eChapters

Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY)

Indira Awaas Yojana, which used to be a component of Jawahar Rozgar Yojana became an independent Scheme from 1997-1998 onwards. Its objective is construction of free houses to members of the Scheduled Castes/ Scheduled Tribes, Freed Bonded Labourers in Rural areas and also to non SC/ST rural poor living below poverty line. The beneficiaries are selected from the Below Poverty Line (BPL) list approved by the Grama Sabha. Atleast 60% of the total IAY allocation during a financial year should be utilized for construction/ upgradation of dwelling units for SC/ST BPL rural households. A maximum 40% of allocation is for non- SC/ST BPL rural households. 3% of the above categories should be allocated for physically and mentally challenged persons. 

Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY)

This scheme has been merged with NREGS since February 2006 so only most important points are given below.

1. The Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY) was launched on 25 September, 2001 by merging the on-going schemes of EAS (Employment Assurance Scheme) and the JGSY (Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojna)
2. Objective was to providing additional wage employment and food security, alongside creation of durable community assets in rural areas.
3. The annual outlay was Rs.10, 000 crore which included 50 lakh tones on food grains.
4. The cash component shared between the Centre and the States in the ratio of 75:25.

Community Development concepts

The United Nations defines community development as “a process where community members come together to take collective action and generate solutions to common problems. It is a broad term given to the practices of civic leaders, activists, involved citizens and professionals to improve various aspects of communities, typically aiming to build stronger and more resilient local communities.

Community development is a process where community members come together to take collective action and generate solutions to common problems. Community wellbeing (economic, social, environmental and cultural) often evolves from this type of collective action being taken at a grassroots level.

Leader

Leader is aperson who influencing people so that they will strive willingly towards the achievement of group goals.

A leader is one who inspires, motivates and leads people to accomplish organizational goals.

Leaders’ styles encompass how they relate to others within and outside the organization, how they view themselves and their position, and to a large extent whether or not they are successful as leaders.

Meaning of Administration

The Management of public affairs of a government or institution is called administration. In extension education knowledge of administration is very important which can be developed by administrators. This knowledge will make the administrators aware of some of the unanticipated consequences of their decision. Secondly proper administration makes the administrator to his/her skill. Knowledge for solving problems of organization for which they are members.

Definition of Monitoring and Evaluation

Systematic recording of observations, information, gathering, analysis, documentation, reflection, action and re-planning is called monitoring.

It provides programme/projects managers and key stakeholders with regular feedback and early indications of progress or lack of in the achievement of intended results.

Privatization of Agricultural Extension

Process of funding and delivering the extension services by private individual or organization is called Private Extension. Privatization is the act of reducing the role of Government or increasing the role of private sector in an activity or in the ownership of assets. Privatization is the incidence or process of transferring ownership of business from the public sector (Government) to the private sector (business). Private Extension is solely the act of private individuals or organizations where the decision of privatization solely rests with Government implemented in liaison with private extension service provider.

e-Extension

E-extension can be defined simply as the use of electronic technologies (especially ICT) to enhance face-to-face and paper-based transactions. These technologies can be as simple as teleconferences or as complex as wikis and blogs.

Cyber extension (also known as e-extension) may be defined as extension over the cyber space, the imaginary space created by the interconnected telecommunication and computer networks.

Agri portals

• Website that serves as a gateway or a main entry point (‘cyber door’) on the internet to a specific field of interest or an industry.
• A portal provides at least four essential services.
  1. Search engine(s).
  2. Email.
  3. Links to other related sites and.
  4. Personalized content.
  5. It may also provide other facilities such as chat, members list, free downloads, etc.

History of Expert System

Expert systems were introduced by researchers in the Stanford Heuristic Programming Project, including the “father of expert systems” Edward Feigenbaum, with the Dendral and Mycin systems. Principal contributors to the technology were Bruce Buchanan, Edward Shortliffe, Randall Davis, Williamvan Melle, Carli Scott, and others at Stanford. Expert systems were among the first truly successful forms of AI software. In the 1980s, expert systems proliferated as they were recognized as a practical tool for solving real- world problems. Universities offered expert system courses and two thirds of the Fortune 1000 companies applied the technology in daily business activities.

Introduction

PTD refers to the creative process of joint experimentation and research by farmers and development agents (such as extension workers) in discovering ways of improving farmers’ livelihoods. Experimentation and innovation are natural and necessary to farmers. Before formal research and extension services existed, farmers’ own experimentation allowed adaptation to new situations, to survive and to improve their livelihoods, where conditions were favorable.This is still the case today, even where farmers have access to external support. Many development projects and extension agencies are appreciating farmers’ informal experimentation as a springboard for developing locally appropriate technologies.

Training

Training represents activities that teach employees how to better perform their jobs. Training is a powerful tool in the hands of development professional to catalyze human resources. Training is a process of acquiring specific skills to perform ajob better.

Training as the act of increasing the skills of an employee for doing a particular job

Training always aim at lasting improvement on the job. It is primarily organized not for learning more but to behave differently in own endeavors

Training Need Assessment

Training Need Assessment (TNA) is the method of determining if a training need exists and, if it does, what training is required to fill the gap. TNA seeks to identify accurately the levels of the present situation in the target surveys, interview, observation, secondary data and workshop.

An assessment process that serves as a diagnostic tool for determining what training needs to take place. 

Extension Teaching

• Extension teaching defined as a sequence of progressive steps, undertaken to create situations that are conducive to effective learning.
• According to Leagans (1961) extension methods are the devices used to create situation in which communication can takeplace between the instructor and learner.
• The purpose of using an extension teaching method is to create opportunities to establish rapport over a subject matter between the communicator and learners.

1. Result demonstration

It is a method of motivating the people for adoption of a new practice by showing its distinctly superior result. The demonstrations are conducted in the farm or home of selected individuals and are utilized to educate and motivate groups of people in their neighborhood. This is a very effective method for the transfer of technology in a community.

Objectives

1. To show the advantages and applicability of a newly recommended practice in farmer’s own situation.

1. Farm Publication

Is a class of publications prepared by the extension agency in printed form, containing information relating to the improvement of farm and home. Farm publications are of various types such as leaflet, folder, bulletin, newsletter, journal and magazine. Farm publications may be used singly or in combination with other extension methods.

Objectives

1. To reach a large number of people quickly and simultaneously at a low cost.
2. To provide accurate, motivating, credible and distortion free information.

Origin

The term communication stems from the Latin word “Communis” meaning “common”. This implies that when we communicate, we are trying to establish ‘commonality’ with someone through a message. Communication, then, is a conscious attempt to establish ce, it is a process of getting a source and a receiver tuned together for a particular message or a series of message.

Definitions of communication

Models Definitions

In social science research a model is a tentative description of what a social process, say the communication process or a system might be like. It is atool of explanation and analyses, very often in a diagrammatic form, to show how the various elements of a situation being studied relate to each other.

What is a Model?

Agricultural Journalism

Journalism refers to the production and distribution of reports on recent events. The word journalism applies to the occupation, using methods of gathering information andutilizing literary techniques. Various forms ofjournalistic mediums include: print, television, radio, Internet and in the past: newsreels. The activity or profession of writing for newspapers, magazines, ornews websites or preparing news to be broadcast. The difference between Farm journalism and general journalism.

Diffusion

Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system (Rogers & Shoemaker, 1971).

Innovation

Innovation is an idea, practice or object that is perceived as new by an individual or otherunit of adoption.

Adoption

Adoption is a decision to make full use of an innovation as the best course of action available.

Adoption

Adoption is a decision to make full use of an innovation as the best course of action available.

Steps in adoption process

Ryan and Gross (1943) were probably the first to recognize that the adoption of a new idea consisted of stages. They distinguished between awareness of hybrid seed cron conviction of its usefulness, trial acceptance and complete adoption of the innovation.

Adoption is essentially a decision making process. According to Johnson and Haver (1955), decision making involves the following steps.

Introduction

Focus of extension agencies on production technologies yielded very good results andhence India become self reliant on food production. Significantly,the extension systemhadplayedits role untiringlyintransfer ofproductiontechnologies from lab to land, besides the agricultural scientists, farmers and marketing network. But the farmers at individual level are not realizing remunerative prices for their produce. Add to this, the Indian farmers have to face challenges of global force that are affecting or are likely to affect Indian agriculture. This assumes greater significance in the light of the new international trading regime under WTA and the export opportunities being opened up. 

1.1. Introduction

Food packaging involves enclosing the food product to ensure its safe delivery to end consumer in safe condition. Packaging is one of the integral components of the food industry. In order to maintain the basic nutritional and functional attributes of food material, they must be packaged safely. A faulty package can ruin all the efforts made to develop the food product. Selection of right packaging system and packaging material is essential to arrest the deterioration of food products from physical, chemical and biological factors. 

2.1. Introduction

The word ‘plastic’ is derived from the Greek word ‘plastikos’, which means easily shaped or molded. Plastics is defined as a random set of materials based on synthetic or modified natural polymers which can be formed by thermal and pressure treatment. It comprises of wide range of macromolecular organic compounds obtained either from alteration of natural macromolecules or polymerization of molecules of lower molecular weight.

3.1. Introduction

Paper and paper-based packaging is the traditional form of packaging used for various food products due to its various advantageous characteristics. It is less expensive, flexible, lightweight, durable, recyclable and available in various shapes, sizes and colour to meet customer needs. Hence it occupies a vast market in food packaging from primary (i.e., packaging which is first used after manufacture) to secondary (i.e. processing aids of primary packages) packaging and the production of paper has doubled in the last three decades. In the year 2020, china was the leading producer for paper and paper based packaging followed by USA and Japan (Figure 1).

4.1. Introduction

Packaging of materials protects, surrounds, and contains food products. It is necessary from processing and manufacturing stage till the final consumption through storage and handling. In 1804, Nicolas Appert, a French confectioner, discovered a method of “conserving all kinds of food substances in containers.” In 1810, the Ministry of the Interior’s Bureau of Arts and Manufactures paid Appert an ex-gratia payment of 12,000 francs on the condition that he publish the details of his process. Appert avoided the use of tinplate in his study. However, in the early nineteenth century (1810), Phillipe de Girard, a French inventor, filed a patent referring to the replacement of glass jars and bottles with tin cases. The official confirmation in the New York Evening Post on July 18, 1822 by Daggett and Kensett is thought to be America’s first offering of preserved provisions in tin cans (Bishop, 1978). Table 1 shows the evolution of metal packaging materials at various stages.

5.1. Introduction

Glass is one of the oldest packaging materials used for food. The use of glass as a packaging material dates back to 3000 BC where it was the first object to be used for containing and carrying food objects. It is made by cooling a heated fused mixture of silicates, lime and soda. It is an amorphous material in which all the constituents individually form an irregular network at microscopic level. It means it has failed to form a definite crystalline structure during cooling. Glass is defined as “amorphous, inorganic product of fusion that has been cooled to a rigid condition without crystallizing (ASTM, 2010)”. It has no definite melting point.

6.1. Introduction

Food packaging has a significant contribution in preserving the quality of the food throughout the processing and storage. The package containing food should maintain the quality of the product for the longest time under particular environmental conditions. The quality of various food and beverages decline with the passage of time and food become unacceptable to consume. The time in which food deteriorates and become unacceptable is termed as shelf-life. The degradation of quality with time under storage conditions depends upon intrinsic as well as extrinsic factors. The shelf-life study of a product provides important information to manufacturer and consumer regarding the quality of the food product throughout the storage time.

7.1. Introduction

In the modem lifestyle, people are extremely busy in their work and lack the time to cook their own foods. They mainly depend upon processed and packaged food for their nutritional intake. So it becomes essential that the packaged products should be safe, hygienic and shelf stable. To preserve the food for long duration, thermal processing is most suitable method. Aseptic packaging is a form of thermal food processing. Aseptic packaging can be defined as the filling of sterile containers with a commercially sterile product under sterile conditions and then sealing the containers so that reinfection is prevented; that is, they are hermetically sealed. 

8.1. Introduction

Food packaging’s essential functions is to protect the food from hazardous compounds, and contaminant. In order to improve the shelf life of food commodity, smart packaging like active and intelligent packaging has been developed which can monitor freshness, display information of quality, and improve food safety. More precisely, smart packaging was defined by Smart Packaging Journal as “the use of features of high added value that enhance the functionality of a product, notably mechanical, electronic and chemical features that improve safety and efficiency”. The major concerns with traditional packaging are not only shelf life of packaged food, but also the inability of packaging material to convey the important information about quality changes to both customer and manufacturer. 

9.1. Introduction

In a fast-paced world, demand for pre-cooked, fresh-like, and convenient products without preservatives is increasing. This demand has triggered the need for better alternative packaging materials for food products like MAP (Modified Atmosphere Packaging), CAP (Controlled Atmosphere Packaging), edible packaging, biodegradable packaging, etc. Packaging plays a crucial role in transport, distribution, storage, retailing, and end-use, a means of ensuring safe delivery to the ultimate consumer in sound conditions at optimum cost. It performs the functions depicted in Fig.1 for both fresh as well as processed products (Opara et al., 2007; Opara, 2009).

10.1. Introduction

When it comes to packaging, plastics are still popular because of durability, versatility, economic production, and enhanced mechanical properties. However, with growing concerns about the impact of plastics-based packaging on the environment, edible and biodegradable packaging were introduced. The application of edible and biodegradable packaging promotes renewable resources, which greatly reduces environmental concerns and fulfil the packaging requirements. The sources employed to develop edible and biodegradable packaging are mainly plant-based biopolymers like cellulose, proteins, starch, and lipid. Moreover, the properties of the packaging material are decided by the proportions of these biopolymers. Hence, selecting a food commodity to be package is equally important as selecting suitable resources for the development of edible and biodegradable packaging.

11.1. Introduction

Food packaging is the integral part of the food industry. Packaging may be defined as the enclosure of products, items or packages in a wrapped pouch, bag, box, cup, tray, can, tube, bottle or other container form to perform one or more of the following functions: containment, protection, preservation, communication, utility and performance. If the device or container performs one or more of these functions, it is considered a package. The major roles of the packaging of food are the containment and preservation of foods by protecting the food from physical, chemical and microbial spoilage. Besides, packaging performs some other functions like communication which means giving the information about the product, transportation of the food production and so on. Food products are classified as perishable, semi- perishable and non-perishable food based on the spoilage. Selecting appropriate packaging material and packaging technique for various food products like meat and poultry, fruits and vegetables, milk and milk products, bakery and confectionery and beverages is essential to maintain the quality of food product. Selection of the ideal packaging material for specific food requires prior knowledge about the packaging materials and its properties, type of the food products and specific spoilage mechanism of the particular food. Above all, from economical point of view, packaging material cost and capital for the establishment of the packaging technique also plays crucial role in selection of a particular packaging material or technique. 

12.1. Introduction

Food Packaging is a means to ensure safety and quality of food product throughout storage, transportation, handling, distribution, retailing, sales and in some cases till the intended use. International trades in food are generally guided by Codex Alimetarius Commission (CAC) (A joint body of World Health Organization and Food & Agricultural Organization). CAC works in harmonization within the context of food standards, food packaging and the applied rules. The mandate of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement) and Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT Agreement) is to facilitate food trades and remove restraints at possible extent. Through these agreements, member countries have provision to apply quality and safety measures to safeguard the consumer. Such measures extend to every aspect of food and its packaging. On the other side, food packaging industries also progressed with sound technological advancement and sophistication in the last three decades. Innovations in food packaging attracted consumers due to convenience, availability, safety, quality and preservation throughout shelf life of the food product. 

13.1. Introduction

Any written, printed, or graphic matter that is present on the label and serves the purpose of promoting the sale of any product is known as food label (WHO). It is believed in general that food packaging and proper labelling plays an important role in food safety as it gives information regarding allergens present, manufacturing site, expiry date, nutritional information etc.

Consumption of unhealthy diet leads to many non-communicable diseases. Therefore, it is the responsibilities of food manufacturers and regulating bodies such as FSSAI and BIS to work hand in hand to provide safe and healthy food to the consumers. Labelling is an important tool useful to disseminate nutritional information to the consumers. Labelling promotes healthy eating among consumers and gives them an option at the time of purchase to choose healthy food. Information in labelling the enables consumers to choose appropriate food according to their diets and lifestyle (Grunert and Wills, 2007). In addition, the information related to nutritional content of the food must be present in such a way that it well understood by every consumer (Wills et al., 2009).

14.1. Introduction

There is a tremendous need to change the way society produces, and consumes materials to manage the environmental effect in the growing scarcity of resources. To overcome this issue, recycling process could be a great possibility that reduce the uses of natural resources, maximizethe waste utilization and produce least environmental impact. Unfortunately, packaging materials contribute 40% of solid waste in Western Europe, and 33% in US. In fact, packaging waste is likely to increase in transitioning and developing countries. Recycling process consists of collection, sorting, recovery, and management of packaging materials. As per the report of “Eurostat statistics in 2018”,European Union (EU) generates 174.1 kg of packaging waste per inhabitant, Croatia contributes 67.8 kg per inhabitant and Germany produce 227.5 kg per inhabitant.

Biosecurity refers to the measures aimed at preventing the introduction and/or spread of harmful microorganisms to animals and plants in order to minimize the risk of transmission of infectious disease. Biosecurity is of growing interest as a result of developments at the international level, including globalization of the world economy, technological progress and the rapid increase in communications, transport and trade. Against this background, there is concern that the appropriate level of protection of human, animal and plant life and health is not being maintained as risks increase. Biosecurity is a strategic and integrated approach that encompasses the policy and regulatory frameworks for analyzing and managing relevant risks to human, animal and plant life and health, and associated risks to the environment. 

An invasive species is an organism that causes ecological or economic harm in a new environment where it is not native. Invasive species are capable of causing extinctions of native plants and animals, reducing biodiversity, competing with native organisms for limited resources, and altering habitats. This can result in huge economic impacts and fundamental disruptions of coastal and Great Lakes ecosystems. Invasive species threaten and can alter our natural environment and habitats and disrupt essential ecosystem functions. Invasive plants specifically displace native vegetation through competition for water, nutrients, and space. Once established, invasive species can reduce soil productivity. The negative effects of invasive alien species on biodiversity can be intensified by climate change, habitat destruction and pollution. Isolated ecosystems such as islands are particularly affected. Loss of biodiversity will have major consequences on human well-being.

3.1 Biowarfare

Biowarfare, also known as Biological warfare or germ warfare, is the use of biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, insects, and fungi with the intent to kill, harm or incapacitate humans, animals or plants as an act of war. Biological weapons (often termed “bio-weapons”, “biological threat agents”, or “bio-agents”) are living organisms or replicating entities (like viruses, which are not universally considered “alive”). Entomological (insect) warfare is a subtype of biological warfare.

Offensive biological warfare is prohibited under customary international humanitarian law and several international treaties. 

Forecasting and warning systems for pests and diseases play an important role in Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and in farm advisory work. Forecasting pest outbreaks during the growing season and applying control measures only when necessary is very important in conventional farming, but also in organic farming, to increase profitability while, at the same time, minimising negative effects on flora, fauna, and groundwater (Sigvald, 2014). Number of disease-warning systems have been developed and validated for dozens of crops. A few are in wide use by growers, and represent encouraging success stories in IPM. Most warning systems, however, have not made the transition from scientific validation to real-world application. his implementation shortfall is not limited to diseasewarning systems, but also characterizes most other types of agricultural decision support systems (DSSs), whose rate of grower adoption is widely perceived as disappointing (Mark L. Gleason et.al., 2008). 

Pest resurgence is defined as the rapid reappearance of a pest population in injurious numbers following pesticide application. Use of persistent and broad spectrum pesticides that kills the beneficial natural enemies is thought to be the leading cause of pest resurgence. However, resurgence is known to occur due to several reasons, for instance, increase in feeding and reproductive rates of insect pests, due to application of sub lethal doses of pesticides and sometimes elimination of a primary pest provides favorable conditions for the secondary pest to become primary pests (Harsh Garg, 2014). There are several pesticide induced pest outbreaks reported in walnut, hemlock, cotton and soybean. Among these, brown plant hopper in rice cultivation has gained a major importance in Asian countries. In general, natural BPH populations were kept under check by natural enemies including mired bugs, ladybird beetles, spiders and other pathogens. Pesticides, however, not only have destroyed the natural enemies, but have influenced the fecun

The concepts of biosafety and biosecurity are central to efforts to protect human health against the risks posed by exposure to hazardous biological agents. Biosafety, a term used to describe the collection of technologies, processes and practices a term used to describe the collection of technologies, processes and practices aimed at preventing the unintentional exposure to biological agents, has in particularaccrued increasing importance in recent decades as a result of the trend towards globalization and concomitant growth in international communication, transport and trade (WHO, 2020). In this international context, the outbreaks of highly-infectious diseases that have occurred in the last years serve to underscore the urgent need for effective prevention and detection and response to biological risks, in accordance with the International Health Regulations (IHR).

International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPMs) are standards adopted by the Commission on Phytosanitary Measures (CPM), which is the governing body of the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC). The first International Standard for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM) was adopted in 1993.

As of March 2021, there are 44 adopted ISPMs (ISPM 30 being revoked), 29 Diagnostic Protocols and 39 Phytosanitary Treatments. These international standards protect sustainable agriculture and enhance global food security, protect the environment, forests and biodiversity and facilitate economic and trade development. International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures are prepared by the Secretariat of the International Plant Protection Convention as part of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization’s global programme of policy and technical assistance in plant quarantine. 

8.1 Pest Risk Analysis

Pest Risk Analysis (PRA) is a form of risk analysis conducted by regulatory plant health authorities to identify the appropriate phytosanitary measures required to protect plant resources against new or emerging pests and regulated pests of plants or plant products. Specifically pest risk analysis is a term used within the International Plant Protection Conventions (IPPC) (Article 2.1) and is defined within the glossary of phytosanitary terms as “the process of evaluating biological or other scientific and economic evidence to determine whether an organism is a pest, whether it should be regulated, and the strength of any phytosanitary measures to be taken against it. In a phytosanitary context, the term plant pest, or simply pest, refers to any species, strain or biotype of plant, animal or pathogenic agent injurious to plants or plant products and includes plant pathogenic fungi, bacteria, fungus-like organisms, viruses, nematodes and virus like organisms as well as insects, mites and weeds.

9.1 Geospatial Technology

It is an organized collection of computer hardware, software, geographic data, and personnel. It is designed to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze, and display geographically referenced information. It includes typical Geographic Information System (GIS) software packages (ArcGIS, ArcExplorer, MapPoint, Google Earth), Remote Sensing (Collecting and interpreting information about the environment from a distance using satellite imagery, radar, or aerial photography), Global Positioning Systems (GPS) (A system of radio-emitting and receiving satellites used for determining positions on the earth) and many others (Lisa Kennaway, 2009). Geospatial technology can be used in pest monitoring and detection, data visualization/query, survey data collection, management and analysis, risk and pathway analysis, change detection and many others.

The term “plant pest”, mainly applied to insect micropredators of plants, has a specific definition in terms of the International Plant Protection Convention and phytosanitary measures worldwide. A pest is any species, strain or biotype of plant, animal, or pathogenic agent injurious to plants or plant products. Worldwide, agricultural pest impacts are increased by higher degrees of interconnectedness. This is due to the increased risk that any particular pest problem anywhere in the world (as a system) will propagate across the entire system.

11.1 Agroterrorism

‘Agroterrorism’, also known as ‘agriterrorism and agricultural terrorism’, is a malicious attempt to disrupt or destroy the agricultural industry and/or food supply system of a population through “the malicious use of plant or animal pathogens to cause devastating disease in the agricultural sectors”. It is closely related to the concepts of biological warfare, chemical warfare and entomological warfare, except carried out by non-state parties. It refers to a hostile attack towards an agricultural environment including infrastructures and processes in order to significantly damage national or international political interests.

The terms ‘agroterrorism, agroterror and agrosecurity’, were coined by veterinarian pathologist Corrie Brown and writer Esmond Choueke in September 1999 as a means to spread the importance of this topic.

The biosecurity risk assessment informs the biosecurity plan, which documents the mitigation measures put in place to address risks. Risks that fall outside of the risk tolerance threshold should be controlled through additional or enhanced mitigation measures. A cost-benefit analysis can assist in determining the mitigation measures in which to invest. Financial constraints and resource limitations may present challenges when looking to manage unacceptable risks. As a starting point, senior management may choose to initially focus mitigation measures on the most consequential risks and then control remaining risks as resources become available. In other instances, if the risks are determined to be too high or costly to mitigate, the organization’s project or program may need to be modified or cancelled. Recommendations for mitigation measures should be documented in the final report of the biosecurity risk assessment.

13.1 Biosafety

Biosafety is the prevention of large-scale loss of biological integrity, focusing both on ecology and human health. These prevention mechanisms include conduction of regular reviews of the biosafety in laboratory settings, as well as strict guidelines to follow. Biosafety is used to protect from harmful incidents. Many laboratories handling biohazards employ an ongoing risk management assessment and enforcement process for biosafety. Failures to follow such protocols can lead to increased risk of exposure to biohazards or pathogens. Human error and poor technique contribute to unnecessary exposure and compromise the best safeguards set into place for protection. The international Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety deals primarily with the agricultural definition but many advocacy groups seek to expand it to include post-genetic threats: new molecules, artificial life forms, and even robots which may compete directly in the natural food chain.

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety entered into force on 11 September 2003. It is a legally binding international agreement under the United Nations’ Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

What is a protocol ?: A protocol is a binding international instrument, separate from, but related to, another treaty. It is a separate instrument, that must be individually negotiated, signed and eventually ratified. It is only binding on States that become parties to it. It thus has its own parties, and creates separate rights and obligations for them, as any other treaty.

The unique characteristic of a protocol is that it is related to a ‘parent’ treaty, through substantive, procedural, and institutional links. Most importantly, a protocol under a specific treaty must comply with the parent treaty’s provisions authorizing and regulating the adoption of protocols under its auspices.