eChapters

1.    The predominant form of fat within fat (adipose) tissue is stored in humans in the form of

(a) Glycogen

(b) Triglycerides

(c) Diglycerides

(d) Monoglycerides

2.    The Thermic Effect of food refers to

(a) The ‘heat’ one feels from eating a chili pepper

(b) The amounts of energy the body spents to process, use and store

(c) The benefits of eating warm foods in cold weather

(d) All of the above

    1.    Nutrients : Chemical substances obtained from food and used in the body to provide energy, structural materials, and regulating agents to support growth, maintenance, and repair of the body’s tissues. Nutrients may also reduce the risks of some diseases.
    2.    Carbohydrate, fat, and protein are sometimes called macronutrients because the body requires them in relatively large amounts (many grams daily). In contrast, vitamins and minerals are micronutrients, required only in small amounts (milligrams or micrograms daily).
    3.    The international unit for measuring food energy is the joule, a measure of work energy. To convert kcalories to kilojoules, multiply by 4.2; to convert kilojoules to kcalories, multiply by 0.24.
    4.    Essential nutrients : Nutrients a person must obtain from food because the body cannot make them for itself in sufficient quantity to meet physiological needs; also called indispensable nutrients. About 40 nutrients are currently known to be essential for human beings. Energy-yielding nutrients: the nutrients that break down to yield energy the body can use:

1. Introduction Millets are the Nutri-cereals belonging to the Poaceae family and are classified into two major categories: major and minor, depending on their size and nutritional composition. Most millet crops are indigenous to India and are referred to as “nutri-cereals” since they contain most of the nutrients needed for the body to function properly. Millets such as Sorghum (Jowar), Pearl Millet (Bajra), and Finger Millet (Ragi) are the millets that come under the category of major millets. In contrast, the minor millets category includes Foxtail Millet (Kakun), Proso Millet (Cheena), Kodo Millet, Barnyard Millet (Sanwa), Little Millet (Kutki), Brown top millet including two pseudo millet that includes Buckwheat (Kuttu) and Amaranth (Chaulai) (Saini et al., 2021).

Introduction

There is an ongoing debate on global warming worldwide as it is seriously impacting climate change. The global temperature has been increased by 0.74±0.18°C during the last century and the climate model projections summarized in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report indicate that the global surface temperature will probably rise a further 1.1 to 6.4°C during the twenty-first century (IPCC, 2007). High ambient temperature is one of the most important stressors to poultry, which has a direct relationship on profitability of chicken meat and egg production. A seasonal problem in many parts of the world, high environmental temperature (35-43^oC in tropical countries) causes economic losses through reducing feed intake while decreasing nutrient utilization, live weight gain, egg production, egg quality and feed efficiency in poultry (Corzo et al., 2003; Panda et al., 2007a; 2008). The ideal temperature for broilers is 10-22^oC for optimum body weight and 15-27^oC for feed efficiency (NRC, 1994). Layers will produce egg constantly in the temperature range of 10-30^oC. Above 30^oC, performance in terms of growth and egg production declines.

Food, at the fundamental level, is viewed as a source of nutrition to meet daily requirements at a minimum in order to survive but with an ever greater focus on the desire to thrive. Nutritional security denotes the consumption and physiological use of adequate quantities of safe and nutritious food by every member of the family and encompasses the process of equitable distribution among members of household and communities. This would entail the need to ensure a varied food intake, comprising all the essential macro- and micronutrients (protein, carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins), plant pigments (lycopene, β- carotene, anthocianin, lutein, capsanthin, zeaxanthin, etc.) and other functional phytochemicals (secondary metabolites, like flavonoids, isothiocyanates, glucosinolates, etc.) through a diversified diet. The growing awareness in recent years of the health promoting food has directed increased attention to vegetables as vital components of daily diets.

Main Nutrient Components of Vegetables

Nutrient components of our food can be grouped into five main divisions, namely, (i) Carbohydrate, (ii) Protein, (iii) Fat, (iv) Vitamins and (v) Minerals. Balanced diet is the food containing all these nutrient components in balanced form to run the physiological process in good tune. So, only eating to one’s heart’s content may not be the criterion of a balanced diet. Our dietary constitution which is mostly cereal based is really alarming. Cereals, which supply chiefly carbohydrate, constitute only a part of the diet. Moreover, the present average carbohydrate supply through cereals is also not adequate. Chief deficiencies in our diet are calories, protein, vitamin A and riboflavin. According to the studies of Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi and National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad, meager intake of vegetables, the low cost protective foods, is largely responsible for malnutrition among the majority of our population. The dieticians advocate intake of 125g leafy vegetables, 75g other vegetables and 100g root and tuber vegetables (total 300g) everyday to make our diet balanced. In households below the poverty line, per capita vegetable consumption is very low, apprehended to be even lower than 40g per day.

Nutritional and metabolic disorders in livestock and poultry arise from imbalances in nutrient intake, environmental factors, or the inability of the body to metabolize nutrients properly. These disorders impact animal health, productivity, and overall economic performance. Early identification and proper management are critical to mitigating their effects.
Nutritional and metabolic disorders can be broadly categorized as:
1. Disorders caused by deficiencies or excesses of nutrients
2. Disorders related to imbalances in energy, protein, or minerals
3. Disorders resulting from inadequate metabolic adaptations to physiological or environmental changes
Common nutritional and metabolic disorders in livestock include:
A. Energy and protein-related disorders
1. Ketosis (Acetonemia) in dairy cattle
Cause: Negative energy balance during early lactation, leading to fat mobilization and ketone body accumulation.
Symptoms: Reduced milk production, weight loss, acetone-like breath, and decreased appetite. Management
Increase energy density in diets with concentrates and high-quality forages.
Supplement with propylene glycol or glucose precursors.
Monitor body condition scores to prevent over-conditioning during the dry period.

Abstract

Due to rapidly increasing knowledge on nutrition and medicine, concepts about food and health has dramatically changed and resulted in consumption of nutraceuticals and natural plant foods.Use of nutritional therapy and phytotherapy have become progressively popular to improve health, and to prevent and treat diseases. Plants have long history of their uses as ingredients of human nutrition and folk medicine,because of availability of huge array of high-value components and multiple-activity bio-actives. “Licorice” means “sweet root” in Greek is a plant of ancient origin, indigenous to Southern Europe and Asia Minor. Most of the supply comes from former USSR, Spain, Turkey, Syria, Iraq and Afghanistan, with total production between 40,000 and 50,000 tonnes per annum. The chemical constituents of the roots include several bioactive compounds, such as glycyrrhizin (~16%), different sugars (up to 18%) ,flavonoids, saponoids,sterols, starches, amino acids, gums and essential oils. A large number of clinical and experimental studies reported its useful biological properties such as antioxidant, immunomodulatory, cardioprotective, anti-inflammatory, anti-viral and anticancer effects. It is useful in anaemia, gout, asthama,ulcers, sore throat, tonsillitis, diabetes, tuberculosis, flatulence, diarrhea, sexual debility, epilepsy, hyperdypsia, fever, coughs, skin diseases, eye diseases, swellings,constipation, rheumatism, acidity, leucorrhoea, bleeding, jaundice, hiccough, hoarseness, bronchitis.Recently, it is reported to have neurological properties such as antidepressant, anxiolytic, and anticonvulsant effects. The most abundant minerals present are calcium, sodium, phosphorus, potassium and iron. Licorice extracts and its principle component, glycyrrhizin, have extensive use in foods,as a natural sweetener and flavoring agent in beverage, confectionery, tobacco and pharmaceutical industry. It is in great demand globally as medicinal and nutritional supplement due to it's wide range of properties, which also indicates that in future the plant could serve as a “lead” for the development of novel agents having good efficacy in various disorders.

Introduction

In the recent past there has been a great deal of questioning regarding role of milk fat in cholesterol metabolism and other body functions. The enormous wave against cholesterol containing foods has damaged the image and market growth of fat rich dairy products. This trend is due to presence of saturated fats and cholesterol that are known to increase the incidence of coronary heart diseases one of the common cause of heart attack. The educated and urban society is more health conscious about the presence of cholesterol in their diets. This has led to the greater demand of cholesterol free foods. Ghee being a saturated fat and containing little amount of cholesterol, is suspected to contribute towards coronary heart diseases. However, critically surveyed scientific literature indicates that there is no evidence of any association of milk fat with increased risk of coronary heart diseases. Age old and proven Ayurvedic system of medicine has proved the usage of ghee to induce several beneficial effects on human health and used extensively for therapeutic purpose like in treatment of skin allergy, respiratory diseases, curative for ulcers and eye diseases. This suggest that ghee is a valuable form of dietary fat.

India is blessed with a coast line of 8118 km with an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 2.02 million square km and a continental shelf of 0.506 million sq. km. The inland water resources includes 191024 km of rivers and canals; 2.05 million ha of reservoirs; 2.254 million ha of ponds and tanks; 1.3 million ha of oxbow lakes and derelict waters; and 1.24 million ha brackish waters. India has an estimated fish production potential of 8.4 million tons, of which the marine sector forms 3.9 million tons and the inland sector 4.5 million tons. As against this, the current fish production is 5.96 million tons i.e., 2.89 million tons from marine sector and 3.07 million tons from inland sector (Vannuccini, 2003). The per capita fish availability in India is 4.7 kg/year (Laurenti, 2002).

1 Application of lime reduces plant minerals namely

a) Ca b) Zn

c) Mn d) All of the above

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is the necessary component for vitamins.
2. _____ is vital for seed formation.
3. _____ is essential for protein synthesis.
4. _____ is essential for nut development in peanuts.
5. _____ is the key element for chlorophyll production.
6. _____ is the integral part of amino acids.
7. _____ is essential for seed and cell wall formation.
8. _____ catalyzes several plant processes.

Nutritional deficiencies can result from a lack of specific nutrients in the diet, adverse interactions between nutrients in seemingly well-balanced diets, or the influence of specific anti-nutrients. The latter two scenarios are particularly challenging to diagnose because dietary analysis may suggest that nutrient levels are adequate. Micronutrients such as vitamins and trace minerals are typically added to diets through standalone micro premixes, making classic signs of individual nutrient deficiencies rare. Instead, the effects are often a combination of various metabolic conditions. Accurate diagnosis often requires comprehensive information about the diet and management practices, clinical signs in affected birds, necropsies, and tissue analyses. However, tissue analysis, especially of the liver and serum, can be misleading. Following the onset of a deficiency, birds may sequester nutrients in the liver, leading to falsely high liver assay values even when the diet is deficient. This effect is particularly significant for minerals such as copper. A diet that appears to contain sufficient levels of certain nutrients based on analysis may actually be deficient in those nutrients to some extent. Stressors such as bacterial, parasitic, or viral infections, as well as extreme temperatures, can interfere with nutrient absorption or increase the nutritional requirements. Toxins or microorganisms may destroy or render unavailable specific nutrients that appear to be present in adequate levels according to conventional chemical or physical assays. Consequently, many trace minerals and vitamins are included in the diet at levels significantly higher than the actual requirements to account for these potential issues.

Introduction

Poultry production is practiced at levels ranging from subsistence to large scale commercial operations. Commercial operations depend on hatcheries for the supply of day-old chicks while the subsistence farmers hatch their chicks by natural incubation. The hatchery plays a central role in the poultry production chain. Optimization of hatchery and breeder farm management can lead to improvement of the result throughout the production chain (Heier and Jarp, 2001). Generally, the success of hatchery management is monitored by the percentage of eggs set that are hatched (hatchability) and the number of chicks that are placed for grow-out (saleable chicks). 

1. Introduction
Nutritional genomics, also known as nutrigenomics, is an emerging field that seeks to understand how individual genetic variations influence responses to specific nutrients and how diet, in turn, affects gene expression and overall health. By studying the complex interactions between nutrients and the human genome, nutritional genomics aims to develop personalized nutrition strategies that optimize health, prevent disease, and improve dietary outcomes for individuals based on their unique genetic makeup.
In the past, nutrition science largely followed a “one-size-fits-all” approach, with general dietary recommendations applied to broad populations. However, advances in genomics have shown that people respond differently to the same foods based on their genetic profile. Factors such as nutrient metabolism, absorption rates, and predispositions to certain diseases can vary significantly among individuals. These discoveries have led to a paradigm shift toward personalized nutrition, where diet plans are tailored to an individual’s genetic predispositions, improving the effectiveness of dietary interventions and reducing disease risks.
Nutritional genomics spans several sub-disciplines, including nutrigenetics (the study of how genetic variations affect the body’s response to nutrients) and nutrigenomics (how nutrients influence gene expression). These two aspects work together to help researchers understand the dual relationship between diet and genetics, contributing to the development of personalized diets that account for metabolic and physiological differences.

Proper nutrition is essential for the health and well-being of dogs at every stage of life. The nutritional needs of a dog change as it grows, so it’s important to tailor their diet according to their age, size, and health status. Below is a comprehensive guide on the nutritional needs of dogs, broken down into different age groups: puppies, adult dogs, and senior dogs.

1. Puppies (0-12 Months)

Puppies are in a rapid growth phase and require a high level of nutrients, including proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals, to support the development of muscles, bones, organs, and the immune system.

Nutritional Needs

Protein: Puppies require high-quality animal-based protein to build muscle and tissue. Around 22-30% of their diet should be protein-rich. Chicken, tur key, fish, and eggs are excellent sources.

Healthy body maintains a healthy mind. Fruits and vegetables are said to be protective food as they provide proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals, roughages, organic acids, enzymes and energy for normal growth and sustenance of physiological activities of human beings. Fruits and vegetables provide palatability, taste and improve appetite. It also provides fiber to prevent constipation. They reduce the ill-effect of acids produced during digestion of proteins and fatty acids. Thus, they protect the human body from various deficiency disorders.

Important fact is that most of the Indians are vegetarians. The incorporation of fruits and vegetables in daily diet is essential as body building elements and calorie yielding foods for good health. Comparatively fruits and vegetables are the cheapest source of natural nutritive foods and are an important component of a balanced diet Balanced diet is a diet which contains body building elements and calorie yielding foods in an appropriate proportion for normal growth and well-being of a person. According to ICMR, New Delhi; 120 g fruits and 280-300 g vegetables should be consumed per day per capita. Vegetables include 80-100 g of leafy vegetables, 100-125 g of tubers as energy source and remaining as other vegetables.

Significant achievements have been made in the food availability throughout the world over the last few decades. The estimated number of people in developing regions suffering from chronic malnutrition has declined (from 946 million people in 1969-71 to 870 million people in 2010-12), as the proportion of malnourished people from 36 percent to 20 percent, even though the world population has increased. Global food supplies (if distributed according to individual requirements) are sufficient to fulfill the energy needs. An estimated 20 percent of the people in developing world are chronically under nourished, consuming too little food to meet even the minimal energy needs. Approximately 192 million children under the age of five years suffer from acute or chronic protein energy malnutrition. According to WHO, 6.9 million children under the age of five died in 2011, from direct or indirect result of hunger and malnutrition. Moreover, more than 2 billion people, mostly women and children are deficient in one or more micronutrients, babies continue to be born mentally retarded as a result of iodine deficiency, children go blind from vitamin-A deficiency and enormous number of women and children are adversely affected by iron deficiency.

The overall growth in food availability resulting from the green revolution over the last two decades has eliminated the threat of famine for India’s entire population. Country’s production of food grains has reached over 257.07 million tonnes. However, malnutrition is still a serious problem in this region. Evidences suggest that micronutrient deficiency is far more prevalent in the area than protein energy malnutrition. The International Food Policy Research Institute has reported a rising trend in micronutrient deficiencies, which is becoming more serious than malnutrition from lack of major nutrients. Thus, the emphasis is now shifting from supply of basic food (calories & protein) towards supply of balanced diet (calories, protein & micronutrients which includes vitamins and minerals).

Introduction

Climate change is one of the biggest environmental threats to food production, water availability, forest biodiversity and livelihoods. Warming of climate system of the earth is a unanimously accepted reality and probably one of the most prominent challenges for scientists, development workers, policy makers and other relevant stakeholders regarding development and sustainability in international and national arena during past several years. Intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPPC) has described climate change as any anthropogenic or naturally occurring alteration in the climate over time. It is widely believed that developing countries such as India will be impacted more severely than developed countries. Climate change is emerging as a big threat to sustainable development of agriculture including animal husbandry and to the livelihood of people. Extreme events such as cold waves, heat waves, ?oods and high intensity single day rainfall events are on increasing trend during the last decade (Dikshit and Birthal, 2010). It is probable that by 2030 the impacts of climate change will be noticeable, although not dramatic and will be largely manifested through changes in pasture growth and quality, and greater inter-annual variability in pasture production. Livestock contribute to climate change by emitting methane through enteric fermentation. But they are also affected by climate change it directly and indirectly, hence affecting their economic and social contributions. Various studies suggest that the changes in pasture growth, composition and production will be dependent on the actual combination of CO₂, temperature and rainfall conditions. Livestock productions under both intensive and extensive systems are subjected to so many stresses, where they undergo different types of physiological adjustments to cope up with stressful conditions. Productions are drastically reduced during stress and require managemental interventions both in terms of optimum nutrition and health care (Soren, 2013).

India ranks first in goat population with 148.88 million goats and 10.14% growth rate (DADF, 2019). Goat meat contributes around 37% of the total meat produced from the livestock sector in India which comes from the 42% of goat population annually (GOI, 2019). Goat has served as source of livelihood support and financial security to large section of society, especially to the resource-poor farmers. However, in the current scenario, this small ruminant farm animal has tremendous potential to be projected as the “Future Animal” for rural and urban prosperity. Rapid transformation of backyard goat farming to “commercial goat industry” is taking place in the country. The perception of goat as “poor man’s cow” to “preferred livestock species” is fast changing; therefore, to meet this transformation goat rearing system is shifting gradually from extensive low input system for livelihood purposes to semi- intensive and intensive rearing system for commercial purposes in India (Ramachandran et al., 2019). Due to their higher resilience capacity to climate change and better adaptability goats play significant role in ensuring food security. Goats have traditionally been a significant asset and source of protein for rural communities inhabiting arid and semiarid regions of the world. It is an endeavour of millions of small holders who rear animals on crop residues and Common Property Resources. The small holders produce milk, meat, fibre, skin etc for the community with virtually less capital investment, resources and formal training. They are conventionally raised on grazing resources. However, these resources are gradually shrinking over the periods both in terms of quality and quantity. On the other hand, there is continuous rise in the demand of meat which led to further deterioration of available grazing resources.

Introduction

Mineral imbalance in the animal body produces several problems. Normal dairy animals experience constantly changing nutrient demands and environmental stress during pregnancy and lactation. In the first part of the cycle the negative balance must be held to minimum, later the reserves must be replenished through fine tuned nutritional support for optimum production of the dairy animals. Inadequate blood calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), or potassium (K) concentrations can cause a dairy animal to lose the ability to rise to her feet as these elements are necessary for nerve and muscle function and are therefore of particular concern in the newly calved dairy animal. Mechanisms for maintaining blood status of these elements concentrations perform efficiently most of the time but occasionally these homeostatic mechanisms fail and metabolic diseases such as milk fever occur. Understanding about cause and predisposing factors behind the same may be helpful to develop strategies to avoid these disorders.

Macro elements have a significant role in normal functioning of the body, including proper reproduction and production. Imbalance of these elements in the body of a peri parturient animal creates severe problems to the animal body and even the productivity of the animal gets seriously affected. Among the macro elements calcium, phosphorus and magnesium with cation-anion balancing elements (sodium, potassium and chlorine) play an important role in normal health of dairy animals during the parturition period.

Introduction

Goat farming plays a significant role in supporting rural livelihoods, contributing to food security, and generating income through milk, meat, and fiber production. However, achieving sustainable goat productivity requires scientific management, wherein, nutrition is a critical factor that makes profound effect on overall performance and production. With increasing global demand for goat-derived products, optimizing nutritional strategies has become essential to improve both production efficiency and sustainability. Globally, the sector is shifting from subsistence-oriented backyard farming to more commercialized systems, driven by increasing demand for goat meat and dairy products. India, which ranks first in goat population with 148.88 million goats (DADF, 2019), is experiencing rapid changes as goat farming evolves from a low-input livelihood strategy into a thriving commercial industry (Ramachandran et al., 2019).This transformation is not only economic but also ecological. Goats are known for their remarkable adaptability to harsh environments and climate variability, which makes them crucial in ensuring food security under changing environmental conditions. Their ability to utilize marginal lands and convert low-quality forages into meat, milk, and fiber allows them to thrive in regions unsuitable for other livestock . Shifting towards semi-intensive and intensive systems, farmers can utilize better breeding, nutrition, and healthcare practices to meet growing market demands.

Introduction
Fish nutrition is a critical determinant of growth, reproduction, and overall health in aquaculture systems. A thorough understanding of the nutritional physiology of fish lays the groundwork for designing innovative feeding strategies that improve fish production, health, and sustainability. Unlike terrestrial animals, fish have unique physiological traits that influence their dietary needs and how they process nutrients, requiring specialized nutritional approaches. This chapter provides a detailed exploration of these physiological features and their implications for the development of cutting-edge nutritional innovations in aquaculture.
1. Basics of Fish Anatomy and Physiology Related to Nutrition
Fish anatomy and physiology particularly in the context of nutrition present unique characteristics that differentiate them from terrestrial animals. One of the most significant features of fish is their poikilothermic nature, meaning their body temperature fluctuates with the surrounding water. This directly impacts their metabolism, as colder waters slow down metabolic processes, reducing the need for energy, while warmer waters increase metabolic rates, driving higher energy demand. This temperature dependency is critical in understanding the feeding behavior and nutritional needs of different fish species. Unlike mammals or birds, which expend energy to maintain a constant internal body temperature, fish can allocate a greater proportion of their consumed nutrients toward growth, reproduction, and immune function.

Abstract

Women constitute almost half of the population of modern India. Eighty percent of the women population in India live in the rural areas and most of them are engaged in agriculture and allied activities and play a significant role in domestic and socio economic life of the society. Women play a vital role in ensuring proper development and growth of children. They also contribute significantly towards income generation, food preparation and health of the family members. However it is this women segment which is most neglected and suffers from poor health. Health and Nutritional status of this important and substantial segment of the society is very important. The present study investigates the nutritional profile and morbidity status of women in villages around Bangalore city.

The main micro and macro nutrients associated with microgreens are Fe, Zn, K, Ca, N, P, S, Mn, Se and others. Microgreens are a fantastic source of biological phytochemicals, which can significantly improve both human health and disease. In addition to these mineral components, the key bioactive compounds including ascorbic acid, phylloquinone, tocopherol, beta-carotene, phenolic antioxidants, carotenoids, anthocyanins, glucosinolates and sugar content are said to be present in higher concentrations in microgreens. The numerous bioactive phytochemicals (Table 2) that are present in the various types of microgreens are covered in more detail in the ensuing subsections:

Maize occupies an important position in the world economy, and serves as an important source of food and feed (Gupta et al., 2015a). Together with rice and wheat, it provides at least 30% of the food calories to more than 4.5 billion people in 94 developing countries (Shiferaw et al., 2011). In India, maize is an important cereal too, and is grown on an area of 9.2 million hectares with production of 24.2 million tonnes (www.indiastat.com). The demand for cereals will continue to increase as a consequence of the expanding human population. The world will have around 7.7 billion people by 2020, and it will reach up to 9.3 billion by 2050, and the demand for maize between now and 2050 will double in the developing world (Rosegrant et al., 2009). By 2025, India too would require to double the production (50 million tonnes) of maize grain to meet the domestic demand (Yadav et al., 2016).

Malnutrition caused by inadequate consumption of balanced diet has emerged as one of the alarming problems especially in the under-developed and developing world. Mostly the resource-poor suffer from ‘hidden hunger’, a term often used to describe malnutrition caused due to micronutrient deficiencies in staple food diet (Bouis and Welch, 2010).

An estimated two billion people suffer from micronutrient deficiency, while 795 million people are undernourished (IFPRI, 2016a). Of the 667 million children under the age of five worldwide, 159 million are stunted, while 50 million do not weigh enough for their height (IFPRI, 2016b). An estimated 45% of deaths of children under age five are linked to malnutrition (Black et al., 2013). Malnutrition contributes to global burden of disease, and loss in annual gross domestic product (GDP) in Asia and Africa to extent of 11%. South Asia is home to more than 35% of the world’s poor, and 21.9% of the population of India lives in poverty, and thus vulnerable to various health problems (IFPRI, 2016a). 15.2% of the people in India are undernourished, and more than one third of the world’s underweight malnourished children live in India, posing severe socio-economic loss to the country.

Introduction

Nutritional value of food stuff is defined by its ability to provide nutrients required by the body. Proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals and vitamins are main ingredients in food stuffs. Wheat is an important source of these nutrients. The distribution of nutrients within wheat kernel is typical of many cereals. Nutrients are generally found in the highest concentrations in the germ or embryo and in the aleurone cells surrounding the starchy endosperm followed by bran, whole wheat flour and white flour in decreasing order. Of special importance is that it contains the entire B complex, except for vitamin B12. B vitamins function as cofactors in many metabolic reactions involved in the release of energy. The germ, which includes the scutellum, is especially rich in vitamins B and E, high quality protein, unsaturated fats, minerals, and carbohydrates. The bran consists mostly of the insoluble carbohydrate cellulose, and contains incomplete protein, traces of B vitamins, and minerals including zinc and iron. The endosperm is the largest part of the grain, and consists mostly of the carbohydrate starch, incomplete protein, and trace amounts of vitamins and minerals. Significant variations in the content of grains occur because of variety, crop year, area, fertilizer, and soil type.

We get energy from food. We need energy for all the activities which we get by eating. The body structures as muscles, organs and bones are composed of the nutrients contained in food which are absorbed by the body.

Nutritional requirement of the major nutrients

Nutrients are the substances which are found in food and drive biological activity. They are essential for the human body. These are categorized into proteins, fats, carbohydrates (sugars, dietary fiber), vitamins and minerals (Sugishima, 2019). They perform the vital functions like building all parts of the body as muscle, bone, teeth and blood. Out of the 20 different kinds of amino acids that make up proteins nine are not synthesized in the body and are therefore called essential amino acids. These essential amino acids have to be supplemented through food. High-protein, low-carbohydrate diets have been found to be effective.Protein is an important component of every cell in the body. Large part of hair and nails are made up of proteins. The human body uses protein to build and repair the tissues, helps in making enzymes hormones and other body chemicals. Protein is an important building block of bones, muscles, cartilage, skin and blood.

Introduction

Agriculture is the measure livelihood of tribals in India. Indigenous Tuber crops, like Elephant foot yam (Amorphophallus) and Dioscorea play a valuable role to uplift the socio and economic status of people of tribal areas (tribal farmers) in terms of nutritional security and livelihood. In every year rural India subjected to wide spread of poverty, malnutrition, infant mortality rate etc. Ecological degradation, climate change, erratic rainfall and drought are the principal causes of food insecurity in these tribal areas resulting migration, periodic starvation and deaths. Therefore under erratic climate, tuber crops like Amorphophallus and Dioscorea, played a crucial role as life support crops to combat hidden hunger. Tuber crops are the traditional crops cultivated in order to meet the food requirements and give economical sustainability to the people. After cereals and legumes, tuber crops constitute a major staple or subsidiary food for all. Amorphophallus paeoniifolious and Dioscorea alata, important tropical tuber crops are excellent dietary staple for low-income consumers in tribal areas of Odisha state, better opting tuber crops cultivation rather than forest produces.

Introduction

India is emerging as a major stake holder in the global horticulture scenario. More emphasis is given to underutilized fruits due to their high nutritive and medicinal value in addition to being resistant/tolerant to many biotic / abiotic stresses. Jamun (Syzygium cuminii Skeels), fruits are used as an effective medicine against diabetes, heart and liver trouble (Singh and Singh, 2012). The powder of seeds has high value being useful in the treatment of diabetes. Therefore, the jamun fruits are having high value in terms of therapeutic and nutrition. Fruits and seeds of tamarind have tremendous potential for industrial use. Mahua (Bassia latifolia) is a boon for tribal farmers of Gujarat. The corolla commonly called as mahua flowers is a rich source of sugar containing appreciable amount of vitamins and minerals. Flowers (fresh and dried) and spent flowers (after fermentation) are also used as feed for livestock. Fruits are eaten as raw or cooked. Seeds are good source of oil. The oil obtained from Mahua kernel is used for edible purpose and permitted for preparation of vegetable oil. Mahua oil is used in manufacture of soap, lubricating grease, fatty alcohols and candles. Chironji (Buchanania lanzan Spreng) is excellent tree of agro forestry and social forestry. The flesh of ripe fruit is very palatable and the oily kernels are good source of protein (28-30%) and are used in preparation of sweets. Kernel oil can be used to substitute olive and almond oil. Khirni (Manilkara hexandra) thrives well on rocky, gravelly, saline and sodic soils and is good source of sugars and antioxidants. It is being used commercially as rootstock for sapota. Tamarind has tremendous potential under semi arid conditions (Singh and Singh, 2013). The medicinal properties of the bael (Aegle marmelos Correa) fruit are due to high marmelosin content. The pulp of mature bael fruit is very effective to cure dysentery and diarrhoea Varieties on jamun (Goma Priyanka and Thar Kranti), bael (Goma Yashi, Thar Divya and Thar Neelkanth), tamarind (Goma Prateek) and chironji (Thar Priya) have been developed. These varieties are precocious bearer with good yield and quality attributes and suitable for high density planting. These minor fruits have potential in secondary agriculture through value addition. Minor fruits have been conserved at the station and it has great potential under semi-arid regions of western India.

Nutritional and food security is the problem of the day globally due to increase in population by many folds. It is therefore one of the important challenges of public and private sector to provide nutrient rich food with appropriate security for development of human kingdom. Advances in food production have largely kept pace with demand. More than 830 billion people are still hungry and more than 2 billion people are lack of sufficient nutrients. Paradoxically, more than 2 billion people are overweight or obese. Malnutrition means bad nutrition not only under nutrition. For some time the food debate centered on the food security drawing on wildly accepted thinking from 1966 i.e. world food summit which defined food security as a state or condition “when all people at all times are physical, economic and social access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet the dietary needs and food preference for active and healthy life”. Thus nutrients are necessary component to food security.

Introduction

Food and nutritional security continues to be the main plank of India’s food policy despite its tremendous achievements on food production front during the last three decades. The Green Revolution helped India to overcome chronic food scarcity and made it self sufficient in food production. The per capita availability of cereals increased from 360 gms/day in 1966 to 422.4 gms/day in 2004. On the other hand, availability of pulses, the main source of protein for over- whelming vegetarian population of India, declined from 48 gms/day to 38 gms/day, which is attributed largely to diversion of land from pulses to cereals crops (Gopalan et al, 2004). The extra income generated due to Green Revolution has increased the access of rural population to a wide variety of foods, like milk, meat, eggs, fish, fruits and vegetables, which perhaps could offset the protein deficiency due to decline in per capita availability of pulses, therefore, resulting in the increase in per capita consumption of protein in rural areas. The trends in cereal consumption indicate that per capita cereal consumption has been declining in most of the states. This trend is more prominent in agriculturally developed states, like Punjab and Haryana. In these states, production and per capita consumption of milk have increased substantially.

The dietary pattern in India remains cereal based and the expenditure shares of foods of animal origin (meat, eggs and fish) and fruits, which are rich in nutrients, are trivial. More than 22 per cent of the population stays below poverty line and generally suffers from various nutritional disorders due to lower purchasing power. The nutrient rich foods like milk, meat eggs, fruits, etc. are highly responsive to income changes. Besides, choice of food and consequently the level of nutrient intake is also influenced by the other economic, social, cultural and climatic factors. Spurt in income growth and increasing consumerism in rural areas in recent years has heightened the need for understanding the food consumption pattern. Using the farm level data from three regions of Maharashtra this paper attempts to examine the pattern of consumption of nutrients by cultivators and sources of supply of different nutrients.

1. Introduction
Aquaculture is one of the most rapidly expanding sectors in food production, making significant contributions to global food security and the economy. As natural fisheries resources are depleted, aquaculture has become an essential source of protein and employment for millions worldwide. With an increasing demand for seafood, the intensification of aquaculture systems has become necessary. This intensification, characterized by high stocking densities, increased fish production, and automation, has introduced a range of challenges that negatively impact the health and well-being of farmed fish and other aquatic species.
1.1 Stress in Aquaculture Systems
Stress is an inevitable part of aquaculture, particularly in intensive farming systems where fish are exposed to multiple environmental, biological, and anthropogenic stressors. Stress refers to a physiological condition where the normal homeostasis of an organism is disrupted due to external stimuli. In aquaculture, stress can arise from various factors, including changes in water quality parameters (such as dissolved oxygen, temperature, and pH), overcrowding, transportation, handling, and exposure to pathogens. The physiological response to stress can lead to a cascade of negative outcomes, including suppressed immunity, impaired growth, decreased reproductive success, and increased susceptibility to disease. If not adequately managed, stress can cause significant economic losses, affecting the sustainability and profitability of aquaculture operations.

1. Introduction
The early life stages of fish, particularly the larval and juvenile phases, are critical periods in aquaculture characterized by rapid physiological changes, high metabolic demands, and heightened vulnerability to external stressors. Mortality rates during these stages can be alarmingly high, with reports indicating that up to 70% or more of fish larvae and juveniles may not survive to reach adulthood. These losses are typically caused by a combination of nutritional deficiencies, environmental stress, suboptimal husbandry practices, and disease outbreaks. Addressing these challenges is paramount for improving survival rates and ensuring the success of aquaculture systems. Nutritional management during the larval and juvenile stages plays a pivotal role in determining the overall health, growth performance, and survival of fish. Fish larvae and juveniles have distinct dietary requirements compared to adults due to their rapid growth, underdeveloped digestive systems, and the need for specific nutrients to support organ development, skeletal formation, and immune system maturation. A comprehensive understanding of these nutritional needs is essential for developing feeding strategies that optimize fish health and maximize growth potential.
1.1. Importance of Early Nutrition in Fish Development
The nutritional status of larval and juvenile fish significantly influences their physiological development and long-term survival. During the early stages of life, fish undergo rapid cell proliferation and differentiation, especially in tissues such as the muscle, digestive organs, and immune system. Proper nutrition is essential to support these processes, ensuring that fish achieve optimal growth rates and develop strong resistance to environmental stressors and diseases.

12.1 Nutritional Value of Egg
The egg is one of the most complete and versatile foods available. It consists of approximately 10 percent shell, 58 percent white and 32 percent yolk. Neither the colour of the shell nor that of the yolk affects the egg’s nutritive value. The average egg provides approximately 313 kilojoules of energy, of which 80 percent comes from the yolk. The nutritive content of an average large egg (containing 50 g of edible egg) includes, 6.3 gram protein, 0.6 gram carbohydrates and 5.0 gram fat (this includes 0.21 g cholesterol). Egg protein is of high quality and is easily digestible. Almost all of the fat in the egg is found in the yolk and is easily digested. Eggs contain every vitamin except vitamin C. They are particularly high in vitamins A, D, and B12, and also contain B1 and riboflavin. Provided that laying hens are supplemented according to the Optimum Vitamin Nutrition concept (see chapter ‘Optimum vitamin nutrition of laying hens’), eggs are an important vehicle to complement the essential vitamin supply to the human population.

Introduction

Underutilized fruits provide nutrition and sustenance of life to the native communities and prevent widespread malnutrition, combat micronutrient deficiencies and other dietary deficiencies, as these are rich in vitamins, minerals, protein, carbohydrates and fats. Vitamins like A, E and minerals like calcium, magnesium and iron are abundantly available in these fruits, which help in building resistance against diseases. Many underutilized fruits contain more vitamin C and pro-vitamin A than the widely available commercial species. Consumption of these fruits by the rural people directly from the trees further maximizes vitamin intake.

A healthy diet depends on a diversity of foods rich in vitamins and minerals. Whether wild, semi-domesticated or fully cultivated, the underutilized and neglected species are important for the well being of local communities. These fruit trees provide the essential supplements that ensure a balanced nutritious diet. Diet diversity is an extremely important element of nutritional well-being, in part because more essential nutrients are consumed and also because it improves the taste of staple foods thus encouraging greater consumption. One of the most common causes for dietary deficiencies appears to be the decreasing diversity of traditional diets. Underutilized fruits are common snack foods that provide vitamins, minerals, proteins, etc. and play important role in diets.

Sugars and sweetners: Sugars are present in all the actively metabolising plant cells in the form of glucose and sucrose. The under-exploited fruits that yield sugar are black maple, sugar maple, sugar palm, wild date palm, honey palm or coquito palm (Jubaea chilensis), talipot palm, nipa palm, toddy palm, palmyra palm (Table 1).

1. Introduction

Medicinal plants are used to be the valuable sources of new drugs (Nalawade et al., 2003; Chen et al., 2010;Chacko et al., 2010; Hamilton 2004). In Europe, about 1300 plants were used as medicinal plant, of which 90% are collected from wild resources. In United States, about 118 out of 150 prescribed drugs made up of natural sources (Balunas and Kinghorn 2005)

Moreover in developing countries, about 80 % people are totally reliant on herbal drugs and over 25 % of prescribed medicines derivative from wild plant species (Hamilton 2004). With the increasing demand for herbal drugs, natural health products, and secondary metabolites of medicinal plants, the use of medicinal plants is growing rapidly throughout the world (Nalawade et al., 2003). Between 50,000 and 80,000 flowering plant species are using for medicinal purposes worldwide according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and the World Wildlife Fund (Bentley 2010). However, 20 % of the wild resources have already been exhausted with the increasing human population (Ross, 2005). Worldwide loss of species and habitat destruction has increased the extinction rate of medicinal plants, especially in China (Nalawade et al., 2003; Heywood and Iriondo, 2003), India (Heywood and Iriondo, 2003; Hamilton, 2008), Nepal (Hamilton, 2008), Kenya (Hamilton, 2008), Uganda (Zerabruk and Yirga, 2012) and Tanzania (Zerabruk and Yirga, 2012). China and India used highest numbers of medicinal plants i.e. 11,146 and 7500 species respectively (Rafieian-Kopaei, 2013). So, it is now necessary to find out new medicinally important plants or to utilize the well known medicinal plant sustainably. There are many plants in India that contains different medicinal and nutritional components, which can be exploited much more efficiently to establish a new era of medical science.

The core concept of empowerment is the idea of power and thought of control. Empowerment is the process of strengthening, encouraging, obtaining opportunities, and mobilizing assets and resources for the welfare of individuals, groups or masses. Over the past two decades, discourse and focus on the concept of empowerment have steadily and relentlessly increased within international development discourse. Empowerment has evolved to develop a more extensive physical and mental well-being, freedom from domestic violence, unpaid work and reproductive health. However, the wealthy body of work has wrangled the thought of empowerment of women.

Introduction

Rice is one of the most important staple foods among all cereals. The larger population in Asia and Africa depends on rice for their daily calorie and nutritional requirements. People are found to bank on rice as their main source of nutrition in emerging and underdeveloped nations (Yang et al. 2016). However, it is considered that the milled or polished rice is nutritionally poor as the majority of the essential micronutrients viz. iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn), and important vitamins are lost during the process of milling and polishing (Johnson et al. 2011). So, by the way, the poorer section of the worldwide population mainly depends on rice and is most vulnerable to ‘hidden hunger’ as they are unable to afford other micronutrients-rich non-staple foods for their balanced diet and are often at the maximum risk for micronutrients deficiencies (Bouis and Saltzman 2017). The only possible solution for such malnutrition is to have nutritionally enriched food in the daily foodstuff. However, approximately one third of the world’s population is facing the problem of hidden hunger (White and Broadley 2009). Prolonged utilization of carbohydrate-rich food mainly based on rice, wheat, or maize is contributing to such nutritional deficiency in the poorer section of our society as most of them are unable to supplement nutritionally rich food for their diet. The deficiency of micronutrients can be termed a silent epidemic because it slowly weakens our immune system and hampers physical and intellectual development which may lead to fatality in some severe conditions. In the case of micronutrient deficiencies, deficiencies  of iron or iron deficiency anaemia (IDA), zinc deficiency, and vitamin-A  deficiency (VAD) are common, and have serious consequences.

7.1 Introduction

From a nutritional standpoint, eggs are particularly interesting since they include important fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and trace elements. They also provide a moderate calorie supply (about 140 kcal/100 g), have a wide range of culinary applications, and are relatively inexpensive. Indeed, it has been shown that eggs are the second-cheapest animal source for zinc and calcium and the lowest-cost source of proteins, vitamin A, iron, vitamin B12, riboflavin, and choline. Eggs include a wide variety of physiologically active ingredients in addition to offering babies and adults well-balanced nutritional needs. These elements are distributed throughout the many internal egg components. It must be noted that while eggshell membranes are edible, eggshell and its closely related eggshell membranes are often not ingested (Figure 7.1).

Cashew Kernels

The role of balanced diet in contributing to a long and healthy life is undisputed. Diet related diseases are quite common even among the people of the affluent West. Unlike in developing countries, where many diseases are caused by deficiency in the quantity and / quality of diet. The diet related diseases among affluent populations result from excessive consumption of undesirable foods. Over consumption of foods of animal origin like meat and eggs are implicated in the causation of atherosclerotic heart diseases. Annual food consumption has also been suggested as possible aetiological factor in some cancers. After years of research, scientists are finding health benefits in a largely plant based diet emphasising foods low in saturated fats. On the basis of the awareness that excess animal food consumption is harmful, recent dietary guidelines all over the world recommend a reduction in the intake of meat and meat products and a liberal increase in consumption of fruits and nuts. Like meat and eggs, nuts are abundant in proteins, the body building material essential for growth and maintenance of tissues. Nuts are also a concentrated source of energy, since they contain liberal amounts of fat.

It is very essential to know the nutritive value of common feedstuffs used in the diet of ruminants. On the basis of these values the nutrient requirements of ruminants may be fulfilled for different body functions like maintenance, growth, lactation, wool production or others. The nutritive value of various common feedstuffs used in the diet of ruminants is being presented in the table below:

Fruits and vegetables are important part of our dietary, which are rich source of nutrient (carbohydrates, protein, fat, vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber). Carbohydrates, protein and fat are macronutrients, considered as energy sources. Vitamins and minerals are micro nutrient, play important role in body building. Fibers have several direct and indirect advantages. ICMR, New Delhi recommends 125g of leafy vegetables, 100g of root and tuber vegetables and 75g of other vegetables (total 300g/day) and 85g of fruits per capita every day for balance diet.

Meat is an animal flesh that is used as food. Most often, this means the skeletal muscle and associated fat but it may also describe other edible tissues such as organs, livers, skin, brains, bone marrow, kidneys or lungs. Meat is highly nutritious food because it contains protein, fat and carbohydrates in relative proportion, supply energy as required by the human body, posses ability to build or replace tissues and the substances present in meat are easily absorbed by the human body. Meat is also a good source of B-complex vitamins but fat soluble vitamins are low in meat. It is a good source of phosphorous, zinc and iron but low in calcium. Meat also contains significant amount of copper, sodium, potassium and magnesium but low in carbohydrate contents. Carbohydrate is found mainly in form of glycogen which disappears completely after completion of rigor mortis. In general lean red meat is particularly good source of protein, niacin, vitamin B6, vitamin B12, phosphorus, zinc and iron. About 100g of meat can provide more than 25% RDI of these nutrients. It also provides more than 10% RDI of riboflavin, pantothenic acid and selenium. Of the four meats, mutton is particularly nutrient-dense and the richest source of thiamine.

Milk: Composition, Nutritional Role, & Importance for Human Health Introduction
Milk is one of nature’s most complete and balanced foods, offering a rich source of essential nutrients such as proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals in forms that are easily digested and assimilated by the body. It serves as a cornerstone of human nutrition, providing critical support for growth, bone strength, and overall health. Known as the nectar of life, milk not only sustains life but also enhances immunity, forming the first bond between mother and infant.
An adequate intake of calcium, particularly during childhood, is critical for bone development and preventing osteoporosis in later life. Rich in calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D, milk is vital for maintaining strong bones and teeth while preventing osteoporosis. Its high-quality proteins support muscle growthand recovery, while lactose and fats provide both immediate and sustained energy. Micronutrients like zinc, selenium, and whey proteins strengthen the immune system, and its high water content makes milk an excellent source of hydration. These qualities make it a protective food for all age groups, from infants to the elderly.
While milk naturally lacks iron and has low levels of vitamin D, fortification with additional nutrients enhances its nutritional profile, making it even more beneficial. Fortified milk helps address deficiencies, supports bone health, and boosts immunity, making it an ideal dietary option for diverse populations. For infants and children, milk is a near-perfect food, and for adults, it serves as an excellent dietary supplement, particularly for its calcium, protein, and vitamin content. Beyond its nutritional benefits, milk plays a significant role in culinary traditions and cultural practices across the globe.

“Tell me what you eat and I will tell you what you are. The destiny of people depends on the nature of its diet.”

A. Brillat-Savarin

Milk is the only product which is considered nature’s almost perfect food. It is treasure house of unlimited nutrients. It is considered best and ideal food by virtue of possessing almost all the nutritional factors, viz., fats, proteins, carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins. They are not only of higher quality but are present in milk in such form and proportion that their digestion and assimilation in the body is very efficient. Milk also plays a supplementary role in our nutrition. If it is included in our diet it enhances digestion and assimilation of nutrients of other food products. This is the reason that it is kept in high esteem as a food and is called the nectar for living beings.

Milk is the first taste of food for whole mankind. It establishes the mother-infant bond and is a life promoter. Of the many fluids that biology offers milk is perhaps the most versatile in terms of its use– as food, as a growth stimulant and as a defense package to the user. To the infant mammal – be it a mouse, calf or a human child, mother’s milk is more than a source of energy and nutrients. It contains a wide variety of substances that defend the growing infant against infections.

Milk, a perfect blend of nutrition and palatability, plays an important role in preserving mental and physical health. Milk has long been recognized as the most wholesome and complete single food available in nature for health and as a medicine, both preventive as well as curative. Ancient chronicles as recorded in the Upnishads, Puranas and Vedas extol the beneficial and therapeutic properties of milk and milk products. It has been stated that cow milk, dahi and ghee impart knowledge and radiance, cure heart trouble and anaemia besides other bodily diseases.

Eggs are considered as Nature’s original functional food because they are abundant source of nutrients like vitamins and minerals. It contains valuable nutrients from the high-quality protein to significant levels of beneficial vitamins, antioxidants and other healthful compounds. The protein of eggs is considered as highest quality protein as compared to other animal protein sources which is readily available and most inexpensive. Eggs are good source of all well balanced nutrients for persons of all age groups. Egg is a unique combination nutrient like it is rich in protein and low in calorie. The nutrients concentration in eggs is dependent on breed, strain, species, feed, age, season, storage and processing methods.

The nutritional value of eggs lies chiefly in their proteins of good biological value; an average-sized egg (60 g) provides approximately 7 g of proteins. These proteins are rich in essential amino acids with a very good balance between these amino acids. So the egg protein can be regarded as a reference protein. On comparison we can say that 2 eggs provide as much protein as 100 g of meat or 100 g of fish. The energy value for an average egg (60 g) is approximately 376 Kj (90 kcal). The lipid content is 7 g, most of these lipids being contained in the yolk. Among the total fatty acids 2/3^rd of these are unsaturated. Egg also contains 180 mg of cholesterol and rich in vitamins (A, D, E) and trace elements (iron and zinc).

The word NUX VOMICA is derived from Latin word NUX meaning nut and VOMERE meaning vomiting because of the peculiar property of the nut.

Is the greatest of polychrests, because the bulk of its symptoms correspond in similarity with those of the commonest and most frequent of diseases. It is frequently the first remedy, indicated after much dosing, establishing a sort of equilibrium of forces and counteracting chronic effects.

Nux is pre-eminently the remedy for many of the conditions incident to modern life. The typical Nux patient is thin, spare, quick, active, nervous and irritable. He does a good deal of mental work; has mental strains and leads a sedentary life, found in prolonged office work, over study and close application to business with cares and anxieties. This indoor life and mental strain seeks stimulants, coffee, wine, possibly in excess; or again, he hopes to quiet his excitement, by indulging in the sedative effects of tobacco, if not really a victim, to the seductive drugs, like opium etc. Nux is preeminently a male remedy. These conditions produce an irritable, nervous system, hypersensitive and over impressionable, which Nux will do much to soothe and calm. Especially adapted to digestive disturbances, portal congestion and hypochondriacal states depending thereon. Nux patients are easily chilled, avoid open air. Nux always seems to be out of tune, inharmonious spasmodic action.

A family of over 33 genera and 391 species, Nyctaginaceae are distributed mainly in tropics, but also in South America particularly Brazil, Asia, Ecuador, Peru, Columbia, Australia, Africa and New Zealand are the chief centers of distribution. Presently, bougainvilleas are popular ornamental plants in warm climates including India, Taiwan, Vietnam, Malaysia, Australia, Mediterranean region, the Caribbean, Mexico, South Africa, and the United States in Arizona, California, Florida, Hawaii, and southern Texas. Some of the largely represented genera along with the approximate number of their world over reported species are Bougainvillea (300), Mirabilis (60) and Pisonia (50). The C3 physiology recorded directly in Bougainvillea, Mirabilis.
Bougainvillea is a versatile and hardy climbing shrub commonly grown in Indian gardens. It is a short day plant. C3 and C4 photosynthesis is reported in bougainvillea cv. Mary Palmer. It is a fast growing garden plant admired for its brightly coloured bracts, profuse flowering round the year, wide adaptability to soil and climatic conditions, and easy growing. It is, grown as hedge, pergola, standard, pot plant, and bonsai for display. In city designs, newer roads, and flyovers are introduced with bougainvilleas as dividers. Bougainvilleas also have been utilized as a kind of folk medicine developed into dietary supplements as insulin substitute and for pollution tolerance. The insulin like compound, pinitol, was first isolated from leaves of B. spectabilis.

Nyctanthes, commonly known as Harsingar or Parijata, is an important flowering shrub valued for its fragrant white flowers with orange centres. The flowers have long-standing cultural and religious significance and are traditionally collected for worship and other uses. This chapter presents the botanical identity, origin, distribution, genetics and characteristics of Harsingar. It discusses suitable climate and soil conditions, propagation, planting, nutrient management, irrigation and cultural practices. The chapter also covers pests and diseases affecting the crop and provides information on flower harvesting, particularly the importance of morning collection. Postharvest management, yield and traditional and modern uses of Harsingar flowers are included to support commercial and practical understanding