eBook Chapters

Introduction

Increased food production is required to ensure food security in the face of the rising world population. The strategy will include cropping of the rising world population. The strategy will include cropping of the new geographical areas and increase in the per hectare crop yields, through better crop management; losses of the food in storage will have to be minimized.

The food grains and their products are susceptible to deterioration by a variety of biotic and abiotic factors. These include the high temperature, moisture, micro-organisms, mites, insects and rodents. Together they account for loss of about 25% of food grains worldwide. The losses are highest in the tropical and sub-tropical areas where conditions are relatively conductive for rapid growth and multiplication of the organisms that cause damage to the food materials, especially insects. Reliable pesticide and storage techniques are required for limiting the damage to food grains in storage in most of the developing countries of the areas.

Insect pest control includes all measures adopted to make the life of insects hard and ultimately to destroy them or to prevent their multiplication and spread. Such measures can be taken up before the appearance of the pests or after occurrence of the pests. To achieve this purpose, it is quite necessary to know the factors which favor the occurrence of the pests and acquire enough knowledge about the nature and life cycle of the pests, the vulnerable growth stage at which they can be effectively destroyed and appropriate measures of control. Control measures may be either preventive or direct.
Insect pest control is broadly classified under two different heads viz., natural control and applied control.

I. Natural control
    1.    Climatic conditions. Temperature, rainfall, sunshine etc.
    2.    Physical or topographic factors. Mountains, oceans, rivers, lakes, forests, deserts etc.
    3.    Natural enemies. Parasitoids, predators including insects, birds, mammals, reptiles etc.
    4.    Disease causing organisms or parasites. Entomophagous fungi, bacteria, viruses and other microorganisms.

Taxonomy is the science of identifying (discovering), describing, naming and classifying organisms. It is a complex summing up of knowledge starting with thorough analysis to base the synthesis that will end up in the name of a taxon. Correct identification of biological taxa is a necessary prerequisite to all other enquiries about the biological world. Taxonomists attempt to divide the world of living things (biodiversity) into distinguishable entities (taxa-such as species, genera, and families), develop tools (e.g., identification keys) to allow others to recognize and identify these taxa, and organize the described taxa within a hierarchical classification system that reflects evolutionary relationships. The outcomes of taxonomy are, therefore, very practical in terms of providing tools to facilitate identification, an infrastructure for organizing biological information, and a universal language for communicating information about the identity and classification of biological entities. Thus, naming and ordering of objects into groups is probably the most fundamental step in the development of scientific principles. Taxonomy identifies and enumerates the components of biological diversity providing basic knowledge underpinning pest management (Ramaraju and Pratheep, 2008). 

Taxonomy is the science of identifying (discovering), describing, naming and classifying organisms. It is a complex summing up of knowledge starting with thorough analysis to base the synthesis that will end up in the name of a taxon. Correct identification of biological taxa is a necessary pre-requisite to all other enquiries about the biological world.

Introduction

The introduction of high yielding varieties and hybrids in late sixties led to accumulation of insect pest problems in cereals. The varieties and hybrids developed during green revolution era with the sole objective to enhance production to feed increasing population were better in quality parameters than traditional locals but were highly susceptible to insect pests. Over 200 pests attack different cereals and insects that were not known or were of minor importance have now become major pests and several new insect pests have appeared on cereals. Out breaks are frequent due to several obvious reasons. Major pests are serious, perennially occurring and persistent species which cause considerable loss in yields every year in large areas require control measures. Occasional pests attack the crops sporadically but cause potential damage and sufficient loss, though in some localities or only in some seasons, so as to warrant human intervention.

10.1 Introduction

Grain legumes such as chickpea, pigeonpea, cowpea, field pea , lentil, ,  and Phaseolus beans are the principal source of dietary protein among vegetarians, and are an integral part of daily diet in several forms worldwide. They are an important component of cropping systems to maintain soil fertility because of their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, extract water and nutrients from the deeper layers of the soil as compared to cereals, and add organic matter into the soil through leaf drop. However, grain legumes are mainly grown under rainfed conditions and the productivity levels are quite low mainly because of severe losses due to insect pests and diseases.  Average grain yield of pulses (0.86 t/ha) is only about one-fourth the average yields of cereals (3.54 t/ha).  Production and productivity of grain legumes is constrained by several biotic and abiotic factors, and suffer an average of 31.9 to 69.6% loss in crop productivity due to insects, diseases, drought, weeds,  and soil fertility. Pod borers (Helicoverpa and Maruca), Fusarium wilts, viral diseases, Ascochyta blight and Botrytis gray mold (Chen et al., 2011).

1. Introduction

Over the centuries, the use of medicinal herbs has become an important part of daily life despite the progress in modern medical and pharmaceuticals research. It is estimated that 40% of the world populations depends directly on plant based medicine. India is one of the world’s 12 biodiversity centres. Herbal industry in India uses about 8000 medicinal plants. Indian export of raw drugs has steadily grown at 26% to Rs.165 crores in 1994-’95 from Rs.130 crores in 1991-’92 and this is likely to touch US $5 trillion by 2050. Thus, India has a great role to play, as supplier of herbal products not only to meet the domestic needs, but also to take advantage of the tremendous export potential.

Biotic stress related problems are important bottlenecks for the successful commercial cultivation of any crop. Medicinal plants are not the exception and are vulnerable to be attacked by several pests and pathogens resulting crop loss in terms of both quantity as well as quality. Therefore, the “health of these healthy plants” should be concerned. Without proper identification and prior knowledge of the pests and diseases, the management will be a waste of time and money and can lead to further plant losses.

Introduction

Walnut is the oldest cultivated fruit in the world (Ozkan and Koyuncu, 2005). Juglans regia L., the Persian walnut, is probably native to a wide region extending from the Carpathian Mountains across Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Afghanisan and southern Russia to northern India. Species of walnuts, genus Juglans, are found in the forests of the eastern and southern parts of the USA, in Mexico and Central America, the Andean parts of Southern America from Columbia to Argentina, the West Indies, Japan, China, southern Asia from India to Turkey and southern Europe to the Carpathian Mountains of Poland (McGranahan and Leslie,1990). The trees are large and tall with round headed canopy. The rather smooth, light coloured, large nuts are free of the hull at maturity. Shell thickness varies from paper–thin to very thick and hard. The Greeks probably obtained J. regia from Persia from where, the seeds were transported to Rome, where they were known as Jovis Glans, or Jupiter’s acorn, from which comes Juglans. From Italy, it spreaded to what is now France, Spain, Portugal and southern Germany. Trees of the species were in England by 1562, and were bought to America by the earlier settelers. The American colonists are said to have called the species English walnut to distinguish it from the eastern black walnut, J. nigra. It is generally prefer to call it Persian walnut as it is associated with the place of origin bit commercially, it is called as English walnut. The term Carpathian walnut is sometimes used to refer to cold hardy Persian walnuts (Forde and McGranahan,1996). The other important species are J. ailantifolia Carr. syn. J. sieboldiana Maxim. (Japanese walnut), J. nigra L. (American black walnut), J. cinerea L. (butternut), J. microcarpa Berlander (Texus Black walnut), J. major Heller (Arizona black walnut), J. californica S. Wats (Southern California black walnut) and J. hindsii Jeps. (Northern California black walnut).

Protected cultivation practices can be defined as a cropping technique wherein the micro environment surrounding the plant body is controlled partially or fully as per plant need during their period of growth to maximize the yield and resource saving. Cultivation of vegetables under protective structures such as net houses has become popular in recent years (Kaur et al., 2004; Cheema et al., 2004; Singh et al., 2004). This enables, farmers to produce vegetables in the off-season, when fresh produce usually fetches higher price in the market.

Protected cultivation practices can be defined as a cropping technique wherein the micro environment surrounding the plant body is controlled partially or fully as
per plant need during their period of growth to maximize the yield and resource saving. Cultivation of vegetables under protective structures such as net houses has become popular in recent years (Kaur et al., 2004; Cheema et al., 2004; Singh et al., 2004).

Insect pests cause huge losses ranging from 5 to 80% of even up to 100%. Acute food shortage following world war –II and Bengal famine (1943) due to failure of rice crop due to a paddy disease indicate the severity of the loss, caused by the pests and diseases. The insects in storage on an average consume and spoil an additional 4 million tones of grains every year. All this indicates the importance of plant protection by which we can save millions of tones of food grains which are otherwise eaten away by different pests. Losses due to insect pests in Indian agriculture are 23.3 per cent. One of the practical means of increasing crop production is to minimize the pest associated losses.

A pest is any organism which occurs in large numbers and conflict with man’s welfare, convenience and profit.

Pests are often controlled with man made chemicals which have many harmful effects, for example:

Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum spp.), popularly known as “mum” or “guldaudi”, is a major commercial ornamental plant grown for cut flowers, loose flowers, and garden display. Belonging to the family Asteraceae, it is valued for its vibrant colors, diverse flower shapes, and long vase life. Chrysanthemum is attacked by several insect and mite pests, affecting both foliage and floral quality, leading to reduced aesthetic and commercial value.
Distribution: Widely distributed in India wherever chrysanthemum and sunflower are grown.
Biology: The eggs are laid singly on the upper surface of leaves, obliquely inserted into the tissue, with opercula appearing as whitish or brown dots. The incubation period for the eggs lasts about 5 to 7 weeks. Following hatching, the nymphs undergo hemimetabolous development (no true pupal stage). The nymphal period spans 2 to 3 weeks, during which the nymphs moult five times before reaching adulthood. Adult insects are approximately 4 mm long, with blackish bodies and lace-like transparent wings (Rizkawati et al., 2023).

Use of insect-resistant varieties in integrated pest management is an economically and ecologically sound alternative to synthetic pesticides. A large number of germplasm lines of different fruit crops have been evaluated for resistance to pests, and a few genotypes with resistance to insects, mites and nematodes have been identified. The resistance of “Winter Majetin” apple variety against woolly apple aphid, Eriosoma lanigerum (Hausmann) was the first report of innate resistance to insect pests in fruit crops. Another successful example was the resistance to grape phylloxera, Daktulosphaira vitifoliae (Fitch), in which the susceptible European scions (Vitis vinifera) were grafted onto the resistant American rootstocks (Vitis labrusca) in late 1800s. Various leaf characteristics, such as hairiness, pubescence, thickness of veins, sponginess, stomatal density and fruit characteristics such as rough skin, have been reported to confer resistance to insect pests. High content of phenols, flavonols, potassium, calcium, and low carbohydrate and nitrogen contents have also been reported to confer insect resistance in various fruit plants. The germplasm has been screened against various pests under natural as well as artificial infestations. In apple, rootstocks (MM-series) resistant to woolly apple aphid have been developed. Molecular markers for three genes that confer woolly apple aphid resistance are located on two linkage groups (LG). Low infestation of the woolly apple aphid has also been recorded in Golden Delicious variety which incidentally is the most preferred host of apple fruit moth. The scab resistant apple selections, HCR21T200, HCR23T125, S80ER21T72 and TSR16T223 have also been found to be resistant to the European red mite, Panonychus ulmi (Koch). Peach varieties such as Flaming Gold, Stark Early Giant, Early White Giant and Flavour Crest are moderately susceptible to the peach leaf curl aphid, Brachycaudus helichrysi (Kalt.). Peach cultivar, Matchless has been reported tolerant to flat headed stem borer, Sphenoptera lafertei Thomson. Early maturing varieties of peach are reported to escape the fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) damage while Nemaguard, and Nemared rootstocks are resistant to important nematode pests. Almond varieties, Briggs Hard Shell, Katha 85, Ribba Selection and Tree No. 55 have been reported free from peach curl aphid infestation.

2.1. Guidelines for Pest Risk Analysis

This standard describes the process of pest risk analysis for plant pests for the purpose of preparing phytosanitary regulations by National Plant Protection Organizations. Pest risk analysis (PRA) consists of three stages: initiating the process for analyzing risk, assessing pest risk, and managing pest risk.

Initiating the process involves identification of pests or pathways for which the PRA is needed. Pest risk assessment determines whether each pest identified as such, or associated with a pathway, is a quarantine pest, characterized in terms of likelihood of entry, establishment, spread and economic importance. Pest risk management involves developing, evaluating, comparing and selecting options for reducing the risk.

PRA is only meaningful in relation to a defined “PRA area” considered to be at risk. This is usually a country, but can also be an area within a country, or an area covering all or parts of several countries [e.g. the area covered by a Regional Plant Protection Organization (RPPO)].

8.1 Pest Risk Analysis

Pest Risk Analysis (PRA) is a form of risk analysis conducted by regulatory plant health authorities to identify the appropriate phytosanitary measures required to protect plant resources against new or emerging pests and regulated pests of plants or plant products. Specifically pest risk analysis is a term used within the International Plant Protection Conventions (IPPC) (Article 2.1) and is defined within the glossary of phytosanitary terms as “the process of evaluating biological or other scientific and economic evidence to determine whether an organism is a pest, whether it should be regulated, and the strength of any phytosanitary measures to be taken against it. In a phytosanitary context, the term plant pest, or simply pest, refers to any species, strain or biotype of plant, animal or pathogenic agent injurious to plants or plant products and includes plant pathogenic fungi, bacteria, fungus-like organisms, viruses, nematodes and virus like organisms as well as insects, mites and weeds.

ABSTRACT

A methodology for depiction of Brown Plant Hopper (BPH) pest incidence on rabi rice crop using Remote Sensing (RS) data was attempted. The reflectance and geographically registered RS images of Feb.12, Mar.13, and April 30, 2009  as well as Feb.23 and March 14, 2007 were used to classify the Godavari district for generation of rabi rice crop area map. The rice crop map thus generated was used as an overlaying layer of rice crop mask in GIS to derive other RS based indices described below over this crop mask. Land Surface Temperature (LST) data product for rice growing areas was generated using rice crop mask. Normalised Difference Water Index (NDWI), Temperature Vegetation Dryness Index (TVDI) onices derived from MODIS data and NDWI from AWiFS data were correlated with pest count data for two years 2007 and 2009.

The tropical fruit guava is prone to a number of diseases, pests, and disorders. Aphids, fruit flies, and scale insects are common pests; on the other hand, pathogens, such as bacteria and fungus, can cause illnesses like wilt and anthracnose. Deficiencies in some nutrients can occur and have an impact on the general health of plants. For effective control, integrated pest management must be put into practise along with routine inspections and prompt treatments. Maintaining a healthy guava crop involves disease-resistant cultivars, balanced fertilisation, and good orchard cleanliness. A vigorous guava crop is ensured by minimising the influence of diseases disorders, and pests via vigilant and preventative methods.
10.1 Weed control
Weeds should be kept under control throughout the year because fruit harvesting is done throughout the year, for the easy mobility of labour. For this purpose, spray Gramoxone @ 6ml/litre of water during March, July and September. To control perennial weeds in March, spray may be done with Round up (Glyphosate) @ 10 ml/litre. Spray of these weedicides should be carried out on a calm day to avoid the damage to guava foliage.
10.2 Insect pests
10.2.1 Fruit fly
Fruit fly, the serious threat to guava production particularly during rainy season, lays eggs singly in ripened fruits just below the epicarp which eventually results in appearance of minute depression with dark punctures. Maggots after hatching feed on pulp and make fruit unfit for consumption. They pupate in soil and takes about 12 to 18 days to complete its life cycle during July- August (main season).

The term “plant pest”, mainly applied to insect micropredators of plants, has a specific definition in terms of the International Plant Protection Convention and phytosanitary measures worldwide. A pest is any species, strain or biotype of plant, animal, or pathogenic agent injurious to plants or plant products. Worldwide, agricultural pest impacts are increased by higher degrees of interconnectedness. This is due to the increased risk that any particular pest problem anywhere in the world (as a system) will propagate across the entire system.

Synnoyms : Pseudorinderpest, Goat plaque, Goat catarrhal fever

It is a severe rinderpest like disease of small ruminants viz., sheep, goat and wild ruminants characterized by pyrexia, catarrhal inflammation of ocular and nasal mucous membrane, erosive stomatitis, enteritis and pneumonia. The disease is also called goat plaque, kata, pseudorinderpest and  stomatitis pneumo-enteritis complex. The current and standard name of the disease was chosen by the International Workshop of the disease in Ibadan, Nigeria, 1980.

Introduction 

In the thirst of modernization and industrialization man has contributed pollution to the life and ecology of plants, animals and microbes. Increased demand for food and fiber has lead to the chemicalization of agriculture we have reached to such a stage that modern agriculture is dependent on high yielding varieties, which can only be grown under the influence of fertilizers and pesticides. Pesticides are the man made chemicals which are being used to produce enough cheap food. In India, 90,000 MT of technical grade pesticides are used annually to control pests and plant diseases. The pesticides are classified as insecticides, fungicides, weedicides, herbicides, nematodicides and rodenticides; of which insecticides constitutes 77% of the total pesticides used in different agricultural and animal husbandry practices and in public health operations.

In agricultural practices pesticide application is an inevitable factor for maintaining high crop productivity and is currently an integral part of modern farming. Pests (insects, microbes and weeds) cause approximately 20-30% loss in crop production so making pesticide use indispensable for crop protection.
 
Pesticide : A pesticide may be defined as ‘any agent or chemical or a mixture of chemicals/ substances intended to prevent, destroy, repel or irritate one or more pest populations causing economic loss in crop production’. Worldwide more than 450 active pesticide chemicals formulated into more than 10,000 commercial products are currently used by farmers. The most worrying aspect is that about two-third of the 800 chemicals tested so far have been found involved in causing or promoting tumor in rodents. Yet more than 50,000 synthetic chemicals/formulations remain untested so far.

Definition

Adjuvants are chemicals incorporated in a pesticide formulation or added to the tank mix, to increase effectiveness and safety. They generally have no effect on pests in themselves.

The Effectiveness of a Pesticide in Controlling a Disease and Pest Depends on

Using the right pesticide for the target disease & pest.

Applying the pesticide at the right time.

Applying the pesticide in the right amount.

Applying the pesticide to the right place.

Pesticide Formulation

Pesticide formulation is the process by which the pesticide is put into a form which can be easily produced, stored, transported and applied by practical methods in order to achieve a safe, convenient economic and effective method of pest control.

When a pesticide active ingredient (a.i) is manufactured, it is not in a usable form as it may not mix well with water or may be unstable. Therefore, it is mixed with other compounds to improve its effectiveness, safety, handling and storage. These other compounds can include solvents, mineral clays, stickers, wetting agents, or other adjuvant. The mixture of a.i. and inert (inactive) ingredients is called a pesticide formulation. Some formulations are premixed while others must be mixed before use. A single a.i. is often made into several formulations.

The label on the pesticide container is the principal source of information about a product. The label has all the fundamental information that is required. If you need information about a pesticide, do not rely on memory as it is very easy to make a mistake. Read the label every time before using a pesticide. The lay-out of the pesticide label varies between countries. However, every label on a pesticide container from a reputable manufacturer or source will have the following information:

The knowledge on the fate of pesticides, after application in the environment is useful to research workers associated with their safe and effective use. It is important to know whether a xenobioticwillpersist orwill be inactivated. Frequently persistence is desirable for sustained control. However, for many cases, rapid detoxificationof the compound may be required to avoid cumulative effects. Most of the pesticides are not very soluble in water andtheir oxidation orhydrolysis (or both)leads to formation of polar groups. Such reactions are called primary metabolic reactions, often, but not always. Theproducts ofthese primary reactions undergo secondary changes whereby they are conjugated with endogenous substances to form molecules that are more readily excreted. In higher animals, these changes facilitate the transportation of metabolites of pesticides in blood, which in turn leads to their eventual excretion.

A pesticide may be referred to by several different names, which can cause confusion. The same pesticide may be referred to by a number of different names, or different pesticides may have similar names.

Key Points

• When pesticides, which are chemicals used to manage a pest, impact non-target organisms like humans and animals, it's known as pesticide poisoning.

• Pesticides have the ability to contaminate the surrounding area and the ecosystem.

Introduction

Pesticides are chemical chemicals that are applied to destroy pests. These insecticides have the capacity to contaminate the surrounding area and the ecosystem. Pesticides can also be hazardous to a wide range of other creatures, including fish, birds, beneficial insects, and non-target plants, in addition to having a toxic effect on insects and weeds.

Etiology

Today's society faces several issues due to the overuse of pesticides in fields and food. Products may deteriorate if they are kept in partially filled containers for extended periods of time or exposed, whether intentionally or unintentionally, to high temperatures. It is dangerous to store chemicals anywhere other than their original container since the identification and label instructions are lost. These products can have severe effects on people or animals if they come into unintended touch with them. It can be extremely risky to mix substances or use them in unapproved combinations. In order to increase the efficacy of certain pesticide formulations, such as pyrethrins, pyrethroids, and d-limonene, piperonyl butoxide is added. It lessens the chemical's breakdown in the body of the insect or animal, but it also increases the pesticide's toxicity to both the pest and the host animal.

Pesticide Authorities

Central Insecticides Board and Registration Committee

In India, the central pesticide board and registration committee oversee the import, production, sale, transportation, distribution, and use of insecticides. Pesticides in India are regulated by the following two government organisations Central Insecticides Board and Registration Committee CIBRC and Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI ).

Central Insecticide Board (CIB)

• The Central Insecticides Board advises the central and state governments on technical issues arising from the administration of this act, as well as carrying out the other tasks given to it by or under this act.

Scope

This method is suitable for most OPs, OCs, SPs, and herbicides residue analysis.

Apparatus required

• Homogenizer
• Centrifuge
• Nitrogen evaporator

Principle

Acetone is used for extraction the most nonionic pesticide residue, and residue are partitioned from acetone to dichloromethane/hexane phase. After removing traces dichloromethane, final extract is made up with acetone. This extract can be determined by GC with selective detectors. Further for organochlorine and synthetic pyrethroids extract should be cleaned up using florisil column. And for determination organophosphate extract should undergo to charcoal-celite cleanup.

For the determination carbamates, the extract is subjected to C-18 solid phase cartridge clean up.

Principle

Pesticide residues in milk are derived from the intake of pesticide contaminated feed and fodder.

Scope

This method is suitable for most OPs, OCs, SPs, and herbicides residue analysis.

Principle

Pesticide residues are extracted from soil using a mixture of acetone/water in a soxhlet apparatus for 7-8 hours. This extract can be determined directly by GLC.

Scope: This method is suitable for most OPs, OCs, SPs, and herbicides residue analysis.

Pesticides are an undeniable part of modern life, used to protect everything from flower gardens to agricultural crops from specific pests. Pesticides have contributed significantly to improving quality of life and safeguarding the environment. Some 20 to 40 percent of the world’s potential crop production is already lost annually because of the effects of weeds, pests and diseases (according to the FAO reports) (www.CropLifeAmerica.mht). In addition to increasing crop yields, crop protection products used in stored products can also prolong the viable life of products, prevent huge post-harvest losses from pests and diseases and protect food safety for eating.

India is recovering from the euphoria of the Green Revolution and battling the residual effects of the extensively used chemical fertilizers and pesticides in the country’s soils. The decade from 1980 to 1990 alone saw the area under pesticides in India, increased a whopping 20-fold, from six million hectares to 125 million hectares. After a high annual consumption of nearly 75000 MT reached in the early ’90s, interventions in the form of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices have only now started to show a declining trend in the use of pesticides in India. Interestingly, India’s consumption of pesticides per hectare is low (0.288 kg/ha) when compared with world averages—0.5 kg/ha against Korea’s 6.60 kg/ha and Japan’s 12.0 kg/ha. According to the pesticides industry statistics, India spends US $3/ha on pesticides compared with US $24/ha spent by Philippines, US $255/ha spent by South Korea and US $633/ha by Japan. Yet, despite a comparatively low use of pesticides in India, the contamination of food products in the country is alarming. About 20 per cent of Indian food products contain pesticide residues above tolerance level compared to only 2 per cent globally. No detectable residues are found in only 49 per cent Indian food products compared to 80 per cent globally. A pesticide is any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest. Though often misunderstood to refer only to insecticides, the term pesticide also applies to herbicides, fungicides and various other substances used to control pests.

Pesticides and their metabolites have received particular attention in the last few years in environmental trace organic analysis because they are regularly detected in food products, surface/ground waters and soil strata throughout the world as consequence of their widespread use for agricultural and nonagricultural purposes. So it is the need of the hour to study the levels of pesticides residues in plants, water and soil and their fate in environment after its degradation.

It would be necessary to work out tolerance limits of pesticides residues in/on crops, soil and water and the efforts, therefore, are directed towards various residue analytical methods like TLC, GLC and HPLC etc. which are suitable for the purpose.

A pesticides residue is any substance or mixture of substances in food, agricultural commodities or animal feed resulting from the use of pesticides and includes any specified derivatives such as degradation products and impurities that are considered to be of toxicological significance.

Pesticide residue analysis (PRA) may be defined as the quantitative and qualitative analyses of the representative samples drawn from agricultural field, market and environment for pesticides and their toxic metabolites.

Chemicals in the form of insecticides ,fungicides and herbicides are extensively used in large numbers in agricultural production. Commercial production of some crops would be impossible if chemicals are not used. Small quantities of chemical residues often remain in such crops and the harvested grains and other products. The residues of pesticides  have been observed in small quantities (ppm level) in soil, water, agricultural produce  and even in animal tissues and their products like meat and  milk. They finally reach the consumer, namely, man (and even animals). Even the environment  is  now-a-days polluted with pesticides and other chemicals harmful to the humans. In view of the importance and seriousness of the problem the residues need to be estimated in the food and non-food products to assess their safety. Analytical details of a few pesticide residue procedures are presented below. Specialized texts may be consulted for  more extensive information.

Principle: Acetone is used for extraction the most nonionic pesticide residue, and residue are partitioned from acetone to dichloromethane/hexane phase. After removing traces dichloromethane, final extract is made up with acetone. This extract can be determined by GC with selective detectors FPD-P/NPD without cleanup. Further for organochlorine and synthetic pyrethroids extract should be cleaned up using florisil column. And for determination organophosphate extract should undergo to charcoal-celite cleanup.

India is an agrarian country where around 70% of the total population is engaged in farming activities. Agriculture and allied sectors are undoubtedly the largest livelihood provider of India, along with significant contribution towards the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the country. Agricultural production has been raised dramatically in the recent past to feed our burgeoning population with the help of modern inputs like fertilizers, pesticides, mechanical devices for tilling, seeding and irrigating the crops. With the advancement of agro-inputs, incidence of various kinds of pests also increases that hugely threaten our food security.

Crops are grown with the use of plant protection chemicals to boost production, enhance quality, and lengthen shelf life. Wherein the enormous use of pesticides which are having the longer half life period led to leave the residues in the different bodies of the ecosystem. Pesticide residues refer to the residual presence of pesticide active ingredients, their metabolites, or breakdown products in various environmental components subsequent to their application, accidental release, or disposal.

Analysis of residues gives insight on the type and extent of chemical contamination in an area, as well as how long it has been there. Before governments will approve the use of pesticides, they require comprehensive testing of their efficacy, environmental impact, and toxicology. A possible risk to human health arises from the presence of chemical residues and/or breakdown products in agricultural goods. Selective sampling plans can be used to learn more about pesticide traces in the environment, how they move about, and how quickly they degrade.

Pesticide: The act defines “pesticide” as any substance or other substance or product that is used to stop, kill, repel, or control insects, rodents, fungi, weeds, and other plants and animals that humans don’t need.

Introduction

The term pesticide refers to any chemical or mixture of chemicals intended for preventing, attracting, repelling, controlling or regulating a pest, including unwanted species of plants and animals during the production, shipment, transit, storage, processing or distribution of any food or agricultural commodity. The term includes compounds classified as insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, accaricides, rodenticides, plant growth regulators, sprouting inhibitors, chemosterilants, desiccants etc. The term excludes substances like animal drugs and food additives. Pesticides are chemicals used to destroy or control weeds, insects or other pests. The term pesticide residue refers to the remnants of the pesticide after weathering and it consists of the parent molecule and the degradation products which are toxicologically significant. In general, the pesticides, by virtue of their inherent toxic nature are recommended to be used as per Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) only. If GAP is not followed, contamination of the produce with the residues may pose significant health risk to consumers, non target organisms, biota and environment as a whole. When a pesticide is used for pest control purposes, they may reside in the form of metabolites.

Pesticide residues occur as the leftover of any pesticide after its application for pest control and it includes the parent compound and its toxic metabolites. Pesticide residue analysis may be defined as qualitative and quantitative analysis of samples drawn from agricultural field, market and environment for pesticides and toxic metabolites. Pesticide residues are invariably present in micro – quantities and generally estimated at ppm/ ppb levels. After application of the diluted spray solution, they are present at sub microgram levels in the substrate and hence their estimation at ppm or ppb levels is very cumbersome and need to be performed with utmost care. Moreover, the residue data generated should be accurate, reliable and reproducible. The level of residue in any edible commodity has to be below their prescribed maximum residue limits (MRL) value for market acceptance and below maximum permissible intake (MPI) for safety to consumers. Pesticide residue data are mainly utilised by regulatory authorities for estimation of MRLs and for assessing impact on human health and environment, particularly their adverse effect on non-target organisms. The detection of the pesticide residues must be confirmed beyond doubt and confirmation by GC-MS/MS or LC-MS/MS is generally acceptable. Since pesticide residues include parent compounds, isomers and toxic metabolites, appropriate methods of detection should be selected so that all the components are measured separately. Environmental samples/ market usually contain residues of large number of pesticides, for which multi residue methods are required for estimation/screening of such samples.

India is the world’s second largest producer of fruits, of which mango, banana, citrus, guava, grape, pineapple and apple are the major ones. Apart from these, fruits like papaya, sapota, aonla, phalsa, jackfruit, ber, pomegranate in tropical and sub-tropical parts and peach, pear, almond, walnut, apricot and strawberry in the temperate parts are also grown in a sizeable area. Date palm and fig cultivation is also finding favour in some areas. The major fruit growing states are Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat.

Production of fruits in India is 44.04 million tones from an area of 3.72 million hectares. One of the bottlenecks in fruit production is the losses incurred by insect pest and diseases which necessitated the use of pesticides to curb the pest problem. Use of pesticides in India is very low 0.350–0.5 kg/hectare as compared to 7.0 kg/hectare in USA, 2.5 kg/hectare in Europe, 12 kg/hectare in Japan and 6.6 kg/hectare in Korea. Despite of low pesticide consumption in India, there is a great problem of pesticide residues vis-a-vis other countries and these residues have entered into food products and underground water because of non-prescribed use of chemical pesticides, wrong advice and supply of pesticides to farmers by vested interests, non-observance of prescribed waiting period, pre-marketing pesticide treatments during storage and transport, use of sub-standard pesticides, effluents from pesticide manufacturing units, continued use of persistent pesticides for public health programme, lack of awareness and lack of aggressive educational programmes for farmers/consumers.

Spices are defined as “A strongly flavored or aromatic substance of vegetable origin, obtained from tropical plants, commonly used as a condiment”. American Spice Trade Association (ASTA) defines spices as “Any dried plant product used primarily for seasoning purposes”. The word “spice” came from the Latin word “species,” meaning specific kind. The name reflects the fact that all plant parts have been cultivated for their aromatic fragrant, pungent or any other desirable properties including the seed (aniseed, caraway, coriander), leaf (cilantro, kari, bay, mint), berry (allspice, juniper, black pepper), bark (cinnamon), kernel (nutmeg), aril (mace), stem (chives), stalk (lemongrass), rhizome (ginger, turmeric, galangal), root (lovage, horse radish), flower (saffron), bulb (garlic, onion), fruit (star anise, cardamom, chile pepper) and flower bud (clove). Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are leafy, green plant parts used for flavoring purpose. Herbs, such as a basil or orengano, may be used fresh and are commonly chopped in to smaller pieces; spices however are dried and usually ground in to a powder (Anonymous, 2007).

In ancient times, spices were as precious as gold, and as significant as medicines, preservatives and perfumes. India is known as the home of spices and produces a wide variety of spices like black pepper, cardamom (small and large), ginger, garlic, turmeric, chilli and a large variety of tree and seed spices. These have nutritionally insignificant quantities as a food additive for the purpose of flavoring. They are good not only for our taste buds but also for our health. They have medicinal properties and also used as preservatives. Spices are well known appetizers, digestives and considered essential in culinary art all over the world. Some of them have antioxidant properties, while others possess strong antimicrobial and antibiotic activities. Spices increase the secretion of saliva rich in ptyalin, which facilitates starch digestion in the stomach, rendering the meals, which are rich in carbohydrates, more digestible. They inhibit thrombus formation and accelerate thromobolysis (Anonymous, 2007a).

The noun vegetable means an edible plant or part of a plant, but usually excludes seeds and most sweet fruits. This typically means the leaf, stem, or root of a plant. Vegetables are eaten in a variety of ways, as part of main meals and as snacks. The nutritional content of vegetables varies considerably, though generally they contain little protein or fat (Woodruff,1995 and Whitaker, 2001) and varying proportions of vitamins such as Vitamin A, Vitamin K and Vitamin B6, provitamins, dietary minerals and carbohydrates. They contain a great variety of other phytochemicals, some of which have been claimed to have antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral and anticarcinogenic properties (Gruda, 2005; Steinmetz and Potter,1996). Some vegetables also contain fiber, important for gastrointestinal function. Some contain important nutrients necessary for healthy hair and skin as well. However, vegetables often also contain toxins and antinutrients such as á-solanine, á-chaconine,(Science direct) enzyme inhibitors (of cholinesterase, protease, amylase, etc.), cyanide and cyanide precursors, oxalic acid, and more (Bad Bug Bock > BBB–Clostridium botulinum). Depending on the concentration, such compounds may reduce the edibility, nutritional value, and health benefits of dietary vegetables. Cooking and/or other processing may be necessary to eliminate or reduce them. Diets containing recommended amounts of fruits and vegetables may help to lower the risk of heart diseases and two type of diabetes. These diets may also protect against some cancers and decrease bone loss. The potassium provided by vegetables may help to prevent the formation of kidney stones.

Pesticides sustain food production and control disease and pests. They are vital for crop production and instrumental in continuous increase in food production. The consumption of pesticide in India is one of the lowest in the world. India uses a low amount of 0.5 kg/hectare pesticide compared to 7.0 kg/ hectare by USA, 2.5 kg/hectare by Europe, 12 kg/hectare by Japan and 6.6 kg/ hectare by Korea. However, despite the low consumption of pesticides, India has more problem of pesticide residues vis-a-vis other countries and these have entered into food products and underground water because of

Pesticide Resistance

Resistance to pesticides may be defined as ‘a heritable change in the sensitivity of a pest population that is reflected in the repeated failure of a product to achieve the expected level of control when used according to the label recommendation for that pest species.

Abstract

Tea (Camellia sinensis L. O. Kuntze), a foliage crop of Sub-Himalayan Terai-Dooars has Tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis theivora)(TMB), looper caterpillars [Hyposidra talaca, Hyposidra infixaria, Biston (=Buzura) suppresseria] and Red spider mite (Oligonychus coffeae)(RSM) as major pests. In conventionally managed tea plantations, synthetic pesticides and acaricides are routinely applied. The pesticide-exposed pest populations show higher tolerance level as evident in their increased LC50 values. Augmented activities of detoxifying enzymes viz. general esterases (GE), glutathione S–transferases (GST) and cytochrome P450 mediated monooxygenases (CYP) were recorded in the pesticide-exposed pest populations. Sub–lethal exposure to monocrotophos (36% SL) enhanced the tolerance level in adult TMB by 105 fold through three generations. Increased activity of GE was evident in the pesticide-exposed populations of the tea loopers. Activities of GE and GST  in RSM were significantly higher in acaricide-exposed population. Present studies can help developing enzyme-based assay kit for determining level of pesticide-resistance. Integrated resistance management has become an integral part of modern day IPM practices. Adoption of newer chemicals, and cultural practices can minimise synthetic pesticide applications, thereby help reducing resistance development in pests.

Insecticides possess toxicity towards both pest organisms and human beings. Nevertheless, the potential harm to humans and non-target animal species can be mitigated by implementing appropriate safety measures. The ingestion or prolonged dermal exposure to most insecticide s can result in deleterious effects, whether intentional or accidental. Inhalation of insecticide particles may occur during the spraying process, and there is an associated risk of contamination of drinking water, food, or soil. The issue of safety is consistently a concern when utilizing insecticide s. Exposure to insecticide concentrates or vapour drift has the potential to cause harm to applicators, bystanders, and the surrounding environment. It is imperative to exercise specific precautions when engaging in the activities of transportation, storage, and handling. Individuals who are engaged in the handling and application of insecticide s are required to possess knowledge and adhere to appropriate safety protocols in order to mitigate potential risks. The foundation of ensuring insecticide safety lies in the selection of an appropriate product. The preservation of safety is of utmost significance in the various stages of insecticide management, including storage, transportation, mixing, and loading. The safe execution of equipment cleanup and maintenance is imperative, as it necessitates the proper disposal of unwanted insecticide s and empty insecticide containers. Regular cleaning and maintenance of spray equipment is essential in order to mitigate the occurrence of leaks. Furthermore, individuals who are involved in insecticide application should undergo comprehensive training to ensure their adeptness in handling these substances safely.

History

 • The fossil evidence also indicates the presence of plant diseases 250million years ago.

 • The diseases caused by fungi and nematodes were discovered by Monocernin 1735.

 • Johan Needham (1743) identified wheat gall caused by a nematode.

 • Adolf Mayer (1886), demonstrated the transmission of Tobacco mosaicvirus (TMV).

 • EF Smith (1890) described bacterial wilt in cucurbits.

• The thrips (Thysanoptera) as vectors of plant viruses were identified thescientific studies made by Samuel and his team.

 • Karl Maramorosch (1952) demonstrated the multiplication of Asteryellows virus (AYV) in leafhopper vector.

 • The mite Aceriatulipae has been identified as a vector of Wheat streakmosaic virus by JT Slykhuis in 1955.

 • The term “viroid” (viruses without protein coat) was coined by TO Dienerduring 1971.

Introduction
Pesticides play a crucial role in agriculture. During the period of the Green Revolution, the use of pesticides increased dramatically (Matson et al., 1997). According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), pesticides can be defined as compounds that are used for the destruction, repulsion, or prevention of organisms that can be harmful to cultured crops (pests) as well as affect the regulation of plant growth. They are categorized based on several factors, such as their chemical composition (organophosphates, pyrethroids, neonicotinoids, etc.), based on the types of pests they eradicate (herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, etc.), and application methods. Although each pesticide has a distinct purpose, they all have comparable advantages. Some of the primary benefits of pesticide usage are the prevention of disease andan increase in yield, whereas secondary benefits include economic efficiency, an increase in food quality, facilitation of sustainable agriculture, improving public health, etc. However, the extensive use of pesticides has its consequences. These pesticides are meant to control or eliminate pests, but their toxicity could end up in unexpected areas. Its utilization poses significant harm to the environment, particularly to aquatic ecosystems. While they are essential in agriculture, their unregulated application leads to environmental degradation. The level of toxicity is influenced by factors such as pesticide concentration, mode of action, chemical composition, and persistence in the environment. Pesticides can cause both acute as well as chronic health effects. Through runoff or leaching, they indirectly enter water bodies, harming aquatic flora and fauna. A 2001 study revealed that over 90 percent of fish and water samples collected from various streams contained traces of one or more pesticides (Kole et al., 2001).