, people of the country during post independence era could not affect the economy and stability of the country much because of rich agricultural heritage. As usual, the rapid and rather un-planned development creates several problems and this was true in our conditions too. Loss ofindigenous land races, depletion of soil nutrients and water resources, creation of salinity and water logging, resurgence of pest and diseases, declining factor productivity and farm profits and increased environmental (air, water & soil) pollution are among such problems have great concern to agricultural scientists and planners in coming future. The situation further aggravated because of industry oriented government policies and globalization which supported growth of industries and trades rather than agriculture and hence the growth rate in these sectors was considerably high. This fact is more visible by the figures on relative contribution of different sectors in the national GDP during last sixty years (Table 1). At the time of independence of the country more than 75% people were depend on agriculture related occupations which came down to mere 67.4% in 2009-10. Similar is the case of total contribution of agriculture in national GDP which decreased from 57% in 1951-52 to as low as 14.6% in 2009-10. Besides government policies, major factor identified responsible for degradation of resources, stability in production and decreased factor productivity is chemical based farming and that too in imbalanced and improper methods of application practiced by the farmers for getting more andinore production and profits per unit area per unit time The solution of this lies in the increased use of organic sources of nutrients in proper ratio along with chemical fertilizers - IPNS (Integrated Plant Nutrient System). Livelihood of marginal and small land holders who represent a large section (more than 86%) of farming community and remained deprived of advancements in the, field of agriculture has been the main agenda of the Indian Government in Xlth, five year plan and to continue in Xllth plan too. To ensure livelihood improvement with focus on small and marginal farmers Integrated Farming System (IFS) has been proved to be an effective approach. Accordingly, the Project Directorate of Cropping Systems Research renamed as Project Directorate for Farming Systems Research with AICRP on Integrated Farming Systems Research and Network Project on Organic Farming mandated with farming systems perspectives. Since, integrated farming system is a holistic approach wherein all the wastes and residues are recycled within the system and nothing go waste. Output of one enterprise is used as input for the others. This way, farming becomes more economic and environmentally safe.

Developments of feeding standards

Feeding standards are statements or quantitative descriptions of amounts of one or more nutrients needed by the body. Since the beginning of nineteenth century, scientists worldwide started formulation of standards for feeing the livestock and poultry and as such with the advancement of science the standards were developed from time to time. For convenience all such standards are grouped under major 
3 headings based on principles of standards. These are comparative type, digestible nutrient system and production value type.

Introduction

Nutrition is the fundamental pillar of life and an essential foundation of human and national development. Rightfrom the earliest stage of human development, the fetal stage, at birth, infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age, nutrition forms the basis for survival, performance, mental and physical development & economic and social development.Nutritional deficiencies during pregnancy, fetal and early postnatal life can have a negative impact not only on the subsequent growth and development but can also lead to changes in metabolic regulation and homeostasis.

Introduction

"The new science of nutrigenomics teaches us what specific foods tell your genes. What you eat directly determines the genetic messages your body receives. These messages, in turn, control all the molecules that constitute your metabolism: the molecules that tell your body to burn calories or store them. If you can learn the language of your genes and control the messages and instructions they give your body and your metabolism, you can radically alter how food interacts with your body, lose weight, and optimize your health." (Mark Hyman 2006).

Nutrients have long been considered merely as fuel or cofactors however, it is accepted that diet and feeding strategies play an important role in determining the basic physiological processes that influence the health and wellbeing of animals and ultimately influence the efficiency of production. Traditional research related to animal nutrition mainly deals with either deficiency or excess of the particular nutrient which affects their health and productivity. Subsequently, it was appreciated that nutrients can themselves participate in the regulation of metabolic pathways, for instance through the allosteric regulation of specific enzymes, or by modulating hormone secretion. Shifting of balance between health and disease states involves the complex interplay of genes and the environment, which includes nutrients. The use of systems biology approach in nutrition has attracted both scientists and industrialists during recent decades and a link between diet and health is well established. However, it has often been difficult to easily evaluate the effects of specific nutrients, combinations of nutrients and nutrient interactions because of the lack of straightforward biological indicators that respond to even the simplest changes in nutrition or nutritional status.

The exploration of facts about healthy and nutritious food has increased over the years. The advent of advance scientific tools has elucidated facts regarding the role of diet or nutrients in regulating gene expression (Sales et al., 2014). Various studies based on molecular interactions in food has revealed that many dietary components such as proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals, vitamins and phyto-constituents has the tendency to regulate gene expression.

4.1. Introduction
The food is the main factor known to affect the health of an individual. By interference in the protein synthesis, function and metabolites and alteration in genome expression, the healthy condition must be altered to diseased condition. Side by side we can say that the dietary component directly or indirectly modulates the molecular fingerprint and understanding of which is dealt with nutrigenomics. So, by modulation of a particular gene for a specific disease by nutrition, we can prevent the specific disease and promote the health of a population. Consuming fruits and vegetables on a regular basis has been linked to better health outcomes and diminution of several chronic or life style linked diseases.
Concept of Nutritional Genomics
After completion of human genome sequencing, the unique term “Nutritional genomics” tends to replace the old term “Nutrient-gene interaction”. It has been stated that so many polymorphism can influence protein structure and function. There are several regulatory sites where nutrients can impact the flow of genetic information. The two components of the nutritional genomics field are nutrigenomics, which studies how dietary components interact with the genome to regulate changes in proteins and other metabolism, and nutrigenetics, which determines how dietary components affect genetic variations. (Farhud et al., 2010). Nutrients are as environmental influences can interact with genetic material. It is commonly known that DNA metabolism and repair require a range of dietary elements that serve as cofactors or substrates in metabolic pathways. However, little is known about how cofactors and/or micronutrient excess or deficiency affect the accuracy of DNA replication and repair (Caroline and Fenech, 2008). The response to a particular nutrient, which is determined by the individual genotype, must also be taken into consideration, even though the nutrients can influence the development of a particular phenotypic.

Abstract

Nutrition and genetics both have very crucial role in human health and in development of chronic diseases such as cancer, osteoporosis, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. Difference between individuals in response to dietary intervention is a well-known phenomenon in nutrition research (Ordovas, 2008).The effect of dietary changes on phenotypes such as blood cholesterol, body weight and blood pressure can differ significantly between individuals (Ordovas et al., 2007). Various bioprocess i.e. ingestion, absorption, digestion, transport, metabolism and excretion of nutrients and food bioactive components in human body is carried out through proteins such as enzymes, receptors, transporters, ion channels and hormones. Genetic variation leads to altered production and affect functional properties of these proteins. Furthermore nutritional efficacy is also different among different individuals which might be affected by nutritional status. Thus diet and gene expression are interrelated and have a mutual effect on physiology of human body.

Introduction

The dairy farmers mostly keep cows (indigenous and crossbred) along with few buffaloes for milk production. However, the genetic potential of the dairy animals is exploited fully, when they are fed with well balanced ration. Further, as feed cost is around 75% of the total cost of production, the success of the dairy farming depends not only on the quality of the ration, but also on the economy of the ration. Therefore, knowledge on the feeds and feeding of dairy animals is highly essential.

What is Feed?

Feed may be defined as supplementation of nutrients for development, maintenance and operation of day to day activities by animals.

Mice are omnivores and can be fed with commercial feeds like pellets or fed with mixed feed which is locally available cereal, pulses and grains.

However, nutritionally requirement of mice

Carbohydrates - 45-55%

Protein - 16- 24%

Fibre - 4-5%

Fat - 4-6%

Supplement vitamin and minerals.

Rabbits are produced for meat, wool and research and as pets or for a hobby. Meat production is the most important commercial aspect of rabbitry. The domestic rabbit is primarily herbivorous and will consume most types of grains, oil seed cakes, brans, greens and hay. Diets provided, whether home grown or commercially prepared, consist almost entirely of ingredients from plant sources. Although, the producers / farmers mostly rely on home grown feeds, a good portion of the rabbit feed presently used is commercial pelleted feed. Since the rabbit can utilize a certain amount of forage, it has a place in food production by making use of some non-competitive feeds.

Nutrition and feeding management are crucial components in the seed rearing phase of aquaculture, significantly impacting the growth, survival, and overall health of juvenile fish and shellfish. In the Indian aquaculture industry, which primarily cultivates Indian Major Carps (IMCs), catfish, tilapia, pangasius, shrimp, and freshwater prawns, implementing species-specific and stage-wise feeding practices is essential. During the early developmental stages such as larvae, fry, and fingerlings, the nutritional demands are high due to rapid growth and the development of internal organs. To meet these needs, live feeds like infusoria, rotifers, Moina, Daphnia, and Artemia nauplii are commonly used as they are highly digestible, appropriately sized, and capable of stimulating a natural feeding response. As larvae mature into fry and fingerlings, they are gradually transitioned to formulated micro-diets or crumble feeds that typically contain 30–40% protein and 6–10% lipids. For shellfish species such as shrimp post-larvae and Macrobrachium, specialized starter diets enriched with immune boosters and probiotics are utilized to enhance survival and health. Feeding is typically carried out 3–5 times daily during the nursery phase, with rations adjusted according to biomass and water temperature. Care is taken to avoid both overfeeding, which can lead to water pollution, and underfeeding, which is managed through regular sampling and observation. In extensive systems like ponds and hapas, natural food availability is increased through the application of fertilizers and manures to stimulate plankton production. Overall, maintaining a balanced diet and adopting scientific feeding strategies are vital for producing healthy, fast-growing, and disease-resistant juveniles, thereby improving the economic efficiency and sustainability of aquaculture in India.

(I) Digestion of Feed

In feed, carbohydrate is the main nutritive substance which is in the form of insoluble large particles. For intestinal absorption by blood and lymph, it is necessary to be digested as small and simple particles. For example, carbohydrate found in the form of starch or glycogen is not absorbed as such and is only absorbed when it is converted into the simple soluble monosaccharide form. Similarly, proteins present in the feed are also not absorbed untill they are digested into simple forms of aminoacids (Fig. 27, Fig. 28, Fig. 29, Fig. 30). Piglets are exceptions, as the newly born piglets obtain colostrum from their mother. Colostrum is rich in gamma immunoglobulins. This immunoglobulin is abosrbed as such without digestion by pinocytosis. It gives immunity to save the new piglets from many diseases. For this reason, colostrum suckling is necessary for new piglets. The process of pinocytosis occur only few days after birth and it  stops after some time. Fat occurs in the form of triglycerides in the feed. For absorption of the fat, it is necessary to be converted into its simple forms such as glycerol, free fatty acids or in the form of monoglycerides.

Carbohydrates exhibit protein sparing action, because proteins are mainly required for tissue – building, that is, general wear and tear in the body. If there is any emergency, say animal is deficient in calories of the diet, then it will use adipose and protein tissues. It is said that proteins and fats are burnt (or oxidized) in the flame of carbohydrate. It means that certain intermediary compounds of glucose oxidation through Krebs cycle, are absolutely necessary for oxidation of proteins and fats. Again, in any emergency, if glucose level of the body goes down, fats and proteins are taken over and they get metabolized faster than the body can take care of the intermediate products. However, ketone bodies – acetone, acetoacetate β – hydroxy butyrate appear in urine. In addition to above, monosaccharides are very important (vital)m structural components of many compounds which regulate metabolism. Among these are DNA, RNA for transfer of genetic information of the cell, which contain ribose and deoxy ribose sugars. Glucuronic acid occurs in the liver and this combines with toxic chemicals and bacterial by – products and hence, acts as detoxifying agent. Hyaluronic acid (a disaccharide) forms matrix of connective tissue. Heparin, a mucopolysaccharide, is very important anti – coagulant. Chondroitin sulfates are present in cartilage, bone, skin and tendon. Glycosides are widely distributed throughout the plant kingdom and a number of them have been used as drugs for animals. 
Lipids: these are the most concentrated form of the stored energy in animal kingdom, because they provide 2.25 times per unit more energy than carbohydrate. They provide insulation for vital organs protecting them from mechanical shock and also maintain body temperature. The cell membranes have phospholipids, for example – Erythrocytes. Prostaglandins exhibit hormonal activities. Essential fatty acids – linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acids show deficiency symptoms in their absence. Lipid also delays hunger, because it requires longer time to pass through stomach than carbohydrate or protein. They also help in lubrication.

Introduction

Nutrition is the study of how food and nutrients affect the body’s health and well-being. It encompasses all aspects of food, from the food production, processing, consumption and digestion by the body. A balanced diet included all the essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, protein, fat, vitamins and minerals for maintaining good health. The recommended daily intake of nutrients varies depending on the age, gender and physical activity of a person. The nutritional need also varies depending on the lifestyle and medical condition of a person. The nutrition facts are based on recommended daily intakes for various nutrients, which vary based on factors such as age, sex, and physical activity. These facts are given on food packaging or label, providing important information on the serving size, calories, macronutrients and micronutrients, and other ingredients.

Nutrition labels are mainly intended to guide the consumer in food selection. Nutrition information provided on labels must be true and should not mislead consumers. Nutrition labelling regulations are provided by countries to help manufacturers. The Codex guidelines on Nutrition Labelling provide guidance to member countries to develop or update their national regulations and to encourage harmonization of national standards with international standards. According to it, no food should be described or presented in false, misleading or deceptive way. Nutrition labelling cannot solve nutrition problems, instead it is one of the elements of nutrition policy.

11.1. Nutrition Facts

Nutrition Facts means the nutritional information required for most of the packaged food in many countries giving the energy value and nutrients contained in the food. Nutrition facts labels are required by regulation similar to other types of food labels. It provides detailed information on the nutrient content of the food such as the amount of fat, sugar, sodium and dietary fiber.

Fruits and vegetables are the major constituents of daily diet. They provide not only body building elements but also energy yielding food for the wellbeing of humans. Main object of the nutrition garden is to make availability of the requisite quantity of fresh fruits and vegetables to family members. It is generally raised in the backyard of home. It is also called as a home garden or kitchen garden. Most of the day to day cultural operations are performed by family members. Working in the nutrition garden during their spare time is a pleasure, an inspiration, a means of recreation to all the family members. The foremost advantage of nutrition garden is to daily supply fresh fruits and vegetables as per the needs of family members. Nutrition garden has an important role in enhancing national food security and dietary diversity to combat malnutrition.

Points to be considered, while the planning and layout of nutrition garden

The term essential element was proposed by Arnon and Stout (1939).They concluded three criteria must be met for an element to be considered essential. These criteria are:

1.A plant must be unable to complete its life cycle in the absence of the mineral element.

2.The function of the element must not be replaceable by another mineral element.

3.The element must be directly involved in plant metabolism.

The number of elements considered essential for the growth of higher plants now varies from 16 to 20 or more, depending upon the definition of essentiality. Other scientists such as Nicholas (1961) believed that an element should be considered essential if its addition enhances plant growth even though it merely substitutes for one of the 16 elements that Arnon declares to be essential. For example, sodium can substitute in plant nutrition for some potassium and vanadium for some molybdenum, Nicholas would consider both sodium and vanadium as essential, but Arnon would not. On the basis of the criteria used, Arnon specifies 16 elements and Nicholas 20 elements as being essential for the growth of higher plants. Three other debated nutrients are nickel (urea transformations), cobalt (N₂ fixation) and silicon. These criteria are important guidelines for plant nutrition but exclude beneficial mineral elements. Beneficial elements are those that can compensate for toxic effects of other elements or may replace mineral nutrients in some other less specific function such as the maintenance of osmotic pressure. The omission of beneficial nutrients in commercial production could mean that plants are not being grown to their optimum genetic potential but are merely produced at a subsistence level.

Nutrient

Definition: Those elements are required for plant metabolism in more or less quantity, is known as nutrients. Plants have 30 types of elements but 17 elements out of 30 are essential for plant growth and development. These elements are called Essential nutrients.

Criteria of essentiality of plant nutrients theory: It is given by Arnon and Stout (1939). This theory stated that plant can not be completed their life cycle without the deficiency or complete absence of a single nutrient among the essential nutrients

Low of minimum: It is given by Justus Von Leibing (1840). According to this low, the growth of the plants is limited by the plant ntruient present in smaller quantity, all other being in adequate amounts. This has been re–stated as Barrel concept.

Allen and Arnon (1955) laid out following criteria for categorising nutrients essentiality to plants:

1. Complete or partial lack of the element in question must make normal plant growth impossible
2. Deficiency symptoms must be reversibly by the addition of the elements in question
3. The element must play specific role in the plant metabolic symptom

A. Answer the following questions

1.    What is the DM consumption in adult guinea pig? Ans. An adult animal consumes @ 7-8% of body weight.

2.    Mention daily average feed consumption of guinea pigs?

Ans: Growing Guinea pigs: 20-30g, Adult maintenance: 30-50g, Pregnant and lactating: 40-60g.

3.    Write down the peculiarities of digestive system of guinea pig.

Ans. The entire stomach of guinea pig is lined with glandular epithelium and gastric mucosa does not have a keratinized portion.

4.    Why guinea pig cannot synthesize vitamin C?

Nutrients

The nutrients are chemical elements which are absorbed by the plants in more or less quantity to transform light energy into chemical energy and to keep up plant metabolism for the synthesis of organic materials. These materials constitute among other things, foods for humans and animals and a range of raw materials for various industrial uses. Feeding of plants with nutrients is termed as nutrition. Successful growth and production of the plants in general requires a proper supply of the 17 elements. These elements are regarded as essential to life in higher plants.

4.1. Digestive System of Rabbit

The digestive system of rabbit includes:
    A.    The digestive tract 
    B.    Its associated glands
The digestive system breaks down the complex molecules into the simpler one so that it is readily absorbed from gastro intestinal mucosa.
 
A. The digestive tract (gastro intestinal tract/ alimentary canal)

The digestive tract is essentially a tubular structure for the ingestion and digestion of food. In an adult (4 to 4.5 kg) or semi-adult (2.5 to 3 kg) rabbit the total length of the alimentary canal is 4.5 to 5 m. It commences from mouth and terminates in anus. G.I.T is divided into following parts:

Food security is achieved when adequate food is available and accessible and satisfactorily used and utilized by all individuals to live a healthy and active life. But food and nutrition security is achieved when people have physical, economic and social access to food of sufficient quantity in terms of variety, diversity, nutrient content and safety to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for a healthy and active life coupled with sanitary environment, adequate health and education care. In order to achieve food and nutrition security there is a need for transitioning toward nutrition sensitive food system.

In Uttarakhand, majority of the population lives in rural areas and primarily depends on agriculture for their livelihood. In Uttarakhand, only 14.02% area is under cultivation. Out of total 7.66 lakh hectare cultivated area in the state, 4.21 lakh hectare area is rainfed i.e. more than 50 % of the cultivable area is rainfed. The average land holding is 0.68 ha that too is divided into many patches. Rainfed farming in Uttarakhand gets affected by frequent drought like situations and excessive rainfall. Food and nutritional security of people living in hill region depends more on favorable climatic conditions as agriculture and livestock farming are the main occupations. Prevailing low level of soil fertility and increased incidences of pest and disease occurrences has adversely affected the crop production and productivity in hills. Low agricultural productivity has emerged out as an important push factor for out migration of people from hill areas. Traditional hill agriculture is practiced on small and fragmented terraced fields with lack of irrigation facilities, which are uneconomical. Women constitute the main workforce in agriculture as large section of able bodied men have migrated from hills in search of livelihood. They also take care of the cattle, collect fuel wood and fodder from forests, often situated at considerable distance from the villages involving four to five hours of walking both ways, and do all household chores. Their life is an unending drudgery of hard work.

As a large population in the hill region of Uttarakhand depends on agriculture, the problem of malnutrition can be better addressed through nutrition sensitive agricultural interventions specifically designed for women in hills. Local nutritional needs can be met out locally by reviving traditional practices along with amalgamation of science and technology knowledge. Focusing on nutrition helps to build the resilience of rural households. Nutrition sensitive approach was promoted at local level with active participation of women who are mainly responsible for food security of the households.

Today, health promotion of the poor has emerged, worldwide, as a vital area for policy research and action. Healthcare is the responsibility of the constituent states and territories of India.
Food security: Gender dimensions
Health standards have improved gradually over a period of years. But the burden of ill health is borne disproportionately by different population subgroups and people of lower socio-economic status, especially women, as they consistently experience poor health outcomes. Gender inequality leads to food insecurity and is also its leading cause. National food security is largely dependent on agricultural sector. The FAO articulates that food security is achieved when people at the individual, household, national, regional and global levels, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for a healthy and active life.
Rural women rarely own a control land and lack access to agricultural inputs, technology, training, extension services and marketing services. Despite being major contributors to agricultural production, they have little or no access to the means of production. They face restrictions in mobility due to social conditions, hence face a narrower range of labour markets than men including harsh working conditions and lower wage rates. This is insufficient for them to overcome absolute poverty. Added to this, the role of girl child as an unpaid contributor to the household production is another labour phenomenon of agriculture. In many families, girls and women suffer from severe anaemia, malnutrition and a malady of diseases. Women who are considered and counted in the national statistics as ‘cultivators’ are largely unpaid workers. In many families, females suffer from severe anaemia, malnutrition and a malady of diseases. ‘Feminisation of agriculture is being witnessed as there is higher proportion of female labour in comparison to male labour. They often engage in unpaid family agriculture work and subsistence farming.