eChapters

1. INTRODUCTION

Green Revolution Technologies (GRT) such as greater use of synthetic agrochemicals like fertilizers and pesticides, adoption of nutrient responsive high yielding varieties, greater exploitation of irrigation potentials etc. have boosted the production output in most cases. However, continuous use of these high energy inputs indiscriminately now leads to decline in production and productivity of various crops as well as deterioration of soil health and environment. The most unfortunate impacts of GRT on Indian Agriculture are imbalance in production, dependency on synthetic chemical fertilizers, increase in secondary and micronutrient deficiencies, increase in pesticide use, unscientific water management and distribution, reduction in productivity, reduction in quality of the produce, extinction of gene pool, environmental pollution and imbalance in social and economic status.

Moreover, today the rural economy is now facing a challenge of over dependence on outside inputs and day-by-day increase in price of these inputs. Further, Indian Agriculture will face the market competition due to globalization of trade as per World Trade Organization (WTO). Thus, apart from quantity, quality will be the important factor. Such varieties of concern and problems of modern Indian Agriculture gave birth to various new concepts of farming such as organic farming, natural farming, biodynamic agriculture, do-nothing agriculture, eco-farming, etc. Therefore, for sustaining the productivity of the crop, maintaining the soil health and healthy ecosystem, there is a need for adoption of an alternative farming system, may be the organic farming.

Organic farming is not new to Indian farming community. Several forms of organic farming are being successfully practiced in diverse climate, particularly in rainfed, tribal, mountain hills and resource poor areas of the country. It safeguards/improves quality of resources and environment. It is labour intensive and provides an opportunity to increase rural employment.

For a product to be called and labelled “organic”, it should have been produced from start (seed) to end (the produces, the consumer is buying) in an organic way. International Federation of Organic Movement (IFOAM) has clearly laid down the condition that in order to get organic certification to the produces, the seed used for sowing should also have been produced organically. To enter into organic agriculture, timely research has been warranted to study the strategies and efficacies of organic seed production to fulfill the global organic seed demand.

Organic seed production system involves use of organic seed quality enhancement treatments, integrated organic nutrient management practices viz., organic manures, green manures and biofertilizers etc., and integrated organic plant protection viz., agronomic practices, crop rotation, growing border/trap crops and use of botanicals, biopesticides and biocontrol agents apart from encouraging natural parasites, predators and parasitoids etc.

Introduction

Seed technology improves seed genetics and physiology. Variety creation, release, seed production, processing, storage, and certification are included. (Feistritzer, 1975). Organic farming began in the early 20th century due to constantly changing farming practices. Over 50 million hectares of certified organic agriculture are in Australia. “That discipline of study having to do with seed production, maintenance, quality and preservation” is seed technology. Organic seeds are fully produced with organic matter practices made with proven organic function and natural seed production, including seeding plants, with a set of guidelines prohibiting the use of manufactured products or chemicals to be sold as such. They must be produced by an accredited institution by an authorized person government agency. Organic seed is created by a planted crop and organically raised at least one generation for annual crops and two generations for annual and perennial plants. Organic farming is sustainable and eco-friendly. Farming needs better norms and standards to achieve biological goals. It is usually cold and people need lots of vegetables but have few organic, clean supplies. Organic farming in India needs a certain space and high-yield vegetable crops in national marketplaces to produce high-quality products. Indian agriculture uses chemical fertilizers, which can be minimized. Experiments have shown that it works well in conjunction. Inorganic and biological fertilizers boost yields, soil quality, and productivity.

Organically produced seeds are obtained by adapting the organic crop production system. Organic seed is a critical input but specialised efforts to produce organic seeds are not adequately and systematically followed. Accredited organic farming standards recognises the organic seed production as a prerequisite to organic farming. Seed health is important in organic seeds since seeds are not treated with chemical fungicides.

Soil is a living system and soil fertility is the key to agricultural productivity. Any input that destroys this living system and undermines soil health basically undermines the agricultural productivity. The maintenance of the fertility of soil is the primary step in any permanent system of agriculture.

Fertile land and sufficient water are vital for sustaining agriculture and livelihoods. Fertility of a soil is defined by its ability to provide all essential nutrients in adequate quantities and in the proper balance for the growth of plants – independent of direct application of nutrients – when other growth factors like light, temperature and water are favorable. This ability does not depend on the nutrient content of the soil only, but on its efficiency in transforming nutrients within the farm’s nutrient circle.

In transformation of nutrients soil organisms play a key role. They break down biomass from crop residues, green manures and mulch and contribute to build up of soil organic matter, including humus, the soil’s most important nutrient reservoir. They also play an essential role in transferring nutrients from the soil organic matter to the mineral stage, which is available to plants. Soil organisms also protect plants from disease and make the soil crumbly.

A fertile soil is easy to work, absorbs rainwater well, and is robust against siltation and erosion. It filters rain water and supplies us with clean drinking water. It neutralizes (buffers) acids, which pass through contaminated air to the soil surface, and decomposes pollutants such as pesticides rapidly. And last but not least a fertile soil is an efficient storage for nutrients and CO₂. In this way a fertile soil prevents the eutrophication of rivers, lakes and oceans and contributes to the reduction of global warming.

In the context of biological agriculture soil fertility is thus primarily the result of biological processes, not of chemical nutrients. A fertile soil is in active exchange with the plants, restructures itself and is capable of regeneration. The biological properties can be observed in the soil’s conversion activity, in the presence and the visible traces of the organisms in it. The communities of microorganisms are robust and active at the right moment. In the self-regulating ecological equilibrium animals, plants and microorganisms all work for each other.

It is the responsibility of farmers to understand soil ecology to the point that they can create or restore the conditions for a robust balance in the soil. If a soil does not regularly bring good yields, farmers should investigate the reasons for it.

India is the second largest producer of vegetables after China. The diverse agro climatic conditions of India offer an immense scope for production of organic vegetables throughout the year. The increase in area, production and productivity associated with nutrition and health security awareness demands lot of promotion of organic vegetables cultivation in the region since these products sell at the premium prices in the domestic and overseas market (Sandhu and Khera, 2008). It is because the major contribution of vegetables to human health is the large amount of Vitamin C and A as well as folic acid and good number of dietary fibres and minerals (Sanwal, 2008). Apart from this, the phytochemicals in vegetables protect the human body from cancers and cardiovascular diseases. Under organic mode of cultivation one can get an average yield of 25-30 tonnes of good quality potato vegetable crop per hectare (Sachan et al. 2008). It is worthwhile to mention that the potato is a key world food vegetable crop which is produced in 130 nations. It is grown from sea level to 3900 m elevation and its edible dry matter accounts for a higher volume of the food consumed in the world than fish and meat combined together (Sachan et al. 2008). More potatoes are consumed by the world’s population than any other vegetables.

Introduction

Organic farming per se is not a new concept rather is an age old practice of cultivation crops without synthetics. However, in modern usage it is a type of farming without synthetics but at the same time taking advantage of all the modern agriculture technologies like soil testing, nutrient management, ecofriendly pest management, etc. developing and developed world have different incentives for taking up organic farming. Growing health consciousness among the people of developed world is the prime motive behind interest in organic farming. However, conversion of “by default” organic agriculture into “certified organic” is perspective in the developing world so that farmers get price premium. Whatever the case may be, the area under organic farming as well as demand for organic food/product is increasing both in developing as well as in the developed world.

Organic production is a systems approach. Although many aspects of vegetable production remain the same in both “organic” and “non-organic” or “conventional” systems, there are differences. The major components of production which differ between these two systems include transplant production, soil fertility management, and insect, disease, and weed management. “Organic” usually refers to a crop management system that promotes biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity. Organic production concentrates on natural processes and how to manage them. Other materials and products are additions to, not replacements for, management. An organic system takes time to develop. It may be achieved in stages, for example by starting with organic soil amendments and other soil improving procedures. Then, try biological control of pests, some companion plants, etc. Eventually, the entire system will be changed. It will take years to convert to a healthy organic system.

Introduction

During the past 60 years, conventional agriculture has become increasingly dependent upon petroleum-based. Chcmically-synthesized fertilizers and pesticides for crop protection and to supply plant nutrients. Certainly, these energy intensive technologies have contributed greatly to this Nation’s agricultural productivity. However, sharply escalating production costs associated with the increasing cost and uncertain availability of energy i.e., fuel and fertilizers, have generated considerable interest in less expensive and more environmentally compatible production alternatives such as organic farming (USDA, 1980). The apparent decline in soil productivity throughout the world from excessive soil erosion, nutrient runoff and loss of soil organic matter; the impairment of environmental quality from sedimentation and pollution of natural waters by agricultural chemicals and the potential hazards to human and animal health and food safety from heavy use of pesticides, have also stimulated interest in organic farming systems of food production.

Use of organic wastes and residues in agriculture

Most countries have traditionally utilized various kinds of organic materials to maintain or improve the fertility, and productivity of their agricultural soils. However, several decades ago organic recycling practices were largely replaced with chemical fertilizers which were applied to high yielding cereal grains that responded best to a high level of fertility and adequate moisture, including irrigation. Soil cultivation was also intensified to improve weed control and seedbed conditions. Consequently, the importance of organic matter to crop production received less emphasis, and its proper use in soil management was neglected, or even forgotten. As a result of this and failure to implement effective soil conservation practices, the agricultural soils in a number of developed and developing countries have undergone serious degradation and decline in productivity.

The soil microorganisms thrive on organic matter in soil by feeding readily on soluble substrates and rather slowly on insoluble substrates. Organisms derive carbon and energy during the process of organic matter decomposition and release organically-bound carbon, thereby decrease C :N ratio and utilize nutrients. Any decrease in organic matter content in soil is likely to affect the microbial biomass and their activities thereby influence the soil fertility and productivity. It is, therefore, imperative to recycle the organic matter in soil in whatsoever form it may be. The raw organic matter requires appropriate treatment to boost decomposition process.

Solid wastes, which are left after the fermentation process is complete, may be potential sources for use as fertilizers and feed stuffs.

I. Antibiotic Fermentation Wastes

Antibiotics are produced by microoganisms and have capacity, in dilute solution, to inhibit the growth or even destroy the other microorganisms. They are produced on a large scale using fermentation process except chloroamphenicol which has been produced synthetically since 1948. Solid wastes remaining after the liquid containing the antibiotic has been extracted from the fermentation broth need to utilised. This is usually done by filtration. The solids are a heterogeneous mixture of hyphae of the producing organism, unused media, defoaming oils and metabolic products of the micro-organisms, the most important of which is residual antibiotic. The levels of residual antibiotic can vary a great deal.

Sustainable horticulture seeks to produce nutritious and economically valuable crops while conserving soil, water, biodiversity, and other natural resources. This chapter examines organic, natural, and broader sustainable production systems and their underlying principles. Topics include organic inputs, compost, biofertilizers, biological pest management, crop diversification, mulching, recycling, soil-health improvement, and reduced dependence on synthetic inputs. Certification systems and market requirements are also considered, including Indian and international organic standards. The chapter distinguishes different production philosophies while emphasizing practical sustainability. Successful systems must maintain productivity, profitability, environmental quality, and consumer confidence. Sustainable horticulture therefore combines ecological principles with sound crop management, market awareness, and responsible resource use

Indian agriculture has grown over past 50 years from subsistence type of farming to a market surplus one with the present food grain production above 250 million tones (Fig. 1) which was only 50 million tones in 1950. At the same time the country has struggled over the years to meet the fertilizer requirement. More than 50 per cent fertilizer consumption is imported.

Exhibition

An exhibition is a public display of works of art, artifacts, products, or other items of interest. Exhibitions are typically organized in galleries, museums, trade shows, or public spaces and can be focused on a single theme or a wide range of subjects. They aim to inform, educate, and engage the audience, offering an opportunity for visitors to experience and interact with the displayed items.

Audio Visual Aids

Audio visual (AV) aids are tools that use both sound and visual components to enhance the communication of information. Examples include videos, slideshows, interactive displays, projectors, speakers, and digital screens. These aids are used in various settings, such as classrooms, corporate presentations, and exhibitions, to make the content more engaging and easier to understand.

Integration of AV Aids in Exhibitions

Integrating AV aids in exhibitions involves incorporating technologies like projectors, speakers, touchscreens, and interactive kiosks to enhance the visitor experience. This integration can bring static displays to life, provide deeper insights into exhibits, and create an immersive environment. Proper integration requires careful planning to ensure that the AV aids complement the exhibits and do not overshadow them.

Microbiology is a branch of science dealing with the study of organisms which are too small to be seen clearly by unaided eye. Roughly the organisms with a diameter of 0.1mm or less, which can not be seen by the human eyes unaided, come under the domain of microorganisms.

Thus, the laboratory work dealing with the microorganisms needs special care to avoid infection and infusion for maintaining good health. In fact all microorganisms should be treated as potential pathogens. Thus, for working with microorganisms aseptic techniques must be followed by students as well as by the laboratory assistants and teachers.

Organizational communication can be defined as the process of the flow (Transmission and Reception) of goal oriented messages between sources, in a pattern and through a medium or media. And organizational communication is the study of how people communicate within an organizational context, or the influence of, or interaction with organizational structures in communicating / organizing.

An additional elements in organizational communication (not present in interpersonal communication) is the flow pattern of messages. Thus here are 6 elements in organizational communication.

1. The transmitting source

2. The receiving source

3. Source (the target)

4. The transmitted message

5. The goal of the message

6. The medium or media and the flow pattern (which is called network). The transmitting and receiving sources are the people sending and receiving the message.

Organizational communication can be defined as the process of the flow (Transmission and Reception) of goal oriented messages between sources, in a pattern and through a medium or media. And organizational communication is the study of how people communicate within an organizational context, or the influence of, or interaction with organizational structures in communicating / organizing.

An additional elements in organizational communication (not present in interpersonal communication) is the flow pattern of messages. Thus here are 6 elements in organizational communication.

1. The transmitting source

2. The receiving source

3. Source (the target)

4. The transmitted message

5. The goal of the message

6. The medium or media and the flow pattern (which is called network). The transmitting and receiving sources are the people sending and receiving the message.

Abstract

Stress can be due to both positive as well as negative experiences, which also forms a necessary part of our daily lives. If we consider an evolutionary standpoint stress was necessary for survival (i.e., imagine hunting large prey on which one’s entire tribe is dependent) and in our modern lives also stress is important as it motivates us for the fulfillment of tasks and changes. Pressure is felt from the environment during transition period ( like at the time of high school graduation) and in preparation for some events (like job interview). Although stress can be a motivation tool, too much stress or inability to cope up with stress can have an adverse effect on the health of an  individual. This chapter represents the study on stressors, various sources of stress, outcomes of stress, and various strategies which will help an individual to cope up with stress. The study is supported by case studies which helps in understanding the chapter more clearly.

Introduction Organizational structure and management represent fundamental dimensions of community mobilization that determine how collective efforts are organized, coordinated, and sustained over time while building institutional capacity for effective action and long-term development success. The design and implementation of appropriate organizational arrangements significantly influence the ability of community groups and development organizations to achieve their goals while maintaining community ownership, democratic participation, and adaptive capacity that can respond to changing circumstances and emerging opportunities. The complexity of contemporary community challenges requires sophisticated organizational approaches that can coordinate diverse activities and stakeholders while maintaining flexibility and responsiveness to local conditions and community preferences. Effective

BNHS is one of the oldest scientific organizations in India, working for nature conservation since 1883. Our primary goal is to spread awareness about nature through science-based research, conservation advocacy, education, scientific publications, nature tours, and other programs. 

Demonstrations
Demonstration means showing by doing. The basic principle of Demonstration is learning by seeing and doing. The concept of demonstration was given by Dr. Seeman A. Knapp. Farmers like to see how a new idea works, both purposes can be achieved by means of a farm demonstration. A good, practical demonstration is an invaluable method in extension work. The demonstration is a particularly powerful method to use with farmers who do not read easily. There are two principal types of demonstration used by extension agents - method demonstration and result demonstration.

This practical assignment is focused on various methodologies and techniques in organizing group discussion and method demonstration. After completion of this assignment, student will be competent enough to organize group discussions and conduct method demonstration in the village.

PURPOSE

To acquaint students to solve the problem through discussion.

To evaluate information, ideas to solve the problem and understand the problem towards development of a programme of action relative to the problem.

Organization means a system with parts which work together, or system with parts dependent upon each other. According to Louis Allen, organization is a process of identifying and grouping the works to be performed, defining and delegating responsibility and authority, and establishing relationships for the purpose of enabling people to work most effectively together in accomplishing objectives.

There is a difference between the words "Organizing" and "organization". Organizing refers to i) the identification and classification of required activities, ii) the grouping of activities necessary to attain objectives, iii) the assignment of each grouping to a manager with the authority (delegation) necessary to sepervise it, and iv) the provision for co-ordination, horizontally and vertically, in the oganization structure.

Organization implies a formalized intentional structure of roles or positions. The "intentional structure of roles" would refer to the roles people are asked to fill should be intentionally designed to ensure that required activities are done and that activities fit together so that people can work smoothly, effectively and efficiently in groups.

Summary

The indiscriminate use of pesticides and their persistence in the environment enhances the residue levels in meat, dairy products, eggs and food crops, consequently adversely affecting the human health (Akhtar, 1985). In India millions of tons of pesticides are applied to the agricultural fields to increase the productivity for compensation of the nutritional requirements of increasing population from the same land resources. It was the advent of green revolution that really spurred the growth of pesticide industry. Several reports published reveal that a large amount of organochlorine pesticides is present in vegetables, fruits and soft drinks besides other pesticides compared to World Health Organization (WHO) standards (Martin and Duggan, 1968; Corneliussen, 1969; Ulmann, 1972; Hildebrandt et al., 1986). Organochlorine pesticide persistence, biomagnification and toxicity adversely affect the ecological systems (Khanna et al., 2002). There are a large number of different types of pesticides which differ in their mechanisms of action. Some pesticides are very acutely toxic in humans, while others have low acute toxicity but may cause long term health effects in chronically exposed individuals. Each pesticide class has to be considered individually when predicting effects. Therefore, considering organochlorine pesticides induced disruption of body functions and possibly the involvement of free radicals is cardinal to present study.

Organon

Organon of Medicine, a document of Homeopathic philosophy articulated by Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, is the corner stone of Homeopathic principles and practices being followed by homeopaths throughout world. Before Organon of Medicine Dr. Hahnemann published an article “Essay on a New Principle” in 1796. The article was based on his first experience of the effect of Peruvian Bark Cinchona in 1790. The Organon of Medicine developed slowly out of Hahnemann’s research and experimentation over a period of time and newer experiences were added in subsequent editions. With more personal observations and experimentation, he published his new account of Homeopathy in 1810 in the form of a book entitled “Organon of Rational Art of Healing (Organon der rationellen Heilkunde). It was the 1st edition. Dr. Hahnemann laid out the doctrine of his ideas of Homeopathy in this book. The book contains the principles and philosophical back ground of the Practice of Homeopathy. The work was repeatedly revised by him and published in six editions, with the name changed from the second edition onwards to Organon of Medicine (Organon der Heilkunst). The book saw its five editions in the life time of Hahnemann and the 6th edition was published long after the death of Dr. Hahnemann. The 2nd edition was published in 1819, with the revised title Organon of Healing Art. The 3rd edition of the book came in 1824. The 4th edition was published in 1829 and introduced Hahnemann’s “Theory of Chronic Diseases”. The 5th edition of the book was published in 1833, that contained the doctrine of vital force and drug-dynamization. The sixth edition, written in 1842, a year before his death, was retitled Organon of Medicine and published in 1921 (78 years after his death in 1843).

The brain, (Figure 2-7 A) a command centre of the body, is a complex organ. The substance of the brain is made of the grey matter and the white matter. The grey matter is often identified as cerebral cortex but other parts of the brain also contain the grey matter. Inside the brain, the grey matter is organized into large accumulations of neurons which are called the nuclei of the brain. Each nucleus is associated with a specific function. In addition to neurons, there is other type of cells the glial cells called neuroglia. The neurons are responsible for sending and receiving impulses or signals. The glial cells are nonneuronal and provide support and nutrition to neuronal cells, form myelin and facilitate signal transmission in the nervous system. The white matter is made of millions of nerve fibres that are coming from neurons and are going to establish communications with different parts of the brain and spinal cord. Since these nerve fibres are coated with myelin sheath around them these appear white and the area occupied by these nerve fibres become the white matter of the brain. The brain has three basic components, the forebrain, midbrain and the hindbrain.

Fore brain: The forebrain (Prosencephalon) is the rostral portion of the brain. It consists of cerebrum (Telencephalon) and the thalamus, hypothalamus and pineal gland together constituting the interbrain (Diencephalon).

Mid brain: The midbrain (Mesencephalon) is the middle portion of the brain. It is in the centre lying between the interbrain and hindbrain. It consists of a cranial part of brain stem.

Hind brain: The hindbrain (Rhombencephalon) is the caudal most portion of the brain. It consists of remaining (caudal) part of the brain stem, the medulla oblongata (Myelencephalon) and the cerebellum and pons (Metencephalon).

Mouth

The mouth is bounded dorsally (roof) by hard palate (2-5 B) and behind that the soft palate, ventrally (floor) by the body of the mandible along with the mylohyoide muscles and laterally by the cheeks (Fig. 2-5 C). The entrance of mouth cavity is bounded by lips and it is called as rima oris, while its caudal opening into the pharynx is called as aditus pharyngis or isthmus faucium. The cavity of the mouth (cavum oris) is subdivided into two parts by the teeth and alveolar processes (the alveoli) of the mandible. The inner part i.e. the space within the teeth and alveoli is termed as mouth cavity proper, while the space between the cheeks and lips and that between the teeth and alveoli is called the vestibule of the mouth. The mucous membrane of the mouth cavity is continuous with the margin of the lips and the common integument and caudally it continues with the mucous membrane of the pharynx.

The sense organs are the organs of the body that respond to external stimuli by conveying impulses to the nervous system. The sense organs allow animals to sense changes in the environment around them and in their bodies so that they can respond properly. Animals can sense a wide range of stimuli that include the sense of vision, the sense of hearing, the sense of olfaction (smell), the sense of taste and the sense of touch including pain and pressure. In animals, there are two major groups of senses, the general senses and the special senses.

Nose

The nose is the externally visible part of the respiratory system. It forms the part of the face of the animal extending from the transverse level of eyes to the rostral end of the head. Exteriorly it is formed by the bones, muscles, cartilages and the skin. Internally it encloses the nasal cavity which is lined by the mucous membrane. The dorsal part of the nose (roof of the nasal cavity) is termed as dorsum nasi. It is formed by the nasal and frontal bones of the skull. The lateral parts are formed by the incisive, maxillary, lacrimal and zygomatic bones. Covering these bones externally is a muscular layer formed by the facial muscles running over these bones and acting on the upper lip and nostrils. The muscular layer is externally covered by the skin. The skin on the nose bears fine hairs except at the tip of the nose that is formed by the nostrils. The rostral end of the nose is formed by nostrils which provide entrance to the nasal cavity. The nostrils are supported by cartilages which are the dorsal and ventral extensions of the cartilage of the nasal septum. The main aim of the nose is to support and protect the nasal cavity.

Knowledge of male reproductive system and its physiological functions is essential for understanding male reproductive behavior and for effective reproductive management of breeding bulls. Therefore, personnel involved in management of breeding bulls, semen collection, handling and artificial insemination must have sound knowledge of male reproductive anatomy and physiology of breeding bulls. This section provides a recapitulation of the basic physiology and anatomy of male genitalia.
 

Functions of Male Genital System

    (a)    Primary function of the male genital system is to monitor reproduction by providing cutaneous and glandular system of male gonads

    (b)    Secondary function of male genital organs is to provide glandular, ductular, copulatory and auxillary system associated with male reproduction.

Cucumis melo var. conomon or Oriental pickled melon is a veining annual vegetable native to China and India. In the summer, it produces yellow blooms, and in the fall, it harvests the fruit. The petals are crumpled because it belongs to the Cucumis genus.

Botany and taxonomy: The fruit’s outer surface is glossy and can be white or green, but it’s known as shiro-uri because when fully ripe, it turns white and is whiter than a cucumber. It’s a melon variety, but it’s used in cooking since it has a lighter sweetness and flavour, as well as a crisp texture when chewed. It contains vitamin C, vitamin B1, and carotene, however the majority of its constituents are water and low in calories.

Location and Layout
• As the laboratory will be handling materials hazardous to human and animal health, it must be isolated as much as possible from livestock yards, poultry farms and quarantine stations and should not function in or near establishments handling healthy animals, food products for human or animal consumption or near vaccine production laboratories.
• Animal houses, garages, workshops, stores, water tanks, residential accommodation, administrative blocks have to be constructed as per the need of ideal microbiological laboratory. Expansion possibilities should
also be kept in mind. The building can be arranged in 5 main groups:
• Administrative / laboratory rooms
• Decontamination and disposal area
• Animal house facilities
• Workshops / stores/garages and
• Residential accommodation for the staff, hospital, schools, playgrounds, parks, shops etc. • The laboratory building may be rectangular in blocks, arranged in L, T or U shapes and may be of one or several stories. The temperature, wind velocity, rainfall,

Introduction
Animals have evolved various sophisticated methods for orientation, navigation, and communication. These abilities are crucial for their survival, allowing them to find food, mates, and suitable habitats while avoiding predators and navigating their environments effectively. Understanding these mechanisms provides insight into the complexity of animal behavior and the adaptations that have evolved over time.
Orientation
Orientation involves determining and maintaining a direction relative to an external reference. Animals use various cues for orientation, including the sun, stars, Earth’s magnetic field, landmarks, and olfactory signals.
Sun Compass: Many animals, such as honeybees, use the sun as a compass. Honeybees, for instance, perform a “waggle dance” to communicate the direction and distance of food sources to their hive mates. This dance is oriented relative to the sun’s position, which the bees can adjust for the time of day. Similarly, migratory birds like the European starling use the sun’s position to navigate during their long migrations.
Magnetic Compass: The Earth’s magnetic field is another crucial orientation cue. Birds like homing pigeons and European robins possess specialized magnetoreceptors that allow them to detect magnetic fields. These birds can use the Earth’s magnetic field to determine their direction and navigate over long distances. Sea turtles also use magnetic fields to navigate across oceans, returning to the beaches where they were born to lay their eggs. Star Compass: Night-migrating birds, such as the indigo bunting, use the stars to navigate. These birds have an innate ability to recognize constellations and use them to maintain a steady direction during their nocturnal migrations. Experiments have shown that young birds raised in a planetarium can learn to navigate using artificial star patterns, demonstrating the importance of stellar orientation.
Landmarks: Landmarks are physical features in the environment that animals use to orient themselves. Mammals like elephants and primates rely on landmarks for navigation. Elephants, known for their excellent memory, use landmarks such as rivers, mountains, and watering holes to navigate across vast distances. Similarly, chimpanzees

Orientation and general precautions in laboratory: Laboratory safety glasses or goggles should be worn in any area where chemicals are used or stored. They should also be worn any time there is chance of splashes or particulates to enter the eye. Closed – toe shoes must be worn at all times in the laboratory. Perforated shoes or sandals are not appropriate. Lab coat, gloves, eye protection, and appropriate attire (impermeable gowns, plastic aprons, masks, face shields) should be worn at all times in the lab. Long pants and shoes completely covering the top of the foot should be worn at all times when
working in the lab. Do not eat or drink in the lab at any time. Do not expose electric sparks, open flames and heating elements to organic solvent vapours.
Do not leave your assigned laboratory station without permission of the in charge. Learn the location of the fire extinguisher, eye wash station and first aid kit [A first aid manual, different sized sterile gauge pads, adhesive tape, band aids in several sizes, elastic bandage, antiseptic wipes, antibiotic ointment antiseptic solution like hydrogen peroxide]. Fire blanket, exits from the room, fire escape route. Basic life support (BLS) is important for clinical point of view. Lab safety is important because it can prevent injury, keep us from making mistakes and save lives. Following lab safety rules is part of being a good citizen. We should follow the lab safety protocols to stay safe and healthy. We cannot tell if a chemical is hazardous (radioactive !!) just by looking at it. Friedrich Esmarch, the founder of “Modern first – aid”. Emergency kit includes - * Flashlight with extra batteries, * Whistle, * Dust mask, * Local maps, * Manual can opener, * Battery powered or hand cranked radio, * Books, games, puzzles or other activities for children.

Onion (Allium cepa L.) is one of the oldest and most widely cultivated vegetable crops, with a history of domestication extending over five thousand years. Valued for its culinary, medicinal, nutritional and cultural importance, it has travelled across continents through migration, trade and agricultural exchange. Its broad ecological adaptability has enabled cultivation in temperate, subtropical and tropical regions. The chapter examines probable centres of origin, historical evidence of cultivation, domestication and geographical dispersal. It also explains onion’s nutritional and therapeutic significance, global production status, genetic diversification and role in human civilization, providing a historical foundation for understanding modern onion improvement and cultivation.

Kewda (Pandanus fascicularis Lam.) is a native of the old world extending from Africa to Australia (Chittenden, 1956; Lorus and Milne, 1967; Mott, 1975). About 600 species of Pandanus are widely distributed in the moist tropics of the old world and kewda is the most widespread species being recorded from Mauritius Islands in the west to Polynesian and Micronesian Islands in the east (Deshaprabhu, 1966).

It occupies an important position in the mythology of Melanesian, Polynesian and Micronesian Islands (Massal and Barrau, 1956). Kewda has been mentioned in the Indian mythology with several available legends. In Skandha Puran, it is mentioned that Ketaki (P. odorattisimus L.f.) flower is unfit to worship Shiva (Bhattacharjee, 1987). As regards to popularity of Kewda, one of the Gujarati tribal songs says that the sun rises behind the Kewda tree, the moon applies antimony to its eyes, the night is lit with soft moon light. Another mythological legend mentioned that during Satya Yuga, there was a fight between Brahma and Vishnu to know, to prove their greatness. Lord Shiva decided a simple method that the one, who can see his head or his feet, shall be greater than the other. Shiva disappeared and became so great that Brahma and Vishnu couldn’t see his head or feet and searched in different directions. Vishnu went up to patal, but couldn’t find his feet and Brahma had gone up to the highest peak and could not see the head of Shiva. On the returned way, Bramha found a Kewda flower and claimed that he had brought the flower from the head of Lord Shiva. On questioning by Vishnu, Kewda flower also replied that she was adorned by Shiva (Gandhi, 1989).

Major source of common homeopathic drugs are plants, animals and minerals and the drug is prepared by dilution and vigorous shaking.

Origin and Source of Homeopathic Drugs

Homeopathic medicines/drugs are prepared from following sources.

Plant Source

Homeopathic drugs are prepared from different parts of the plants and herbs viz. whole plant, whole herb, flowers, stem, leaves, bark, root and seeds. Example- Aconite, Belladonna, Arnica, Bryonia, Calendula etc.

Animal Source

Homeopathic drugs are also prepared from some parts of animals (worms, insects, flies, lizard, crabs, toads and snakes) and their secretion. Example Coccus cacti, Lachesis, Naja tripudians etc.

Arthropod life began very early in Palaeozoic region, about 600 million years ago in the sea. The arthropod foundations were laid with the evolution of metamerism in segmented worms, and in the ancestral arthropods it resembled the now extinct Trilobites. They had harder cuticle forming the exoskeleton and a pair of jointed legs with each of its metameric segments.

The Trilobite stock soon diversified into:

a) Chelicerates.

b) Mandibulates.

a) Chelicerates: In Chelicerates, the anterior body segments fused to form the prosoma, bearing a pair of chelicerae, the feeding organs; a pair of pedipalps and four pairs of walking legs. The remaining segments formed the legless opisthosoma. This gave rise to Eurypterids (Extinct) Xiphosurians, Pycnogonids and the highly successful Arachnids, including the scorpions, spiders, ticks and mites.

The bougainvillea varieties reported from India have been mentioned above. The exact origin of all the varieties are not available. Breeders, sometimes, do not disclose the origin of varieties. An attempt has been made to trace out the mode of origin of different varieties as per available information (Anonymous 1981, Sindhu 2015, Sindhu and Swaroop 2015, Singh 1999, Singh et al., 1999, Nirody 1932, Sharma 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1968, Sharma 1969, Pancho 1963, 1967, Marigowda 1957, Pancho and Elisco 1959, Pancho and Capinpin 1961, Pancho et al., 1961). Information available is not complete in most cases. Following abbreviations have been used – Hybrid Seedling (HS), Bud Sport (BS), Induced Mutant (IM) :

During the 19^th century various hypotheses were advanced about the origin of earth. These hypotheses can be grouped into two general classes:

1. Monistic hypotheses: The pioneers of this hypotheses believed that only one mass or body was responsible for the creation of the solar system. The representative of this theory is Nebular hypothesis. The advocates of this hypothesis were Kant and Laplace.

2. Dualistic hypotheses: The advocates of this hypothesis believed that two separate masses or bodies were responsible for the creation of the solar system. The representatives of this hypothesis are Planetesimal hypothesis and Tidal hypothesis. The pioneer of Planetesimal hypothesis was the great English scientist T. C. Chamberlain. The Tidal hypothesis was advocated by another English geographer named James Jeans.

The concept of Centers of Origin given by Russian scientist N.I. Vavilov (1935) is based on his studies of vast collection of plants at the Institute of Plant Industry, Leningrad. According to him, crop plants evolved from wild species in the areas showing great diversity and termed them as primary Centers of Origin; but in some areas, certain crop species show considerable diversity of forms although they did not originate their, such areas are known as secondary Centers of Origin of these species. He identified 8 primary centers (Chinese, Indian, Inner Asiatic, Asia Minor, Mediterranean, Abyssinian, South Mexico, Central America and South America Andes Center) and three sub-centers (Indo-Malayan, Chilean and Brazilian-Paraguayan sub-center) of origin for crop plants. Basilevskaya (1960) first investigated the geographical origin of garden plants. Coats (1968) first stressed out the ornamental herbs whereas Hui-Lin-Li (1974) wrote about the introduction of woody plants. According to Tay (2007) survey of thirty common flowers and their related species show a similar pattern of concentrated occurrence of species in certain geographic regions.

Exploration and exploitation of gene centers need to be proceed with the systematic cooperation of taxonomists, geneticists and plant pathologists. The 17 centers of origin identified for different flower and ornamental crops are given (Table 2.1)

These centers coincide to a significant extent with the regions of the Conservation International’s Biodiversity Hot spots in the world. No one single country is self sufficient in all the germplasm of flowers. The centers of origin of ancient flowers from China and Turkey coincide with the Vavilov’s food crop centers of origin. Domestication of food crops might also lead to the domestication of those flowers. Flowers were part of crop weed complex from the beginning and those with beautiful flowers would have been selected for domestication.

Origin of Insects

Insects are highly specialized group of invertebrates belonging to the largest animal Phyla, the ARTHROPODA, which also includes in it, the prawns, crabs, lobsters, centipedes, millipedes, scorpions, ticks, mites and spiders. Practically three fourth of the animal species come under this phylum.

The Arthropods evolved during Cambrian period from primitive annelidan ancestor. The main evolutionary stem of Arthropod is represented by the Crustacia- Insecta- Myriapoda.

The insects originated in the Devonian period of Palaeozoic era. Diplura and Thysanura are the most primitive wingless insects while mayflies, damselflies, dragonflies and stoneflies represent the primitive winged insects.

Evolution

Evolution is a process whereby population are altered over a period of time and may split into separate branches, hybridize together or terminate by extinction.

The concept of Centers of Origin given by Russian scientist N.I. Vavilov (1935) is based on his studies of vast collection of plants at the Institute of Plant  Industry, Leningrad. According to him, crop plants evolved from wild species in the areas showing great diversity and termed them as primary Centers of Origin; but in some areas, certain crop species show considerable diversity of forms although they did not originate their, such areas are known as secondary center of origin of these species. He identified 8 primary centers (Chinese, Indian, Inner Asiatic, Asia Minor, Mediterranean, Abyssinian, South Mexico, Central America and South America Andes Center) and three sub-centers (Indo-Malayan, Chilean and Brazilian-Paraguayan sub-center) of origin for crop plants. Basilevskaya (1960) first investigated the geographical origin of garden plants. Coats (1968) who first stressed out the ornamental herbs whereas Hui-Lin-Li (1974) wrote about the introduction of woody plants. According to Tay (2007) survey of thirty common flowers and their related species show a similar pattern of concentrated occurrence of species in certain geographic regions.
Exploration and exploitation of gene centers need to be proceed with the systematic cooperation of taxonomists, geneticists and plant pathologists. The 17 centers of origin identified for different flower and ornamental crops are
given (Table 2.1)

History of Agriculture
Cultivation of crops is one of the oldest occupations of mankind and probably began when it was discovered that certain seeds spilled on disturbed ground, grew in some mysterious way into new plants. The seeds were then collected and spread into different regions. This is how origin and introduction of crop plants started. Development of agriculture about 12,000 to13,000 years ago changed the way humans lived. They switched from nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyles to permanent settlements and farming. However, scientists are unable to explain why man took so long to discover agriculture. Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe and included a diverse range of taxa. At least eleven separate regions of the Old and New world were involved as independent centers of origin however, there was no single factor or combination of factors that led people to try farming in different parts of the world. Farming could have been brought on by climate changes at the end of the last ice age that favoured different annual plants like wild cereals to grow. But whatever the reasons for its independent origins, farming sowed the seeds for the modern age. Archeological evidence for the origin of crops points to mountainous areas of both Old World (Asia, Europe and Africa) and New World (North and South America), which have pronounced wet and dry seasons. Under such climatic conditions seeds would need to germinate, grow quickly with the onset of rains, complete their reproductive cycles and go to seed formation before summer sets in such as we see in annual plants.

Pulses are the second most important group of crops next to cereals in Orissa occupying about 22% of total cropped area as compared to 54% for cereals. The state grows ten pulse crops, namely, greengram, blackgram, pigeonpea, horsegram, lentil, gram, cowpea, Rajmash, Lathyrus and ricebean out of which the first four crops cover 88% of total pulses area and 85% of total pulses production.
 
During 2008-09, pulse crops in Orissa were grown in about 20 lakh ha having production of  9.94 lakh tonnes and average productivity of 497 kg/ha (Table 1).

Annuals, commonly known as seasonals, constitute an amazing group of popular flowering ornamentals widely grown in all types of parks and gardens. Enchanting colours of the flowers in various shades, forms and fragrance have made them an obvious choice for all garden lovers. Perennial plants like trees, shrubs, climbers usually form the framework of garden. However, they produce flower in a particular season and the garden remain out of flowers for considerable period of time. On the other hand, annuals serve as toppings in every season with a colouful flower plate and complement the perennials. No other plants can influence the general landscape in such an incredible manner by splashing colours and quick performance.

Botanically annuals are the plants which normally complete life cycle within one year. However, horticulturally annuals refer ornamental herbaceous plants grown in different seasons of the year for flowers and aesthetic purpose. As the winter sets in and the annuals start blooming, face of the garden alters into a vivid beauty. Easy cultivation and availability in wide array of dazzling colours have made them most popular in Indian gardens. Annuals are like jewels of the garden which magnifies beauty of the other permanent plants and features by adding colour.

Terrestrial or epiphytic members of the family Bromeliaceae that are grown in gardens for their unusually coloured and patterned leaves or showy inflorescences and fruits are referred to as ornamental ‘Bromeliads’. Being low growing, they are ideally displayed in containers or as epiphytes. They are sun loving, suckering in habit and have xerophytic adaptations. The leaves are tough and fibrous often with spiny margins and sheathing leaf bases that hold water. A grayish-white waxy or powdery coating often covers the lamina. Certain bromeliads have a water collecting depression at the center. Inflorescences are sunken, erect or reclining, with condensed or long and much branched stalks carrying colourful bracts and usually, less showy flowers. In many, the terminal leaves become brightly coloured at flowering. These and the floral bracts remain showy even after the flowers are shed.

Ornamental bromeliads popularly grown in gardens include the following:

Aechmea blanchetiana

Copper leaf bromeliad

Plants have strap like leaves that develop streaks of coppery red colour on the upper surface in bright sunlight.

Aechmea burle-marxii

Burle-Marx bromeliad

Climbers refer a group of plants which do not have rigid stem but have special structure to climb over the support or structure of any kind. Ornamental climbers constitute an important group and have unique place in all types of gardens. Careful selection of different species and planting at suitable points of the garden creates scenic beauty and a point of attraction when in bloom. Ideal places of planting climbers are - near gate, porch and boundary wall or on trellis and training them on such structures. Climbers also serve functional purposes like screening, covering wall etc. One should have some knowledge about the growth and flowering before selecting them for planting in the gardens.

Classification

Climbers have various types of growth habit, foliage and flowers. For easy selection, they have been categorised under three broad groups on the basis of their morphological and floral characters.

Foliage Type - These are fast growing and have attractive foliage. Foliage type climbers are suitable for planting in locations where availability of light intensity is comparatively low. The important ones in this group are - Asparagus plumosus,

Ornamental fish breeding and culture: an innovative scheme for the development of rural women.” Funded by the Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science & Technology Govt. of India, New Delhi.

Selection of members and group formation

The location was selected to impart the training on ornamental fish culture, based on the PRA, group discussions, and meetings with NGOs, village panchayat authorities, and members of the area. Raichak, Kamar Pool, and Diamond Harbour Road were the working locations. Groups formed by identifying the interested women from the selected location. In each group, there are 25 women registered for the training. The selected members were introduced to the ornamental fish farms located at Amtala to appraise the working possibilities and viability of the activities.

India is one among the top ten mega-diverse countries of the world in terms of fish diversity (Dudgeon 2003). FishBase (Froese & Pauly 2016) has listed around 917 freshwater fish species (out of 2465 total fish species) as occurring in India. According to National Fisheries Development Board, Hyderabad, inland and marine waters in India possess a rich diversity of ornamental fish, with over 195 indigenous varieties reported from North-East Region and Western Ghats, and nearly 400 fish species from marine ecosystems. There are several other fish species which qualify to be called as ornamental fish. Considering enormous and diverse indigenous fish resources of the country, there is immense scope for India to become a potential candidate and a strong competitor in the international ornamental fish trade. Government of India has recognized ornamental fish sector as one of the thrust areas for generating employment opportunities and augmenting our foreign exchange earnings. It is estimated that the sector is directly and indirectly supporting about 50,000 of house-holds mainly in rural India. Large number of freshwater ornamental fish species is recorded from Indian waters and the majority of the global trade is based on freshwater exotic ornamental fishes including both classified and non-classified types.

The History of Fish Keeping

Philip Henry Gosse (1810-1888) coined a term “Aquarium” which is now familiar to all of us, in his 1854 book The aquarium: An unveiling of the wonders of the deep sea.

The idea of keeping aquariums can be dated back to 2500 BC and has evolved into a complex hobby that exists today. Ancient Sumerians and Romans kept fish in containers as early as 2500 BC, similar to what we now know as fish tanks. These tanks were designed to keep fish alive long enough to prepare the specimen for food. It is also known that Romans and Babylonians kept ponds filled with fish for ornamental use (History of Fish Keeping as a Hobby).

As time progressed, the art of fish keeping became a “luxury for the rich” (DuHammel 1). Many people consider the Chinese as being the most important contributors to the hobby. “By 1136 AD Emperor Hiau-Tsung started to breed and keep these fish in a more controlled environment. Several new breeds of ornamental fish ornamental emerged.” (DuHammel 1). As more people became involved in the idea of fish keeping, having a goldfish was no longer an indicator of a person’s status. Many common people began to keep goldfish; the fish that they kept represented a good luck charm.