eBook Chapters

History of Agriculture
Cultivation of crops is one of the oldest occupations of mankind and probably began when it was discovered that certain seeds spilled on disturbed ground, grew in some mysterious way into new plants. The seeds were then collected and spread into different regions. This is how origin and introduction of crop plants started. Development of agriculture about 12,000 to13,000 years ago changed the way humans lived. They switched from nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyles to permanent settlements and farming. However, scientists are unable to explain why man took so long to discover agriculture. Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe and included a diverse range of taxa. At least eleven separate regions of the Old and New world were involved as independent centers of origin however, there was no single factor or combination of factors that led people to try farming in different parts of the world. Farming could have been brought on by climate changes at the end of the last ice age that favoured different annual plants like wild cereals to grow. But whatever the reasons for its independent origins, farming sowed the seeds for the modern age. Archeological evidence for the origin of crops points to mountainous areas of both Old World (Asia, Europe and Africa) and New World (North and South America), which have pronounced wet and dry seasons. Under such climatic conditions seeds would need to germinate, grow quickly with the onset of rains, complete their reproductive cycles and go to seed formation before summer sets in such as we see in annual plants.

Pulses are the second most important group of crops next to cereals in Orissa occupying about 22% of total cropped area as compared to 54% for cereals. The state grows ten pulse crops, namely, greengram, blackgram, pigeonpea, horsegram, lentil, gram, cowpea, Rajmash, Lathyrus and ricebean out of which the first four crops cover 88% of total pulses area and 85% of total pulses production.
 
During 2008-09, pulse crops in Orissa were grown in about 20 lakh ha having production of  9.94 lakh tonnes and average productivity of 497 kg/ha (Table 1).

Annuals, commonly known as seasonals, constitute an amazing group of popular flowering ornamentals widely grown in all types of parks and gardens. Enchanting colours of the flowers in various shades, forms and fragrance have made them an obvious choice for all garden lovers. Perennial plants like trees, shrubs, climbers usually form the framework of garden. However, they produce flower in a particular season and the garden remain out of flowers for considerable period of time. On the other hand, annuals serve as toppings in every season with a colouful flower plate and complement the perennials. No other plants can influence the general landscape in such an incredible manner by splashing colours and quick performance.

Botanically annuals are the plants which normally complete life cycle within one year. However, horticulturally annuals refer ornamental herbaceous plants grown in different seasons of the year for flowers and aesthetic purpose. As the winter sets in and the annuals start blooming, face of the garden alters into a vivid beauty. Easy cultivation and availability in wide array of dazzling colours have made them most popular in Indian gardens. Annuals are like jewels of the garden which magnifies beauty of the other permanent plants and features by adding colour.

Terrestrial or epiphytic members of the family Bromeliaceae that are grown in gardens for their unusually coloured and patterned leaves or showy inflorescences and fruits are referred to as ornamental ‘Bromeliads’. Being low growing, they are ideally displayed in containers or as epiphytes. They are sun loving, suckering in habit and have xerophytic adaptations. The leaves are tough and fibrous often with spiny margins and sheathing leaf bases that hold water. A grayish-white waxy or powdery coating often covers the lamina. Certain bromeliads have a water collecting depression at the center. Inflorescences are sunken, erect or reclining, with condensed or long and much branched stalks carrying colourful bracts and usually, less showy flowers. In many, the terminal leaves become brightly coloured at flowering. These and the floral bracts remain showy even after the flowers are shed.

Ornamental bromeliads popularly grown in gardens include the following:

Aechmea blanchetiana

Copper leaf bromeliad

Plants have strap like leaves that develop streaks of coppery red colour on the upper surface in bright sunlight.

Aechmea burle-marxii

Burle-Marx bromeliad

Climbers refer a group of plants which do not have rigid stem but have special structure to climb over the support or structure of any kind. Ornamental climbers constitute an important group and have unique place in all types of gardens. Careful selection of different species and planting at suitable points of the garden creates scenic beauty and a point of attraction when in bloom. Ideal places of planting climbers are - near gate, porch and boundary wall or on trellis and training them on such structures. Climbers also serve functional purposes like screening, covering wall etc. One should have some knowledge about the growth and flowering before selecting them for planting in the gardens.

Classification

Climbers have various types of growth habit, foliage and flowers. For easy selection, they have been categorised under three broad groups on the basis of their morphological and floral characters.

Foliage Type - These are fast growing and have attractive foliage. Foliage type climbers are suitable for planting in locations where availability of light intensity is comparatively low. The important ones in this group are - Asparagus plumosus,

Ornamental fish breeding and culture: an innovative scheme for the development of rural women.” Funded by the Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science & Technology Govt. of India, New Delhi.

Selection of members and group formation

The location was selected to impart the training on ornamental fish culture, based on the PRA, group discussions, and meetings with NGOs, village panchayat authorities, and members of the area. Raichak, Kamar Pool, and Diamond Harbour Road were the working locations. Groups formed by identifying the interested women from the selected location. In each group, there are 25 women registered for the training. The selected members were introduced to the ornamental fish farms located at Amtala to appraise the working possibilities and viability of the activities.

India is one among the top ten mega-diverse countries of the world in terms of fish diversity (Dudgeon 2003). FishBase (Froese & Pauly 2016) has listed around 917 freshwater fish species (out of 2465 total fish species) as occurring in India. According to National Fisheries Development Board, Hyderabad, inland and marine waters in India possess a rich diversity of ornamental fish, with over 195 indigenous varieties reported from North-East Region and Western Ghats, and nearly 400 fish species from marine ecosystems. There are several other fish species which qualify to be called as ornamental fish. Considering enormous and diverse indigenous fish resources of the country, there is immense scope for India to become a potential candidate and a strong competitor in the international ornamental fish trade. Government of India has recognized ornamental fish sector as one of the thrust areas for generating employment opportunities and augmenting our foreign exchange earnings. It is estimated that the sector is directly and indirectly supporting about 50,000 of house-holds mainly in rural India. Large number of freshwater ornamental fish species is recorded from Indian waters and the majority of the global trade is based on freshwater exotic ornamental fishes including both classified and non-classified types.

The History of Fish Keeping

Philip Henry Gosse (1810-1888) coined a term “Aquarium” which is now familiar to all of us, in his 1854 book The aquarium: An unveiling of the wonders of the deep sea.

The idea of keeping aquariums can be dated back to 2500 BC and has evolved into a complex hobby that exists today. Ancient Sumerians and Romans kept fish in containers as early as 2500 BC, similar to what we now know as fish tanks. These tanks were designed to keep fish alive long enough to prepare the specimen for food. It is also known that Romans and Babylonians kept ponds filled with fish for ornamental use (History of Fish Keeping as a Hobby).

As time progressed, the art of fish keeping became a “luxury for the rich” (DuHammel 1). Many people consider the Chinese as being the most important contributors to the hobby. “By 1136 AD Emperor Hiau-Tsung started to breed and keep these fish in a more controlled environment. Several new breeds of ornamental fish ornamental emerged.” (DuHammel 1). As more people became involved in the idea of fish keeping, having a goldfish was no longer an indicator of a person’s status. Many common people began to keep goldfish; the fish that they kept represented a good luck charm.

Design and construction of farm including management is important with the advancement of cultural practices and increased involment of people. These are some common resources for breeding, rearing and display of ornamental fish.

Small scale commercial farms

Mazla/earthen vats

These are baked earthen containers and usually round in shape. These are used to keep the gravid female of livebearer fish for breeding. Its water holding capacity is 7.5-10.0 litre.

1. Ornamental fishes are also called as living jewels.

2. The ancient Romans were the first to keep ornamental fishes as pets at homes.

3. Aquarium fish can fetch 100 times more price than the food fish.

4. Marine ornamentals fetches 10 times more costly than freshwater ornamental fishes.

5. Ornamental fish farming is a boon to India for rapid development of national economy.

6. Values of international trade of ornamental fishes are about US $ 5 Billion.

7. Major traders of ornamental fishes are USA, Europe, Japan, Australia, Singapore, Indonesia, Philippines and Sri Lanka. (8 countries, code word: SIPS-JEUA)

Abstract
Ornamental fisheries, known as aquariculture, represent a flourishing industry that cultivates and trades vibrant fish species for aesthetic pleasure. Originating from the earliest public aquariums in Europe, this sector has grown into a global market exceeding US$15 billion annually, with significant contributions from developing countries. West Bengal, particularly Kolkata, emerges as a pivotal hub within India, generating 90% of the state’s ornamental fish revenue, primarily driven by local communities across suburban areas. This chapter explores the landscape of ornamental fisheries in Kolkata, detailing its economic significance with insights into market dynamics, from collection to export. Despite its economic contributions, the sector faces market informality, technical deficiencies in breeding practices, and occasional regulatory setbacks impacting sales. For instance, regulatory changes in 2017 temporarily disrupted market stability, highlighting vulnerabilities within the industry. Looking ahead, the chapter discusses strategic pathways for growth and sustainability. Government initiatives, including financial support and technological advancements under schemes like the Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana, offer promising avenues for enhancing production capabilities and market integration. Moreover, stakeholder collaborative efforts to streamline distribution and pricing could bolster profitability and market resilience. In conclusion, while ornamental fisheries in Kolkata confront multifaceted challenges, proactive government interventions and industry collaboration are crucial to unlocking its full potential. The sector can foster sustainable growth by addressing existing barriers and leveraging emerging opportunities, enriching local livelihoods and global aquariculture enthusiasts.
Keywords: Aquariculture, Ornamental Fisheries, Kolkata, Status

44.1 Introduction

Ornamental fish are a diverse and colourful species benefiting millions of aquarium enthusiasts. The term "ornamental fish" was first coined in the early 19th century to describe fish kept solely for decorative purposes by ancient civilizations such as the Sumerians and Egyptians.

They are known for their shapes, sizes, vibrant colours, intricate patterns and distinct behaviours with hobbyists and collectors. They are widely used to distinguish between fish kept for food or other practical purposes.

A garden has a number of elements which give shape to its breath-taking view. Both animate and inanimate elements are included to achieve a beautiful garden The living elements are lawns, rock garden, water garden, sunken garden, hedges, edges, shrubs, topiary, flower bed, specimen plants, pergola and arches, while the inanimate elements, also called as adornments, are stones, road, footpaths, seats, lamps, lanterns, steps, bridges, huts, swings, fountain, cascade, bird bath, clock tower, umbrellas, sculptures etc.

Gingers  belong to Zingiberaceae family and are made up of about 1000 species in 47 genera. They have numerous members with aromatic oils that have made them popular for perfumes and ornamentals. Ornamental gingers, while related to edibles, are usually grown for their looks instead of their flavor. A very large and diverse group of gingers are valued both for their tropical foliage and for their large, colorful flower heads. From the startling red ginger to the subtle shell ginger, these attractive plants are easy to grow in home landscapes in tropical and semi-tropical areas. They are great for tub gardens They can be very rewarding to grow, and with some simple care will continue to produce beautiful leaves and flowers for many years which also have cut flower value.

Grasses, bamboos, sedges and rushes are plants that are being used increasingly in xeri-scaping and in marsh gardens for getting the benefits of their unusual foliage textures and colours. Their hardiness, stature and canopy frame make them more suited for specimen planting in gardens and landscapes.

GRASSES

Grasses are the most successful of monocots belonging to the family Poaceae that are found the world over. Low growing perennial grasses are used to make attractive lawns in gardens and to provide a desirable turf cover for various situations. A number of species belonging to various genera differing in leaf colour, shape and growth pattern are used for this purpose. Mixtures of different varieties of grasses are also used for making turf having desirable blends of textures and hardiness. Tall bushy grasses having a mound-like or fountain–like habit and fine to velvety surfaces are grown for their textural and architectural features in landscaping. Many are grown as specimen plants for their display value at flowering. In selecting grasses for gardens, their potentially invasive nature is to be taken into account and seed dispersal controlled by timely cutting.

Grass species that thrive in the hot and humid tropics are called warm-season grasses and include Bermuda grass, Carpet grass and St. Augustine grass. Cool season grasses that are adapted to temperate regions and thrive at temperatures of 10 to 20^oC include Blue grass, Fescues and Zoysia.

1. Formal garden has a ———— layout.

   a) Odd

   b) Natural

   c) Symmetric

   d) Irregular

2. Foutain is located in —— of building.

   a) Backside

   b) Front

   c) Lateral side

   d) None of these

1. Introduction

Nursery is a place, where seedlings and saplings of different ornamental plants (trees, shrubs, climbers, annuals, potted plants etc.) are propagated and maintained until they are out-planted in a prepared bed or in pots. Establishment of an ornamental nursery is emerging as a profitable venture, especially around cities. Rapid urbanization has led to the development of community parks and various sites for people to engage in active and passive recreation. This has led to surge in demand for quality planting material, which ensures rapid establishment and beautification of the landscape site. The following chapter deals with the basic principles and practices of establishment of ornamental plant nursery, with reference to its effective management to enhance the income and reap better profit.

Ornamental Plants are a real attraction to the aquarium tank. While some plants are both ornamental and functional, people usually use the term “ornamental plants” to refer to plants which have no value beyond being attractive, although many people feel that the attractive value itself is quite enough. They provide optimal habitat for the fishes especially for the fry (baby fishes). It maintains the ecosystem of the aquarium tanks by providing good oxygen, food and also acts as a good hiding place for the baby fish. Mostly all aquatic plants are very easy to grow and care. They are always good for gold fish and other similar fishes. There is a huge variety of plants. Ornamental plants are grown for decoration, rather than food or raw materials. They are most often intentionally planted for aesthetic appeal. However, ornamental plants also serve some less obvious uses such as for the purpose of fragrance, for attracting wildlife and for cleaning the air. Ornamentals encompass a wide array of plants. Commonly, ornamental plants are grown for the display of aesthetic features including: flowers, leaves, scent, overall foliage texture, fruit, stem and bark, and aesthetic form. The concept of ornamental plants is used for decorative purposes in aquariums, gardens, home gardens, landscape design projects, squares, parks etc.

Aquatic plants predominantly grow in water. They vary greatly in type, with some being quite similar to common land plants while others are quite different. Aquatic plants can be commonly classified into four types: algae, floating plants, submerged plants and emerged plants. Aquatic plants live in water. This means that they require being submersed to survive or that they can only grow and thrive in water. Many aquatic plants can tolerate being emerged, meaning they’re out of the water for short periods of time, but require immersion in water for long-term survival.

There are some plants that simply can’t tolerate being emerged at all, but this is rare. These plants can only live when fully immersed in water. Most macro- algae require total submersion in water for the span of its entire life. Most aquatic plants, however, have roots underwater but can only grow or flower in a partially emerged state. All plants, aquatic and otherwise, require sunlight, soil, gases and water to survive. Plants make their own food via the process of photosynthesis; this means that they need a source of energy to drive this biochemical process, and the sun provides a perfect one. Plants can carry on for periods without sunlight, just as animals can live on stored fuel for a while in times of need. The soil offers a place for the plant’s roots to take hold.

Air contains large amounts of the carbon dioxide gas (CO2), plants need to power photosynthesis, but aquatic plants have evolved to draw in CO₂ that is dissolved in water in relatively small amounts. Finally, plants need water to combine with the CO2 to complete photosynthesis by generating oxygen and glucose.

Shrubs are defined as woody, semi woody or herbaceous perennial plants, branches arises from the base of the plants and grow up to height of about 0.5 to 4.0 meters. These plants are commonly erect and bushy. Most of the shrubs are very hardy, require little attention and grow in all types of soils. Although some plants flower almost throughout the year, in most cases it is seasonal and selection can be made in such a way that some plants in the shrubbery will be in bloom in different seasion of the year. Shrub flowers regularly every year and produce flowers of almost all the important colors white, light yellow, golden pink, scarlet, crimson, violet, blue, and some are sweet scented.

In gardens, shrubs are usually planted in three ways:

(1) In the form of shrubbery, on the long strip of land where taller shrubs are grown at the back with medium height in middle and dwarf once at the fronts. Colors of flowers and time of flowering are also considered so that shrubbery remains colorful throughout year with bloom and foliage.

(2) In small garden or to break monotony of open space shrubs are often grown in groups and in this case few plants of the same variety or of different species are selected.

(3) Shrubs are also grown as a specimen plant or in only one row along the border of the garden or a wall.

Shrubs are used in gardens for decorative purposes as these shrubs are found more in ornamental and provide a variety of interests. They are evergreen and best against noise and dust. Any perennial woody, perpetual and thick plant of relatively low height that branches into a few stems or trunks arising from the ground base is known as shrub. They are littler than a tree but taller than herbaceous plants. They are also called as bushes when they are much-branched and dense. They grow upwards up to 0.5-4.0meter and may be flowering and ornamental. Shrubs play important role in permanent landscaping i.e. formal decoration which contributes pattern, colour, fragrance and utility. They may be either evergreen or deciduous in nature. Some shrubs have attractive foliage, flowers and attractive berries. Shrubs are planted as borders on the sides of paths and at the corners of lawn in a curving line. Shrubs are used for back ground, boundary wall, screen, shade, wind breaks and foundation planting. Hence, knowledge on the form, growth habit and habitat is essential to select the shrubs for planting. Shrubs are important part of landscaping or landscape designing is an art of modifying the overall appearance of a given piece of land using different ornamental plants. It is an artificial process. A garden or national and international playgrounds are the example of artificially landscaped area. Ornamental plants are a group of different flowering, foliage and stylish plants. These plants are used for the beautification of selected part of a site or other places.

Shrubs are main filler plants of the gardens and have wide range of variation with regard to growth, leaf texture and flower (shape, size and colour). They continue to bloom all most round the year and help to keep the gardens presentable. These are the reasons for selecting shrubs for plantation in every type of garden. The way shrubs influence general landscape with their exquisite shape, size, foliage, flower and fragrance are incredible. In residential and small gardens, there may be limited room for planting trees but accommodating shrubs is never a problem as they occupy small space. Similarly, large parks and gardens are also ideal place where the shrubs can be fully utilized in various ways.

Classification

Availability of shrubs is large in numbers. Selection of right type as per design of the garden, is an important task as these are main filler plants of the gardens. Basic knowledge on growth habit and flowering is necessary for their judicious use. Therefore, shrubs have been classified on the basis of height, growth habit, foliage, flower colour, fragrance etc. for facilitating proper selection.

Ornamental plants that are adapted to an aquatic environment are commonly grown in water gardens and pools. They include those that are entirely submerged or floaters that are free living in the surface water or having roots anchored firmly in the ground beneath and marginal plants that thrive along the edges of water bodies and in shallow water. Spectacular flowering plants like the lotuses and water lilies to plants like the tape grass that are entirely submerged and grass like are grown in natural or structured fresh water habitats throughout the world. Many of these are also inhabitants of aquaria.

Some of the popularly grown water garden plants are listed below:

Acorus calamus

Araceae

Sweet Flag, Vayambu

Plants are rhizomatous herbs adapted to low lying and wet situations. The leaves are closely spaced, distichously arranged and resembling a fan, leathery, dark green, smooth and shiny. The inflorescence is a spadix that emerges from the middle of the terminal leaf. Plants are valued medicinally for their aromatic rhizomes and are also commonly grown as marginals of water gardens.

Jasmine

Jasmine oil and its synthetic substitutes are extensively used in high grade perfumes in the western countries, the main buyers being USA, France, UK, Japan, Holland and Russia. Essential oil production is an export oriented agro industry in Egypt, France, Morocco, Belgium, Germany, Tunisia, Italy, Algeria, China and India. It is also used for perfuming expensive soaps and cosmetics, mouthwashes and dentifrices. 

Jasmine oil is unique and the odour of jasmine cannot be imitated by any known synthetic chemicals. There is hardly any perfume of floral origin which does not contain at least a small quantity of jasmine concrete or absolute. The world production of jasmine concrete is approximately 20 tones/year and India’s production is 2 tones.

Etiology

Ornithobacteriun rhinotracheale, bacteria, under phylum Cytophaga- Flavobacterium-Bacteroids. It is Gram negative non-motile, non-sporulating pleomorphic rod shaped bacteria. 18 serotypes Athrough R have been identified. Serotype A is prevalent in chicken and turkeys.

Disease occurrence

The disease is worldwide in distribution.

24.1 Introduction

Water is a universal biological solvent and the medium in which most of the cellular reactions of metabolism occur. Fish contain a large amount of water in their cells and extracellular fluids. It is important to a fish that its water content be nearly constant. This more or less steady state of water content in the body can only be maintained when there is a quality difference between the amount of water entering and leaving the body. The process of regulating the movement of water and its volume in the body is known as osmoregulation.

Abstract

Osmotic dehydration is gaining popularity due to several energy and product quality related advantages it offers. It has huge potential as a complementary process step prior to operations such as air-drying, microwave drying, freezing, frying etc, if not an alternative one, in the food process chain. It can be easily integrated with other processing steps in order to improve the overall efficiency of a given food process. Application of additional driving force either prior to or during osmotic dehydration can enhance the mass transfer rates in the osmotic dehydration. Role of mathematical modelling both in osmotic dehydration and rehydration have been discussed. Current limitations for the adaptation of osmotic dehydration in the food processing industry and possible solutions are also discussed in detail.

Introduction

The drying of fruits and vegetables during the season of abundance in order to preserve them for consumption during season of shortage is an ancient practice. Thus, drying is one of the oldest methods of preservation of the food commodities. It is practiced from ancient times and is a very common method of preservation in the tropical countries like India where conditions are much more favorable for sun drying. All micro-organisms need moisture to grow. So the removal of water in the food is brought down below a certain level at which they are unable to grow. Moisture content from food can be removed by different methods like sun drying (very oldest method and most popular), solar drying, cabinet drying, mechanical drying, tunnel drying, poly tunnel drying, adiabatic drying, spray drying, osmotic drying, fluidized bed drying etc. Grains are mostly dried in the sun. The moisture content of the grains can be reduced to a limit that is safer for their storage by sun drying. Many fruits and vegetables can also be dried by using sun energy. Some coastal areas of the countries fishes are also dried by exposing to the sun. After drying, sometimes the dried products are converted into powder. However, these powders are very hygroscopic and should be packed in airtight. Mango powder is prepared by this technique, but expensive and not popular in India. Nowadays many artificial methods have been developed for removal of the moisture. The relationship between the moisture content and temperature of air during process is referred as Psychrometric relation. An instrument used to measure the humidity (Relative humidity) of the atmosphere is known as Psychrometer (Hygrometer). The residual moisture in vegetable should not be more than 6-8% and in fruits it should be in the range of 10-20%. The dried fruit can be used as such or after soaking while dried vegetable are usually soaked in water overnight and then cooked. Vegetable are considered to be dry when they become brittle. There are generally two drying methods for foods like 1) Natural drying and 2) Artificial drying. The preservation / stability of the dehydrated products is conferred by the abstraction of water, so that the product is unable to support the microbial growth, its chemical forms of deterioration is inhibited and the drastic reduction in the weight / volume facilitate easier handling and marketing. Among dehydrated products, dehydrated onions have largest share of 45%. India is the third largest exporter of the onions in the world next to the Netherland and Spain. Besides this, India exports dehydrated bell pepper, garlic and mushrooms.

A metabolic cell contains about 75-95% water by weight. It is important for plants for proper growth and development. Any significant reduction in availability will affects metabolic activity and thus growth parameters which determine yield. The uptake of water by the plant (roots) from the soil is an osmotic phenomenon. The water potential represents the free energy per moles of water. It can be reduced by:

1. Decreasing temperature
2. Adding soluble pressure or
3. Decreasing pressure or
4. Providing additional absorptive surface

Introduction

The demand of diversified food has increasing due to health consciousness in the modern civilization. The European communities have gone in search of new foods which contributed mainly to the health diet of population. In this process, animal and avian species have contributed to a large extent in providing the required health foods like milk, meat and eggs. The tendency to go for low calories foods has resulted in increased demand for new species for meat purpose. At present, the ostrich meat ranks highest among health food in Europe. Ostrich meat in terms of health value is credited to less percentage of fat, low cholesterol, less calories, rich in protein and iron. The demand of ostrich meat has been increasing especially after the threat of mad cow diseases. The unique taste of ostrich meat has been added into different meat dishes. This meat has a great demand in restaurant in Europe, Japan, Australia and China in a big way. The popularity of this bird can be judged from the fact that presently 65 countries, including our neighbor Pakistan and China are engaged in ratite farming. The increased demand of ostrich over the past few years has given way to rearing birds under controlled system. The intensive system become popular because of adoption of scientific technologies reduced risk of diseases, through improved bio-security measures, genetic selection and nutritional innovation, health regimes and extensive diseases surveillance. Scientifically proven management practices resulted in low cost production and improvement in quality of ostrich products.

Management of Other Avian Species

Duck

Overview

• Asia: The homeland of ducks.

• Global Rankings: China holds the first position in duck population, followed by India.

• Significance in India: Ducks are the second most important poultry species, constituting about 10% of the total poultry population (851.82 million) and contributing 6-7% of the total egg production (138.38 billion) in the country (BAHS, 2024).

Apart from honey, bees also generate several other valuable products— beeswax, propolis, royal jelly, and pollen—all of which offer significant nutritional, therapeutic, and commercial benefits. In natural beekeeping systems, these secondary bee products are collected carefully to maintain ecological balance and avoid disrupting the natural functioning of the hive. Each of these substances plays a crucial role within the colony and finds diverse applications in healthcare, cosmetics, traditional medicine, and small-scale industries. When harvested responsibly and kept free of synthetic additives, they serve as sustainable income sources for beekeepers and contribute to environmental conservation and biodiversity.

HONEY

Among all bee products, honey is the most recognized and widely used from ancient times to the present day. Human cultures have celebrated honey for centuries, embedding it in literature, folklore, and religious symbolism. The earliest known references to honey use involve religious offerings, possibly among the first non-animal sacrifices. It was often presented alongside milk, butter, ghee, oil, or incense.

Apart from honey, bees also generate several other valuable products— beeswax, propolis, royal jelly, and pollen—all of which offer significant nutritional, therapeutic, and commercial benefits. In natural beekeeping systems, these secondary bee products are collected carefully to maintain ecological balance and avoid disrupting the natural functioning of the hive. Each of these substances plays a crucial role within the colony and finds diverse applications in healthcare, cosmetics, traditional medicine, and small-scale industries. When harvested responsibly and kept free of synthetic additives, they serve as sustainable income sources for beekeepers and contribute to environmental conservation and biodiversity.
HONEY
Among all bee products, honey is the most recognized and widely used from ancient times to the present day. Human cultures have celebrated honey for centuries, embedding it in literature, folklore, and religious symbolism. The earliest known references to honey use involve religious offerings, possibly among the first non-animal sacrifices. It was often presented alongside milk, butter, ghee, oil, or incense. Medicinal uses of honey date back to approximately 2000 BC, with a recorded Sumerian prescription for an external salve made of river dust, honey, and other ingredients. The Ebers Papyrus from around 1550 BC in Egypt lists honey in over 140 external and more than 100 internal remedies, revealing its widespread therapeutic use. In those times, honey was mainly collected from wild bees nesting in rock crevices, typical of arid regions, with no references to tree-based hives. Chemically, honey is a concentrated solution of sugars—mainly fructose, glucose, and maltose—with minor traces of sucrose, glucose oxidase, hydrogen peroxide, phenolics, flavonoids, and terpenes. These components contribute to honey’s

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)

Potato is the third most important food crop in the world after rice and wheat in terms of human consumption. Potatoes are an important staple food crop. Introduced into Europe in the 16th century by Spanish explorers, it is cultivated throughout the world including the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent.

Botanical Name : Solanum tuberosum L.

Family : Solanaceae

Importance

• Potato is an economical food, as it provides a source of low cost energy to human diet.
• For vegetable purposes, potato has now become one of the most popular crops in India and cultivated in almost all states and under very diverse agro climate conditions.
• Potatoes are a rich source of starch

13 1. Rishi Krishi

Drawn from Vedas, the Rishi Krishi method of natural farming has been mastered by farmers of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. In this method, all on-farm sources of nutrients including composts, cattle dung manure, green leaf manure and crop biomass for mulching are exploited to their best potential with continuous soil enrichment through the use of Rishi Krishi formulation known as “Amritpani” and virgin soil. 15 kg of virgin rhizosperic soil collected from beneath of Banyan tree (Ficus bengalensis) is spread over one acre and the soil is enriched with 200 lit Amritpani.

It is prepared by mixing 250 g ghee into 10 kg of cow dung followed by 500 g honey and diluted with 200 lit of water. This formulation is utilized for seed treatment (beej sanskar), enrichment of soil (bhumi sanskar) and foliar spray on plants (padap sanskar). For soil treatment it needs to be applied through irrigation water as fertigation. The system has been demonstrated on a wide range of crops i.e. fruits, vegetables, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, sugarcane and cotton.

Aconites, the tuberous roots of which contain highly toxic alkaloids, are deadly poisons. In small doses, aconites are beneficial in nasal catarrh, sore throat, gibbous, paralysis and chronic fevers. Aconitum is a genus of perennial, erect or rarely twining herbs distributed over North temperate regions of world. The mountains of Eastern Asia form the primary centre, presenting the greatest diversity of genus. About 28 species are reported from India, mostly confined to alpine and subalpine belts of Himalayas. Of the Aconitum spp. occurring in India, roots of nine species are obtained in Indian market. In fact, aconite sold in Indian market is a mixture of 304 species. Still, A. ferox, known as Indian Aconite, is considered the most important.

A. ferox is a perennial herb with tuberous roots. Roots are paired, daughter tuber, ovoid oblong to ellipsoid, with filiform root fibres. Leaves are scattered, orbicular-cordate to reniform, palmately 5 lobed, resembling melon leaves. Petioles are pubescent. Flowers are pale dirty blue, borne in a dense terminal raceme, 10-25 cm long. Follicles are oblong with long, obovoid winged seeds.

10.1. CADMIUM
10.1.1. Introduction

Cadmium (Cd) is a strongly phytotoxic heavy metal in an increasing environmental problem worldwide. It is one of the most dangerous metal due to its high mobility and the small concentration at which its effects on the plants being to appear. It is released into the environment by the power stations, heating systems, metal-working industries or urban traffic. It is recognized as an extremely significant pollutant due to its high toxicity and large solubility in water (Pinto et al., 2004). Soil solutions which have a Cd concentration ranging from 0.32 to 1.00 mM can be regarded as polluted to a moderate level (Sanita di Toppi and Garbrielli, 1999).

Introduction

Rice is the world’s most important staple crop and is a primary source of energy and nutrition for about half of the world’s population. So it is the most important cereal crop with respect to food security of common people. Due to increasing world population and shrinkage of farm land holdings there is an urgent need to increase the grain productivity. Therefore, increasing grain yield has become the primary objective in many rice-breeding programs. India is the second highest rice producer (about 120 million ton/year) in the world and able to meet the demand of rice for the entire Indian population. But along with yield improvement of rice, quality has now become a foremost consideration for rice consumers and millers. Quality is defined as “the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bears its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs” (International Standard Organization (ISO) 8402 1986). The concept of grain quality covers many physico-chemical properties such as grain shape and size, milling and cooking properties, amylose content, stickiness, chalkiness, texture, colour, gelatinization characters and various nutritional properties. Thus, rice grain quality generally includes five main classes i.e. (i) milling quality, (ii) physical quality, (iii) cooking and eating quality (iv) sensory quality and (v) nutritional quality. Grain quality and its assessment are very important to consumers, millers and rice breeders who are engaged in varietal improvement programme, related to new features such as high nutritional quality, high yield potential, highly resistant to abiotic or biotic stresses, higher water use efficiency etc.

A. Mollicutes: Phytoplasmas and Spiroplasmas
Characteristics of Mollicutes
Mollicutes are a group of bacteria-like organisms that lack a cell wall, making them more flexible and pleomorphic (variable in shape). They are primarily obligate parasites, meaning they can only survive within a host. The two most significant genera within this group are phytoplasmas and spiroplasmas.
a) Phytoplasmas: These are wall-less, pleomorphic bacteria that reside in the phloem of infected plants, causing a range of systemic diseases. Phytoplasmas are transmitted primarily by phloem-feeding insect vectors, such as leafhoppers.
b) Spiroplasmas: These are spiral-shaped, wall-less bacteria that also reside in the phloem and are transmitted by insect vectors.
Phytoplasma-Induced Diseases
Phytoplasmas cause diseases that often lead to severe deformities in plants. Some of the major diseases caused by phytoplasmas include:

Pig Production on Scavenging

Pig farming has become a profitable enterprise since it possesses many economic traits e.g. high prolificacy, faster growth rate, shorter generation interval, low cost of rearing and high dressing percentage with better feed conversion efficiency. Pigs give quick return, convert inedible feed into valuable products, require less labor, adopt most types of farming systems, aid soil fertility, supplement other enterprises, etc. It is still considered as backward profession and unorganized rearing largely dominates the sector, and it is primarily in the hand of poor, landless and weaker section of society.

Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP)

Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) is a modified programme of erstwhile Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP), Desert Development Programme (DDP) and Integrated Wastelands Development Programme (IWDP) of the Department of Land Resources. The scheme was launched during 2009-10. The programme is being implemented as per Common Guidelines for Watershed Development Projects 2008. The main objectives of the IWMP are to restore the ecological balance by harnessing, conserving and developing degraded natural resources such as soil, vegetative cover and water. The outcomes are prevention of soil erosion, regeneration of natural vegetation, rain water harvesting and recharging of the ground water table. This enables multi-cropping and the introduction of diverse agro-based activities, which help to provide sustainable livelihoods to the people residing in the watershed areas.

Ajowan is a profusely branched winter annual herb, seed oil of which is a major source of thymol, being present to extent of 35-60%. Ajowan oil is aromatic, stimulant and carminative.  It possesses antimicrobial activity. Ajowan seeds are employed either alone or in combination with spices and condiments. It is used in pickles, confectionery and beverages.  It is a good remedy for indigestion.  A paste of crushed fruit is applied externally for relieving colic pains.  It is also used in lotions and ointments.

In addition to farm ponds, irrigation to crops can be met from other sources. The main sources can be broadly classified as: (i) Canal irrigation, (ii) Well Irrigation and (iii) Lift irrigation. In arid and semi arid areas, where availability of water is scarce, pitcher irrigation is practiced. These sources of irrigation are briefly mentioned as follows.

13.1 Canal Irrigation

To feed the world population of 8 billion in 2025 AD, it is necessary to bring more area under irrigation because irrigated farms typically get higher yield under provision of irrigation. The food production will have to increase by about 50 percent to feed some two billion more people by 2025 AD, and a large part of that increase needs to come from irrigated agriculture. It is reported that the yield of different crops are generally 2-3 times higher than the crops grown under rainfed conditions. Furthermore, it is possible to raise 2-3 crops round the year under irrigated agriculture whereas hardly a single crop is successfully grown in a year under rainfed condition. It is reported that about 40% of the world’s food production comes from only 17% of the irrigated land of the world (Sivanappan, 2000). Everybody is aware of the fact how the irrigation played a crucial role to make the Green Revolution in India successful. A major part of irrigation is achieved by canal irrigation through different irrigation schemes.

A project that makes use of weir or a barrage for providing irrigation to fields is called as direct irrigation scheme. On the other hand, a storage irrigation scheme makes use of storage reservoir by construction of dams. In order to provide irrigation by both the schemes, it is necessary to have a network of canal systems including main canals, branch canals, distributaries, minors and watercourses. It is imperative to design the canal systems properly for a certain realistic value of peak discharge that must pass through them so as to provide sufficient irrigation to the command areas. These canals have to be aligned and excavated either in alluvial soils or non-alluvial soils; depending upon which they are called alluvial canal or non-alluvial canal.

Garlic is recognized all over the world as a valuable condiment for food and medicine. It is a native of Western Asia and Mediterranean area where it is in cultivation for centuries. China, Korea, India, USA, Spain, Argentina and Egypt are the major garlic growing countries, China being the largest producer (Pandey, 2004). Europeans, especially the Italians and the Spanish used this spice regularly for 2000 years and more. Garlic is one of the important spicy bulbs grown commercially in India. The plant is cultivated in temperate and tropical climates. Important states producing garlic on commercial scale are Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana. Demand of garlic is increasing day by day in domestic and export markets. Garlic and garlic products, especially dehydrated garlic and garlic powder are gaining considerable economic importance recent times.

Our Soils – Our Waters & COP22

In the last several decades many international forums and institutions have discussed and agreed that food and water security are the most important issues for the future. The damage to the ecology directly affects the food, land, water, health and the livelihood. Agricultural progress serves as the best way to fight poverty, hunger and livelihood problems.

Though in the last few decades, billions of pages about hunger, food and water security have been written, thousands of conferences have been organized, the urgency of action plans and creating holistic models is the most important need. For this, we must require bold reforms and action oriented programs which can reach the smallest farmers and give an optimistic signal rather than a despondent picture. Developmental models that are holistic and close to nature, sustainable and based on inclusiveness considering ‘unto the last’ women and man are the need of the day.

In the last several decades many international forums and institutions have discussed and agreed that food and water security are the most important issues for the future. The damage to the ecology directly affects the food, land, water, health and the livelihood. Agricultural progress serves as the best way to fight poverty, hunger and livelihood problems. Though in the last few decades, billions of pages about hunger, food and water security have been written, thousands of conferences have been organized, the urgency of action plans and creating holistic models is the most important need. For this, we must require bold reforms and action oriented programs which can reach the smallest farmers and give an optimistic signal rather than a despondent picture. Developmental models that are holistic and close to nature, sustainable and based on inclusiveness considering ‘unto the last’ women and man are the need of the day. Land and water together with biodiversity and atmosphere conditions are the foundations for sustainable food security. The ecological damage to these foundations are leading to lowering of productivity and livelihood. This will further aggregate with the threat of climate changes such as temperature, rain falls and sea level rise. As per the exercise by World Food Program, it is indicated that the green revolution states like Punjab and Haryana may become food insecure in another 20 years. Food insecurity is measure in terms of land degradation and salinization, ground water tables and green cover loss. *Based on Key Note address at Global Water Meet for Climate Change Adaptation – Agrarian Perspectives : 24 – 26 OCT. 2016 – UAS – DHARWAD – INDIA
Our Soils
The year 2015 was declared ‘ The International Year of Soil’. This is understandable. A healthy soil is key to farm productivity and healthy life (Annexure – 1). In India, out of 306 m. ha reported under various land uses,

Democracy has been one of the most generally adopted forms of government around the world. Democracy, founded on the values of popular sovereignty, equality, and civic involvement, seeks to give the people political authority. Democracy has had a variety of consequences and impacts on the society and governments that have accepted it throughout history. These outcomes have shaped people's lives, influenced political landscapes, and had far-reaching consequences in the social, economic, and cultural arenas. Ofcourse, democracy may face challenges, its ability to adapt, evolve, and engage citizens in the decision-making process makes it a crucial system for fostering inclusive and prosperous societies. Below, we will explore some of the positive outcomes and challenges before democracy.

The overall number of animals kept as livestock in India comes to 535.78 million, making it the country with the greatest livestock population. According to the 20th Livestock Census, India has a total bovine population of 302.79 Million. This includes Cattle, Buffalo, Mithun, and Yak. There are a total of 109.85 million buffaloes living in the country. The number of goats in the country currently stands at 148.88, while the total number of sheep in the country is 74.26 Million. Most of the breeds in India have evolved naturally through adaptation to varied agro-ecological conditions and have generally been named after their place of origin or on the basis of prominent morphological characteristics. The number of registered breeds in India has increased over time. Majority of livestock breeds are reared by smallholder farmers are of non-descript type. Indiscriminate crossbreeding is extensively occurs resulting in herds of females that may have very complex ancestries.

Captive breeding programme is generally considered as a process of breeding animals in controlled environments within well-defined settings, such as wildlife reserves, zoos and other commercial/noncommercialconservation facilities.Use of modern reproductive biotechnologies or assisted reproductive techniques (ART) include in general artificial insemination, embryo transfer/sexing, in vitro fertilization, gamete/embryo micromanipulation, semen sexing, genome resource banking, and somatic cell nuclear transfer (cloning) in conservation programs for endangered mammalian species.

Veterinarians, biologists, field assistants, hunters, and other individuals who work directly with wildlife have an increased risk of acquiring these diseases directly from animal hosts or their ectoparasites. Plague, tularemia, and leptospirosis have been acquired in the handling and skinning of rodents, rabbits, and carnivores.