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Pesticide Toxicity

Chemical tactics to manage pests can include many types of compounds. Some merely repel or confuse pests. Some interfere with weed photosynthesis, insect molting processes or development in some way. Others, including some botanical and most conventional insecticides are broadly toxic to living systems. The term pesticide literally means “pest killer". Generally speaking, when using pesticides, we are trying to garner the advantages of using pesticides while minimizing the risk to humans and other non-target organisms. Risk to humans of pesticide use is often described as:

Introduction

In the thirst of modernization and industrialization man has contributed pollution to the life and ecology of plants, animals and microbes. Increased demand for food and fiber has lead to the chemicalization of agriculture and we have reached on such a stage that modern agriculture is dependent on high yielding varieties, which can only be grown under the influence of fertilizers and pesticides. Pesticides are the man made chemicals which are being used to produce enough cheap food. In India, 90,000 MT of technical grade pesticides are used annually to control pests and plant diseases. The pesticides are classified as insecticides, fungicides, weedicides, herbicides, nematodicides and rodenticides; of which insecticides constitutes 77% of the total pesticides used in different agricultural and animal husbandry practices and in public health operations.

Introduction

The toxicant must be able to be applied effectively in order to come into touch with the pest or leaf and to leave a uniform and permanent deposit on the plant surface. Pesticide in chemically pure form is known as technical grade pesticides. These cannot be applied as such due to high toxicity and complex physical properties. They are converted into a ready to-use form known as formulation. Formulation converts the technical grade pesticide into a product which can be suitably diluted & applied by practical methods. Which have homogeneous distribution over large area, convenient to handle and more attractive to the pest.

There are broadly five categories of crop protection products

Insecticides: Insecticides provide protection to the crops from the insects by either killing them or by preventing their attack. They can be further classified based on their mode of action:

Slugs and snails occasionally cause serious damage to seedlings, tender, lowgrowing leafy vegetables; or ripening fruit that are on the ground. Feeding damage, hollowed-out areas, can be found anywhere on fruit, but is usually concentrated near the stem. Slugs leave a tell tale slime trail (silvery trail) behind on the surface of fruit or leaves.

Abstract
Pesticides, which are extensively employed in agriculture and pest management, pose serious dangers to the environment and public health because they frequently enter aquatic ecosystems through runoff, leaching, and inappropriate disposal. Acute and chronic toxicity in aquatic creatures caused by pesticide poisoning in water bodies can disturb ecosystem services and biodiversity. As sentinel species, fish have immune-toxic consequences, such as impaired immune function and increased vulnerability to illness. Aquatic animals and human health are at risk due to the bioaccumulation of pesticides in fish tissues and their subsequent biomagnification in the food chain. In order to control pesticide exposure and guarantee safety, important parameters such as Maximum Residual Limits (MRLs) and Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) are essential. In order to control pesticide, use and lessen its negative effects, government regulations and international standards are essential. In order to protect aquatic ecosystems and human health, future research should give priority to environmentally suitable pesticide substitutes and strong regulatory frameworks.
Keywords: Pesticides, Toxicity, Aquatic Environment, Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification.

Pesticides are used to control plant growth (herbicides), insects (insecticides), worms  (vermicides), bacteria (bacteriocides), fungi (fungicides), and other organisms. Almost without exception, pesticides are used to benefit humans by the control of unwanted species of plants (e.g. weeds in a lawn), disease-causing bacteria (e.g., Pneumococcus, the causative agent of pneumonia), disease-carrying insects (e.g. malarial or yellow fever mosquitoes) or in controlling destruction of agricultural products by disease-causing organisms (e.g., corn-borers, the virus of anthurium blight). Although they are by and large mostly beneficial, pesticides used both properly and improperly are also “resources out of place”, that is pollutants, that are subject to normal ecological processes.

The Insecticides Act, 1968 and Insecticides Rules, 1971 regulate the import, registration process, manufacture, sale, transport, distribution and use of pesticides with a view to prevent risk to human beings or animals and for all connected matters, throughout India. However, recently the Union Cabinet gave its approval for the introduction of the Pesticides Management Bill with the aims of improving the quality of pesticides available to Indian farmers and introducing new, safe and efficacious pesticides. This bill will replace the existing Insecticide Act 1968.The pesticides’ regulations in India are governed by two different bodies:

10.1. Classification of pesticides

10.1.1. Based on organisms

Introduction

Pesticide in broad term refers to “killer of pests” but is an agent used to control, prevent, destroy, repel and mitigate a pest. Pesticides are thus poisonous substances intentionally applied in situations, which harbour so-called pests. Agriculture including poultry and veterinary (i.e. raising of crops and protection of produce and storage), health (public places-hospitals, restaurants, gardens cinema halls etc.), transportation (shipment, air rail and road transport) are some areas where pesticides are used extensively as spot application, fumigation, aerial and field sprays, soil treatments etc. Plant protection comes to be recognized as an equally important factor of agriculture production as improved seeds, fertilizers and irrigation. Pesticides over time get accumulated in the environment and contaminate all systems i.e. air, water, soil, plants, animals and micro-organisms on being transported from one system to another leading to biomagnifications.

The fate of a pesticide in the environment and the entities, which come in contact, is depicted in the Fig. 1 reflecting the pollution and contamination. Pesticides during manufacturing, transportation, storage and actual use enter the biotic and abiotic components of the environment through air, water and soil and disturb the cohesion causing great disaster sometimes. Pollution is defined as undesirable change in physical, chemical and biological characteristics of air, land and water. This change may or will harmfully affect human life or that of desirable species, industrial process, living conditions and cultural assets. It may or will waste or deteriorate our raw material resources. Pollution increases burden of human society causing loss of resources through unnecessary wasteful exploitation, the cost of pollution abatement and deterioration of human health.

The chemicals, which can destroy pests or prevent their occurrence by their chemical action, are known as ‘pesticides’. Pesticides include ‘insecticides’, ‘acaricides’, ‘nematicides’, ‘rodenticides’, ‘molluscicides’ etc., which are used to destroy insect pests, mites, nematodes, rodents, slugs and snails respectively.

Pesticides have been used even before the time when man never knew how to read or write. Even before 200 BC, several substances were known to control pests. Sulfur, arsenic poisons, fluorine poisons, as well as some plant extracts and oils were used to control pests. However, these substances could destroy only a few specific pests.

Advances in the invention of pesticides

The invention of many of the present day pesticides started only after 1867. Paris green, a synthetic chemical was the first pesticide used to control the Colorado beetles of potato.  Up to  1939,  only  a few inorganic  chemical compounds and plant poisons were used as pesticides. Only after the Second World War much advances were made in chemical research. After the invention of DDT in 1939, a revolution had started in the field of pest control.  Following the introduction of DDT,  several other pesticides were identified and introduced for pest control. In 1941, BHC was invented by the British and French scientists. During the same period, organophosphorus pesticides were invented by the German scientists and parathion, malathion, demeton etc. were introduced.

The chemicals, which can destroy pests or prevent their occurrence by their chemical action are known as ‘Pesticides’. Pesticides include ‘insecticides’, acaricides’, ‘nematicides’, rodenticides’, molluscicides’ etc., which are used to destroy insect pests, mites, nematodes, rodents, slugs and snails respectively. Pesticides have been used even before the time when man never knew how to read and write. Even before 200 BC, several substances were known to control pests. Sulfur, arsenic poisons, fluorine poisons, as well as some plant extracts and oils were used to control pests. However, these substances could destroy only a few specific pests only to some extent.

Advances in the invention of pesticides

The invention of many of the present day pesticides started only after 1867. ‘Paris green’, a synthetic chemical was the first pesticide used to control the ‘Colorodo beetles’ of potato. Up to 1939, only a few inorganic chemical compounds and plant poisons were used as pesticides. Only after the Second World War much advances were made in chemical research. After the invention of DDT in 1939, a revolution had started in the field of pest control. Following the introduction of DDT, several other pesticides were identified and introduced for pest control. In 1941, BHC was invented by the British and French scientists. During the same period, organophosphorus pesticides were invented by the German scientists and parathion, malathion, demeton etc. were introduced.

Bougainvillea is relatively pest-free. Worms, aphids, and moths might be an issue. Sometimes it gets attacked by spiders which can be controlled by using miticide and by the fungus Phytophthora which is checked by spraying Blitox (copper oxychloride) (Sharma 1996, Banerji 2010). Although it is normally pest-free plants, but may suffer from worms, snails and aphids. The larvae of some Lepidoptera species also use them as food plants, for example the giant leopard moth (Hypercompe scribonia). Leaf spot disease caused by Cercosporidium bougainvillea has been reported in the U.S.A. (Sobers and Martinez 1966, Sobers and Seymour 1969). When compared to B. spectabilis, B. glabra has been reported to be resistant or only slightly susceptible to the leaf spot disease (Pal and Swarup 1974). Cercosporidium bougainvillea has been reported in Colombo by Pardo-Cardona (1998) and in Indonesia by Kobayashi and Oniki (1994). The disease can be controlled by spraying copper Carbendazim at the rate of 1 g/l at an interval of 10-15 days. Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum in bougainvillea has been reported in Italy (Polizzi et al., 2010). Bacterial leaf spot caused by Pseudomonas andropogonis has been reported in Brunei, Darussalam (Peregrine and Ahmad 1982, Sivapalan and Hamdan 1997) and U.S.A. (Walker 1991, Walker and Hodge 1991). This can be controlled by spraying copper oxychloride at the rate of 3 g/l at intervals of 10-15 days.

Tropical tuber and root crops are subjected to the depredation of a number of insect and non insect pests. Comprehensive studies revealed that cassava is attacked by a wide range of arthropod and rodent pests. An exhaustive global account of cassava pests and their management was given by Anon (1978), Bellotti and Schoonhoven (1978) and Bellotti et al. (1999). Lal and Pillai (1982); Pillai and Palaniswami (1984), Pillai (1994) and Palaniswami (1999) reviewed the pests of cassava in India. Anon (1978), Sutherland (1986) and Jansson and Raman (1991) covered world sweet potato pests. Palaniswami (1999) detailed the pests attacking sweet potato in India. Pests of edible aroids, yams and chinese potato were comprehensively reported by Anon (1978); Mitchell and Maddison (1983) and Palaniswami (1994, 1999). In India about 34 species of insects and non-insect pests infest cassava, 80 species attack sweet potato, 46 species on edible aroids, 21 on yams and 10 on chinese potato. One of the main factors for the low productivity of these crops in India is attributed to the pest complex attacking them (Chadha, 2001).

Though a large number of insect pests are reported to attack mango, which cause considerable damage to mango crops in India. More than 492 species of insects, 17 species of mites and 26 species of nematodes have been reported to be infesting mango trees, about 45 per cent of which have been reported from India. Almost a dozen of them have been found damaging the crop to a considerable extent causing severe losses and, therefore, may be termed as major pests of mango. These are hopper, mealy bug, inflorescence midge, fruitfly, scale insect, shoot borer, leaf webber and stone weevil. Of these, insects infesting the crop during flowering and fruiting periods cause more severe damage. The insects other than those indicated above are considered as less injurious to mango crop and are placed in the category of minor pests. A brief description of the biology and control of major pests of mango is given below. Mango suffers from several diseases at all stages of its life. All the parts of the plant, namely, trunk, branch, twig, leaf, petiole, flower and fruit are attacked by a number of pathogens including fungi, bacteria and algae. They cause several kinds of rot, die back, anthracnose, scab, necrosis, blotch, spots, mildew, etc. Some of these diseases like powdery mildew are of great economic importance as they cause heavy losses in mango production. Major pests and diseases of mango and their control measures are discussed below.

Anar butterfly, Deudorix isocrates (Fab.)

The pest has been found boring into fruits of pomegranate. Besides it may attack guava, aonla, apple, ber, citrus, litchi, loquat, sapota, etc., pomegranate is the most preferred host for this pest. It may destroy up to 50 percent fruits. The female lays eggs singly on calyx of flowers or small fruits. On hatching, the caterpillars bore inside the developing fruits and are usually found feeding on pulp and seeds just below the rind; subsequently bacteria and fungi causing fruit rot also attack the infested fruits. The conspicuous symptoms of damage are offensive smell and excreta of caterpillars coming out of the entry holes, the excreta is found stuck around the holes. The affected fruits ultimately fall down and are of no use; even if the fruits be picked before falling down, these fruits have no market value.

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is one of the most important commercial crops of India. The crop is grown on commercial scale in coastal Maharashtra and other states of the country. The main reason for the low productivity is the pest incidence. The insect pests cause crop loss ranging from 30 to 40 per cent in cashew (Satapathy, 1993). Keeping in view, the strategy of increasing production, one of the important aspects is to develop technologies to save the crop from the pest incidences.

Cashew is attacked by around 180 species of insect and non-insect pests in India resulting in substantial yield loss (Sundararaju, 1993b). Godse et al. (2004) reported over 58 species of insects and pests on cashew crop in the Kokan region of Maharashtra region. The infestations of insect pests have been identified as one of the major factor responsible for low productivity. The most important pests that limit production are the cashew stem and borer (CSRB) and the tea mosquito bug (TMB). In addition, leaf and blossom webber, shoot tip caterpillar, and apple and nut borer cause damage. Recently, apple and nut borer and leaf miner are emerging as major pests and they also occasionally becoming serious in some orchards.

Amaranthus is an important leafy vegetable and is grown all over the Indian subcontinent. Amaranthus tricolor Linn and A. blittum Linn. are the common varieties cultivated. These herbaceous annuals are a rich source of proteins, vitamins A and C, and iron. The foliage is a good source of calcium, iron, and vitamins A, B, and C. In contrast, grains are good sources of important amino acids, particularly lysine, and are rich in dietary fibre, calcium, and minerals such as iron, magnesium, phosphorus, copper, and manganese. It enhances the body’s immune system and antioxidant status while lowering blood pressure and cholesterol. Fresh leaves and tender stems are used as vegetables. Production of amaranthus is affected by the incidence of pests. Cultivated amaranth is currently infested by a total of 92 different insect pests. (Rajeshkanna et al., 2017) among which the leaf webbers and amaranthus stem weevil are the most important pests.
Biology: Black moth with dark brown wings bearing white wavy markings on wings. Eggs are laid singly on leaves. Egg period 3 to 4 days. Larval duration will be completed within a period of 2 weeks. Pupation occurs among the leaf webbings and pupal duration lasts for 10 days. Several larvae can be seen inside each leaf web.

The Indian gooseberry or amla (Phyllanthus emblica Linn.; Family: Euphorbiaceae) is a deciduous fruit largely cultivated in the Indian subcontinent for its fruits. Amla is native to the tropical South Eastern Asia, particularly the Central and Southern India (Mortan, 1960), where the plants are often seen to grow in the wild up to an elevation of 1800 m (Firminger, 1947). In India, amla is mostly cultivated in the semi-arid regions of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and the Aravalli ranges in Haryana, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh (Pathak, 2003). The tree attains a height of 8 to 18 m, with a crooked trunk and spreading pattern of branching. The branchlets are glabrous or finely pubescent; leaves are simple, nearly stalkless, set along the branchlets resembling pinnate type. 

Anthurium is a famous decorative cut flower and pot plant in the Araceae (order Spathiflorae) genus because of its extended vase life and beautiful, long-lasting inflorescences. After orchids, anthurium sales are the second-highest in the world.
Anthurium Thrips : Chaetanaphothrips orchidii Moulton
Order : Thysanoptera
Family : Thripidae
Biology: Chaetanaphothrips orchidii are small, pale yellow thrips commonly found in unopened anthurium buds and flowers. These pests are also commonly found in orchids. Females reproduce parthogenetically and on an average 80-100 eggs are laid by each female (Hata and Hara, 1998). Eggs are inserted inside the flower bud or leaf sheath. Nymphs are light yellowish in colour and are similar to the adults. Pupation takes place beneath the host plant in the soil or growing media. The entire life cycle lasts approximately 28 to 32 days but can extend up to 3 months, depending on the temperature. Increased temperatures and humidity, along with new growth of host plants, seem to promote thrips feeding and reproduction, resulting in heavier infestations and greater damage during the summer months

Apple (Malus pumila, though erroneously and commonly called Malus domestica) is a deciduous plant and considered to be the world’s one of the oldest fruit crops. The tree originated from Central Asia where M. sieversii, wild ancestor of cultivated apple is still found today. It is one of the most important table fruits of the world and excels other fruits in having prolonged keeping quality and wide variety of flavour and taste. It is a highly remunerative crop and is grown in all temperate regions of the world. In India apple is mostly grown in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and some parts of Arunachal Pradesh.

Banana is the eighth most important food crop in the world. It is widely cultivated in over 130 countries in the tropics and sub tropics of Asia, Africa and the United States. Plantains and bananas are next important to major cereals, forming a key component in food security and agricultural sustainability in the developing economics (Patel and Shukla, 2009, Shukla, 2010; Deepah and Paranjothi, 2010). Banana ranks fifth in the global market of agricultural commodities and is one of the largest traded fruit crops. It is popularly known as “Apple of the Paradise ”. The per capita starch output of banana from unit cultivated area is almost near cassava and sweet potatoes (Choudhary, 2015).

Ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.) is one of the most ancient and important fruit crops. It is considered as the “King of arid zone fruits”, due to its adaptations to tolerate the biotic and abiotic stresses prevailing under rainfed conditions (Anbu et al., 2009). It is also called as desert apple, jujube, Badari (Sanskrit), Chinee apple, Ber (Hindi), Kul or Boroi (Bengali), Indian plum, Boroi, Beri, Permseret (Anguilla) etc. It is a tropical fruit tree that belongs to the family Rhamnaceae. Ber is rich in amino acids, protein, sugar, calcium, phosphorus, carbohydrates, iron, vitamin A, ascorbic acid. The fruit contains from 70 and 165 mg ascorbic acid per 100 gm of pulp, which is two to four times higher than the vitamin C content of citrus fruits. The mineral content of phosphorus, calcium and iron in Z. mauritiana fruit is also reported as being higher than in apples and even oranges (Morton et al., 1987, Jawanda and Bal,1978).

Black pepper, popularly known as the “King of spices”, is the most popular spice crop in the world, and the crop originated in the Western Ghats and Malabar coast of India. India was the centre of pepper trade from time immemorial. Recently, black pepper production in the country remained stagnant at around 90000 tonnes in the last few years. Hence, India is losing its status as a leading producer and exporter of black pepper. Kerala accounts for 75 per cent of total black pepper production in the country. It has been noted that the increase in area under cultivation is not in tune with the increase in production. Low productivity is mainly due to the incidence of pests and diseases.
Black pepper is infested by 56 species of insects in India; among these, pollu beetle, (Lanka ramakrishnae Prathapan & Viraktamath), top shoot borer (Cydia hemidoxa Meyr), scale insects (Lepidosaphes piperis and Aspidiotus destructor) are considered as major pests (Devasahayam, 2000).
It is one of the most destructive pests of black pepper and the infestation is severe in plains of Malabar region (20-30 %) and low in hilly tracts (Wayanad and Idukki) and South Kerala.
Distribution: Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala.
Host plants: Castor, turmeric, guava, mulberry, etc.

Brinjal (Solanum melongena Linn.) is one of the widely used vegetable crops and is popular in many countries viz. Central, South and South-East Asia, some part of Africa and Central America (Gurubban, 1977). It is also known as the aubergine, eggplant, melongene, guinea squash etc. Various data indicate that from the several species that evolved in Africa, one (Solanum incanum), gave rise to a distinct species which spread to South-East Asia as the wild ancestor of Solanum melongena (Lester, 1998). It was domesticated in India from the species Solanum incanum and India or Indo-China region is recognized as the centre of the eggplant diversity (Vavilov, 1951). Solanum melongena is a delicate, tropical perennial often cultivated as an annual in temperate climates. The fruit is botanically classified as a berry and contains numerous small, soft seeds which are edible, but have a bitter taste because they contain nicotinoid alkaloids. This is unsurprising as it is a close relative of tobacco.

Brinjal (Solanum melongena Linn.) is one of the widely used vegetable crops and is popular in many countries viz. Central, South and South-East Asia, some part of Africa and Central America (Gurubban, 1977). It is also known as the aubergine, eggplant, melongene, guinea squash etc. Various data indicate that from the several species that evolved in Africa, one (Solanum incanum), gave rise to a distinct species which spread to South-East Asia as the wild ancestor of Solanum melongena (Lester, 1998).

Brinjal (Solanum melongena), also known as eggplant or aubergine, is a major solanaceous vegetable crop grown in India and other parts of the world. It is affected by several insect pests throughout its growth period, significantly reducing both yield and quality.
Introduction
One of the major constraints in production and productivity of brinjal is the incidence of pests and diseases. The fruit and shoot borer is one of the most damaging pests of brinjal. Pest infestation starts from transplanting seedling stage and continues up to harvesting of the crop. Pest is active throughout the cropping season with peak infestation from last week of August to December
Distribution
China, India, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Thailand, Burma, Sri Lanka, Laos, Congo and South Africa

Cardamom, often called the “Queen of Spices”, is one of the most valuable and aromatic spices in the world. It belongs to the family Zingiberaceae and the genus Elettaria. Cardamom, which is indigenous to South India's Western Ghats, is grown for its tiny, fragrant, green pods that contain tiny seeds that are used in cosmetics, medicine, and cooking. Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu are the main cardamom-growing states in India, which ranks among the world's top producers. The crop grows best in shady regions with evenly distributed rainfall, rich forest soils, and humid, tropical weather.
Introduction
Shoot and capsule borer is a significant pest that infests a wide variety of wild and cultivated plants. Since larvae directly affect the reproductive plant parts, this pest becomes more significant in tropical and subtropical nations. Yellow peach moth, cardamom, or castor shoot and capsule borer are other names for the shoot and capsule borer (Thyagaraj, 2003).
Distribution: Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. A serious pest of the nursery in cardamom
Host plants: Castor, turmeric, guava, mulberry, etc.

Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) belonging to the family Caryophyllaceae is very remarkable as a cut flower crop all over the world. It is well known for its attractive flowers with fragrance and varying colors. In India, the area under its cultivation is 2190 ha with a production of 8940 tones. But its production is affected by a number of insect pests and spider mite.
It is the two spotted spider mite or red spider mite which is considered as one of the most serious pests of carnation. High temperatures and low relative humidity favor the multiplication of these mites. These mites are found to be persisting throughout the year under polyhouse conditions.
Host range
Citrus, grapes, apples, pears, tomatoes, okra, potatoes, eggplant, beans, cucumbers, peppers, roses, jasmine, tea, coffee etc.

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L., Family: Anacardiaceae) is a very important crop in India for earning foreign exchange. Portuguese travelers introduced this plant into India from Brazil during sixteenth century and the purpose was to check soil erosion on the coastal area. Though initially this crop is considered as a remedy for soil conservation, wasteland development and afforestation, but it gradually became a commercial important crop. Cashew is now widely grown in tropical regions and well adapted to the climatic condition of India. Now India becomes the largest producer, consumer, processor and exporter of cashew in the world. In India, cashew is mainly cultivated in Goa, Maharashtra, Kerala and Karnataka along the West coast and Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Pondicherry and West Bengal along the East coast. To a limited extent it is also grown in some nontraditional areas like Kolar region of Karnataka and Bastar region of Chhattisgarh.

3.1. Paddy

3.1.1. Thrips: Stenchaetothrips biformis (Thripidae: Thysanoptera)

Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.), a member of the Solanaceae, is a significant spice and vegetable crop in India, extensively cultivated over warm temperate, tropical, and subtropical regions. Approximately 51 insect pests and two mite species from 27 families and 9 orders were discovered to be infesting chillies (Reddy and Puttaswamy, 1983). The yield losses range from 50-90 per cent due to insect pests in chilli (Nelson and Natrajan, 1994)
Chilli thrips: Scirtothrips dorsalis, Thripidae, Thysanoptera Biology
The adults are slender, yellowish brown in colour, with long, narrow, and heavily fringed wings. The adult female inserts eggs into the tissues of the leaves and shoots. The nymphs are similar to adults, except they are smaller and wingless. With the exception of the rainy season, the pest is present all year round. The life cycle is completed over a period of two weeks. Over the course of a year, multiple generations overlap.
Recently introduced invasive thrips in chilly is Thrips parvispinus Karny. It causes premature flower drop, shedding of fruits and malformations resulting in severe yield loss. The average fecundity is about 56 eggs with a mean developmental period of 18.8 days (Muray et al., 2009).

The green pepper or chilli is reported to be the native of tropical America (Thompson and Kelly, 1957). This was widely cultivated in Central and South America in early times and was unknown in Europe prior to the discovery of America. The chilli belongs to the family Solanaceae and genus Capsicum. Only four species are under cultivation, out of which the cultivation of the two, Capsicum pendulum and Capsicum pubescens, are restricted to South and Central America. The other two, Capsicum annuum and Capsicum fruitescens are commercially cultivated throughout the world. Capsicum annuum is the most commonly cultivated species and all green chillies in the market and most dry chillies belong to this group. Most of the small and highly pungent chillies belong to Capsicum fruitescens.

The green pepper or chilli is reported to be the native of tropical America (Thompson and Kelly, 1957). This was widely cultivated in Central and South America in early times and was unknown in Europe prior to the discovery of America. The chilli belongs to the family Solanaceae and genus Capsicum. Only four species are under cultivation, out of which the cultivation of the two, Capsicum pendulum and Capsicum pubescens, are restricted to South and Central America.

Cinnamon, commonly known is a highly valued spice crop obtained from the inner bark of the tree Cinnamomum verum, belonging to the family Lauraceae. It is native to Sri Lanka and Southern India, and widely cultivated in Kerala Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka. The spice is used globally in culinary, medicinal and aromatic industries. It thrives well in tropical humid climates with well-drained loamy soils and is generally propagated by seeds or cuttings. Though relatively hardy, cinnamon can be affected by a few key pests, especially when grown in monoculture or under poor management.
Biology: There are two adult forms clytia and dissimilis. The clytia are blackish brown wings with a series of arrowhead shaped white spots on the outer margin, and the dissimilis are black winged with elongated white spots and a series of marginal arrowhead shaped spots. Adults lay spherical, waxy looking, and orange-yellow colored egg singly on the upper and lower surfaces of young leaves. The emerging larva resembles bird droppings (defensive mimicry) at the initial stages. The fully-grown larvae are pale yellow with dark stripes on the sides. There are five larval instars, and the larval period lasts for 11–17 days. The elongated, brownish-black pupa is joined to the host plant’s stem by silky supports at the rear end. The pupal stage is 11–13 days long. The life cycle is completed in 24-36 days (Singh et al., 1978).

Coriander, Coriandrum sativum L. is an erect annual herb belongs to the family Apiaceae. Coriander may also be referred to as Cilantro, Chinese parsley or Dhania. In India it is cultivated in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Uttar Praesh etc. The leaves of the plant are variable in shape, broadly lobed at the base of the plant. Leaves are slender and feathery higher on the flowering stems. It is a soft, hairless annual plant, surviving only one growing season. Except root all parts of the coriander plant are edible, but the fresh leaves and the dried seeds are most commonly used. It is also used as a condiment for its medicinal properties. Green leaves of coriander are extensively used for culinary purposes for a sweet aroma in cooking.

Coriander, Coriandrum sativum L. is an erect annual herb belongs to the family Apiaceae. Coriander may also be referred to as Cilantro, Chinese parsley or Dhania. In India it is cultivated in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh etc. The leaves of the plant are variable in shape, broadly lobed at the base of the plant. Leaves are slender and feathery higher on the flowering stems.

Cow pea is an important vegetable crop in Kerala. The crop was originated in Africa and is the major source of plant proteins in the diet of rural populations in Africa. The grains contain 25% protein and several vitamins and minerals. Insect pests pose the greatest threat to cowpea production. The crop is severely attacked at every stage of its growth by insects. High pest densities occur at many locations with complete loss of grain yield if no control measures are taken.
Moth has greyish brown forewings with large transverse hyaline band and a few smaller spots. Hind wings are hyaline with brown outer margin. The female moth lays eggs on or near flower buds. Caterpillars are brownish green with black warts. The young caterpillars bore into the buds, flowers or pods. Pods with bore holes may be seen. The infested flowers and pods may be webbed together. Flower drop may occur in severe cases. Caterpillars may bore into the stem also (Mahalakshmi et al., 2016).
Host range
Soybean, blackgram, greengram, Groundnut, common bean, lima bean, chickpea, mung bean, broad bean, pigeon pea.

Members of the family Cruciferae commonly used as vegetable include Cabbage, Cauliflower, Broccoli, Brussels sprouts and mustard etc. The genus Brassica is known for its important agricultural and horticultural crops. A dislike for cabbage or broccoli can result from the fact that these plants contain a compound similar to phenylthiocarbamide (PTC), which is bitter or tasteless to some people depending on their ‘taste buds’ (Theresa, 1995). Almost all parts of some species or other have been developed for food, including the root (turnips), stems (kohlrabi), leaves (cabbage), flowers (cauliflower, broccoli), buds (Brussels sprouts, cabbage), and seeds (many, including mustard seed, and oil-producing rapeseed). Some forms with white or purple foliage or flowerheads are also sometimes grown for ornamental purpose.

Members of the family Cruciferae commonly used as vegetable include Cabbage, Cauliflower, Broccoli, Brussels sprouts and mustard etc. The genus Brassica is known for its important agricultural and horticultural crops. A dislike for cabbage or broccoli can result from the fact that these plants contain a compound similar to
Phenyl thiocarbamide (PTC), which is bitter or tasteless to some people depending on their ‘taste buds’ (Theresa, 1995).

Crucifers, also known as Brassicas or cole crops, are a group of vegetables belonging to the family Brassicaceae (formerly Cruciferae). Common cruciferous vegetables include cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, kale, mustard, turnip, and radish. These crops are widely grown around the world due to their nutritional value, economic importance, and adaptability to diverse climates.
However, crucifers are highly susceptible to a wide range of insect pests that can cause significant yield losses if not managed properly. These pests attack various parts of the plant, including leaves, stems, roots, and heads, leading to both quantitative and qualitative damage.
Distribution
Crocidolomia binotalis is widely distributed in India and is particularly prevalent in regions where cruciferous vegetables are cultivated. The pest is active from the third week of November to the fourth week of December, with varying population densities depending on environmental conditions (Pawar et al., 2010)

‘Cucurbits’ is a term coined by Liberty Hyde Bailey for cultivated species of the family Cucurbitacae (Robinson and Decker-Walters, 2004). Presently, the term has been used not only for cultivated forms, but also for any species of the family Cucurbitacae. Among vegetables, the cucurbits form one of the largest groups with their wide adaptation from arid climates to the humid tropics. The family consists of about 118 genera and 825 species. In Asia, about 23 edible major and minor cucurbits are grown as vegetable. They are grown in summer and rainy seasons in India and even in winter in some parts of southern and western India as both annual and perennial crops. 

‘Cucurbits’ is a term coined by Liberty Hyde Bailey for cultivated species of the family Cucurbitacae (Robinson and Decker-Walters, 2004). Presently, the term has been used not only for cultivated forms, but also for any species of the family Cucurbitacae. Among vegetables, the cucurbits form one of the largest groups with their wide adaptation from arid climates to the humid tropics.

Cucumbers, muskmelons, watermelons, squashes, gourds, and pumpkins are commonly grown cucurbits in most parts of the world. Cucurbitaceous crops are the most important summer vegetables grown all over the world and it includes 118 Genera and 825 Species. Production and productivity of cucurbits are affected by the incidence of pests and diseases. Important pests attacking cucurbits are fruit fly, snake gourd semilooper, red pumkin beetles, hadda beetles/ epilachna beetles, pumkin caterpillar, vine borer/ clear winged moths, gall fly, serpentine leaf miner, shield bug, snake gourd bug and plume moth.
The melon fruit fly is distributed widely in temperate, tropical and subtropical regions of the world. It has been reported to damage 81 host plants and is a major pest of cucurbitaceous crops. The extent of loss varies between 30 –100 per cent depending on the cucurbit species and season. The adult is reddish brown with lemon yellow curved vertical markings on the thorax and fuscous shading on the outer margin of wings.
Biology: Eggs are white and cylindrical and laid singly or in clusters in cavities made with the ovipositor of the females on the fruits. The holes are sealed with gummy secretions, which solidify to form a shiny brown resinous material. Egg period is 1 to 2 days. The emerging maggots are apodous, dirty white, thicker at one end and tapering at the other and are seen within the fruits. Larval period is 7 days. The mature larvae emerge from the fruits and pupate in soil for a period of one week. Life cycle is completed in 15 to 20 days.

Curry leaf, Murraya koenigii (Linn.) is one of the most important plants exclusively known for its culinary and medicinal value. Leaves of the plant are widely used for flavouring food in Indian cookery. Leaves are also used in many Indian Ayurvedic and Unani prescriptions (Joseph and Peter, 1985). The whole plant including leaves, stems, flower, fruits and roots are used as tonic, stimulant, anti-flatulent, anti-diabetic, anti-oxidant (Khan et al., 1997) and anti-carcinogenic (Khanum et al., 2000). The plant is also used in curing digestive disorder, kidney disorder, burns and bruises, improving animal fertility, increasing shelf life of meat products, prevention of premature graying of hair and strengthening gums and teeths (Tara and Sharma, 2010). The plant is most widespread all over India and in some places it is grown wild. 

Curry leaf, Murraya koenigii (Linn.) is one of the most important plants exclusively known for its culinary and medicinal value. Leaves of the plant are widely used for flavouring food in Indian cookery. Leaves are also used in many Indian Ayurvedic and Unani prescriptions (Joseph and Peter, 1985). The whole plant including leaves, stems, flower, fruits and roots are used as tonic, stimulant, anti-flatulent, anti-diabetic, anti-oxidant (Khan et al., 1997) and anti-carcinogenic (Khanum et al., 2000).

Moringa oleifera Linn. belongs to the family Moringaceae, that consists of only one genus with about 13 species of deciduous trees (Keay, 1989). It is believed to be the native of India-Pakistan-Nepal borders, but now is becoming widely distributed and grown in several countries, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions (Satti et al., 2013). Besides some other species, M. oleifera is recently being the most widely cultivated in numerous countries in Asia, including the Arabian Peninsula, central and south America and in most African countries like Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameron, Senegal, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya and Sudan (Nasir and Ali, 1972; Ramachandran et al., 1980 and Parrotta, 2001).

Moringa oleifera Linn. belongs to the family Moringaceae, that consists of only one genus with about 13 species of deciduous trees (Keay, 1989). It is believed to be the native of India-Pakistan-Nepal borders, but now is becoming widely distributed and grown in several countries, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions (Satti et al., 2013).

Elephant foot yam, Amorphophallus campanutatus Blume (= Arum campanulatum Roxb.) belongs to the family Araceae. It is also known as elephant yam, Elephant bread, Suran, Sweet yam etc. It is a native to Tropical Asia and is found throughout the plains of the Indian sub-continent and some other parts of South East Asia and Africa growing both wild as well as cultivated. It is a robust herbaceous plant, with an erect solitary stem usually 1-2.5 m in height and bearing at the top one or two tripartite leaves, each part of which is deeply dissected into numerous segments. Towards the end of the plant’s cycle (usually 4-6 years) a large terminal inflorescence is produced, consisting of a short stalk and spathe and a spadix, which emits a malodorous smell, reminiscent of rotten meat.

Elephant foot yam, Amorphophallus campanutatus Blume (= Arum campanulatum Roxb.) belongs to the family Araceae. It is also known as elephant yam, Elephant bread, Suran, Sweet yam etc. It is a native to Tropical Asia and is found throughout the plains of the Indian sub-continent and some other parts of South East Asia and Africa growing both wild as well as cultivated.