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Leaf vegetables are rich sources of provitamin-A, vitamin-C and minerals like calcium, iron etc. They also provide roughage required in human diet. The Indian Council of Medical Research (1984) recommended a daily intake of 100 g and 40 g of leaf vegetables in the diet of woman and man, respectively. Amaranth, beet leaf, spinach, fenugreek, cabbage etc. are the major leaf vegetables grown in the country. In addition, a number of under-utilized annual crops are also grown as leaf vegetables in specific regions. Tender stems and leaves of a number of perennial crops are rich sources of vitamins and minerals and are used for cooking. The major annual leaf vegetables have a few features in common:

1. Most of leaf vegetables are of short duration and the entire harvest is over within 80-90 days
2. Leaf vegetables are cultivated by direct sowing and by transplanting. In direct sowing, seeds are sown as in nursery and harvested 30 days after. In transplanted method, 25-30 days old seedlings are transplanted at a closer spacing and harvesting is done by frequent clippings or cuttings.

Vegetables which are consumed raw without cooking are known as salad crops. In temperate regions, a large number of quick growing cool season crops like lettuce, celery, parsley, endive, chicory, chervil, cress, water cress etc. are consumed as raw. Only lettuce and celery are cultivated on a commercial scale in developed countries. Growing awareness on nutritional values of raw vegetables and also health consciousness of people resulted in increased consumption of salad vegetables in tropics too. Vegetables like onion, cucumber, tomato, carrot, radish, beet root, cabbage, capsicum, melon etc. are used as salads without cooking. 

(Hindi: Salad) Fam.: Asteraceae (Compositae)

Lettuce is the most popular salad crop of the world and the most important vegetable crop in temperate regions. The crop is grown mainly under protected structures in temperate countries. Tender leaves and heads are chopped and used as salad along with salt and vinegar.

Perennial vegetables live/survive in field for several years and go on yielding vegetables without much care and attention. They are usually planted on the side of kitchen garden without much interference with tillage operations of other annual crops. Tender leaves, shoots, fruits or tubers of a number of perennial crops are used for vegetable purpose in different agro-climatic conditions. They may be trees or shrubs as in bread fruit, jack fruit, drumstick, etc. or bushes as in colocasia or trailing plants as in yams, chow-chow and ivy gourd.

Temperate perennial vegetables are asparagus, rhubarb, artichoke and seakale. All the above crops have tuberous roots, rhizomes or corm. Above-ground portion may dry up during winter and again sprout during spring. Tuber crops like cassava, elephant foot yam, Colocasia (taro), Dioscorea (greater yam, lesser yam) etc. grown under tropical conditions are also perennials. But for cultivation purpose, they are replanted every year and are treated as annuals.

Mushrooming population, subsiding agricultural resources; land and water, people’s concern towards quality of vegetable s/food and changing climate throws several challenges for vegetable production. Conventional management and crop improvement strategies alone can no longer sustain the nation’s as well as global demand. So there is an urgent need to adopt modern biotechnological methods which are multidisciplinary where a large number of tools and elements of conventional breeding technique, genetic engineering, molecular biology, molecular genetics, bioinformatics and biochemistry are utilized and integrated. Biotechnological tools provide three major aspects of genetic improvement viz, application of tissue culture, molecular breeding or marker assisted breeding and genetic engineering.

1.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated in Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas.

• Cultivated in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, North Eastern States, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

• It is the king of spices.

1.2. Economic importance

• Spiciness is due to the chemical compound piperine

• In foods, used as a spice.

• High in antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

• May benefit for brain.

• May improve blood sugar control and lower cholesterol levels.

• May have cancer fighting properties.

2.1. Origin and distribution

• Queen of spices, native to East Indies/ India, originating in the forests of the Western Ghats in Southern India.

• Also grows in Sri Lanka, Guatemala, Indo China and Tanzania.

• Cultivated in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

2.2. Economic importance

• Used for flavouring various preparations of food, confectionery, beverages and liquors.

• Used as whole pod, seeds or ground.

• Used in garam masala

• Spice mixture seasons meat and vegetable dishes, and masala chai and Turkish coffee.

• Antioxidant and diuretic properties

• May lower blood pressure.

• May contain cancer-fighting compounds.

• May protect from chronic diseases due to anti-inflammatory effects.

• May help with digestive problems including ulcers.

3.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to the Moluccas Islands of Indonesia.

• Although Indonesia is the largest producer of cloves, Zanzibar and Madagascar are the major exporters,

• In India, grown in the hilly tracts of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka.

3.2. Economic importance

• Clove taste is imparted by eugenol and quantity of pice required is small.

• Pairs well with cinnamon, allspice, vanilla, red wine, basil, onion, citrus peel, star anise, and pepper corns.

4.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated in the central hills of Sri Lanka and Malabar Coast.

• Distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of North America, Central America, South America, Asia, Oceania

• Cultivated in Sri Lanka, Malagasy Republic and Seychelles.

• In India, it is grown in one or two locations in Kerala

4.2. Economic importance

• Commercial products are

? Quills: Scraped peel of inner bark of mature cinnamon shoots, joined together with overlapping tubes, hollow of which has been filled with smaller pieces of cinnamon peels.

? Quillings: Broken pieces and splits of all grades of cinnamon quills.

5.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to the Moluccas of Spice Islands of Indonesia.

• In India, cultivated in Thrissur, Ernakulam and Kottayam districts of Kerala, and parts of Kanyakumari and Thenkasi, Nilgiris (Kallar, Buraliar) districts in Tamil Nadu.

5.2. Economic importance

• Fleshy arils surrounding the nutmeg seed are the source of the spice mace.

• Used to flavour many kinds of baked goods, confectionaries, puddings, potatoes, meats, sausages, sauces, vegetables, and beverages such as eggnog.

• Fresh husks are used for making jelly.

• Nutmegs act as stimulant and carminative.

.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of South and South East Asia, from there it is spread to Indonesia, China, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Pacific Islands

6.2. Economic importance

• Used as condiments.

• Rhizomes are boiled in water, dried, ground into a deep orange yellow powder and used as a colouring and flavoring agent in many Asian cuisines, especially for curries, as well as for dyeing.

• Has a warm, bitter, black pepper like flavor and earthy, mustard like aroma.

• Yellow color is due to curcumin (3-9%)

• Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties

• Protect against heart disease

• May prevent cancer

• Ease symptoms of osteoarthritis

• Treat or prevent diabetes

• Treating depression

7.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated from Tropical South East Asia.

• Cultivated in India, China, Jamaica, Australia, Mexico, North and West Africa and Taiwan, Fiji, Mauritius, Brazil, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand and Bangladesh.

• In India, cultivated in Gujarat, Kerala, Arunachal Pradesh, Odisha, Meghalaya, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.

• Karnataka, Odisha, Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and Gujarat together contribute 65 per cent to the country’s total production.

7.2. Economic importance

• India, China and the Japanese people use ginger as food

• Used as drug in cold, cough, vomiting, dizziness, hypertension, impaired vision problems, digestion, fever and stomach diseases.

• Dry ginger and pepper along long pepper tea helps to remove mucus in the body for a long time and helps to protect health.

8.1. Origin and distribution

• Native land is Central Asia, Middle Asia and Northeastern Iran.

• China produces 80% of the world’s supply

• India, Korea, Spain, Egypt, USA, Thailand and other countries are growing garlic.

• In India, cultivated in Gujarat, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan

• India exports fresh and chilled garlic, dried garlic, dehydrated garlic flakes, dehydrated garlic powder, and garlic oil to Bahrain, Bangladesh, Germany, Japan.

8.2. Economic importance

• It contains amino acid allicin.

• Used both as a food flavoring and as a traditional medicine

• Allicin, antibacterial substance, the principle of amoebic dysentery.

• The garlic odour is due to diallyl disulfide.

9.1. Origin and distribution

• Originate from North America, in particular Central Mexico.

9.2. Economic importance

• Paprika contains capsanthin and capsorubin.

• Used to season and color rice, stews, and soups, such as goulash, and in the preparation of sausages, mixed with meats and other spices.

• There are six paprika American, Bulgarian, Hungarian, Moroccan, Spanish and Yugoslavian.

• In US, sprinkled raw on foods as a garnish.

9.3. Types and varieties

• Types of bell pepper

? Green pepper: Can be a little bitter, but it is very useful, such a fruit reduces the level of cholesterol in the blood. And it has the least calories.

? Red pepper: Is the sweetest and contains the most vitamin C.

? Orange pepper: It is also very tasty, but it contains slightly less vitamin C than red.

10.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Tropical Africa and cultivated throughout South East Asia, Australia, America and India.

• Cultivated in Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha.

10.2. Economic importance

• The fruits are used as condiment or as acidulant.

• Fruits that contain a sweet, tangy pulp, which is used in cuisines around the world.

• Used as an acidic/flavouring agent in the Indian cookery.

• High in tartaric acid, sugar, B vitamins, and calcium.

• Used in traditional medicine and as a metal polish.

• Used for woodworking and oil can be extracted from the seeds.

• Seeds are astringent, aphrodisiac useful in giddiness, vertigo.

11.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Atlantic Coast from Mexico to Brazil.

• Vanilla comes from orchids of the genus vanilla.

• Originally came from Mesoamerica, including parts of modern day Mexico and Guatemala.

• Major vanilla producing countries are Java, Mauritius Tahiti, Seychelles, Madagascar, Indonesia, Mexico, Cameroon and Reunion.

• Madagascar and Indonesia produce two thirds of the world’s supply of vanilla.

• In India, vanilla cultivation is gaining importance in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu since early 1990s.

11.2. Economic importance

• Second most expensive spice after saffron

12.1. Origin and distribution

• Indigenous to West Indies (Jamaica), Central and South America. Jamaica is the main producer of allspice.

• In India, there are few trees in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala.

• Available in the Mahendragiri hills of Kanniyakumari, and Kallar and Burliar of the Nilgiris of Tamil Nadu; Ambalavayal in Kerala.

12.2. Economic importance

• It combines the odour and flavour of nutmeg, clove, cinnamon and pepper and hence, called all spice.

• Berry, berry oil, oleoresin, leaf oil are the products of economic use.

• Used in food industry (65 to 70%), domestic use (5 to 10%), production of berry oil (20 to 25%), extraction of oleoresin (1 to 2%), and pharmaceutical and perfume industry.

• Has, anti-microbial, insecticidal, nematicidal, anti-oxidant and deodorant properties.

1.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to Southern Europe and Northern Africa to Southwestern Asia.

• Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh are major producers of coriander in India.

1.2. Economic importance

• All parts of plant are edible, but fresh leaves and dried seeds are used in cooking.

• May help to lower blood sugar.

• Rich in immune boosting antioxidants.

• May benefit heart health.

• May protect brain health.

• May promote digestion and gut health.

2.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to South Eastern Europe, West Asia and Mediterranean region.

• Cultivated in Central and Southeastern Europe, Western Asia, India, and Northern Africa.

• In India, cultivated in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Punjab.

2.2. Economic importance

• Culinary use in smaller quantities.

• Used as an herb (Dried or fresh leaves), spice (Seeds) and vegetable (Fresh leaves, sprouts, and micro greens).

• Seeds are used both whole and powdered in the preparation of pickles, vegetable dishes, dal and spice mixes such as panch phoron and sambar powder.

• Balance cholesterol.

• Soothe upset stomach and digestive problems.

• Reduce menstrual cramps.

• Seeds are aphrodisiac effect.

• Reduce appetite.

3.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated in the Southern Europe, Mediterranean region and grows throughout Northern, Eastern, and Western hemispheres specifically in Asia, Rumania, North America, Europe, India, Russia, Germany and France.

• In India, cultivated in Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, and Haryana.

3.2. Economic importance

• The leaf stalks are used both as vegetable and salad.

• A common practice in most Indian households is to have few fennel seeds at the end of every meal to freshen the mouth.

• Used for various digestive problems including heartburn, intestinal gas, bloating, loss of appetite and colic in infants.

• Source of copper, potassium, calcium, zinc, manganese, vitamin C, iron, selenium and magnesium.

• The seeds are used as condiment

• Seeds yield 4-5% volatile with anethole as major constituent.

4. 1. Origin and distribution

• Native to Egypt, Syria, Middle East and stretching east to India.

• In India, cumin is mainly cultivated in Western Indian states like Rajasthan and Gujarat.

4.2. Economic importance

• Important spice used in Indian kitchens for flavoring various food preparations.

• The flavor is due to chief constituent cuminol (Cuminaldehyde)

• Volatile oil is up to 2.5-3.5 %.

• Used in various ayurvedic medicines especially for the conditions like obesity, stomach pain and dyspesia.

• Many Latino, Vietnamese, United States and Thai foods recipes have cumin and many chilli recipe includes cumin.

• In India, cumin is a traditional ingredient not only curry, but also kormas, masalas, soups and other recipes.

• Used in some cheeses like Leyden cheese as well as some French breads.

5.1. Origin and distribution

• True or black mustard: Brassica nigra Koch-Self sterile

• White mustard (Yellow mustard) : Brassica compestris, Syn: Sinapsis alba- Self sterile

• Indian or brown mustard: Brassica juncea (L.) Czern

• These three species are commonly used as condiment.

• White mustard is indigenous to Southern Europe, whereas brown mustard is from China introduced to Northern India.

• Black mustard is endemic in Southern Mediterranean region.

• White mustard is widely cultivated in Australia, China, Chili, Denmark, Italy, Japan, UK, Netherlands, North Africa, Canada and USA.

6.1. Origin and distribution

• The plant originated in the Tarai region of Uttar Pradesh, India, and at present it is cultivated in Burma, Ceylon, China, Australia and the Pacific Islands.

6.2. Economic importance

• Curry leaves are a rich source of vitamin A, vitamin B, vitamin C, vitamin B2, calcium, and iron, apart from a heavy distinctive odor and pungent taste.

• It helps in the treatment of dysentery, diarrhea, diabetes, morning sickness, and nausea by adding curry leaves to your meals.

6.3. Varieties

• Sen Kaampa, Dharwad-1 and Dharwad-2

6.4. Soil and climate

• Red sandy loam soils with good drainage are ideal for better leaf yield.

• Optimum temperature is 26° to 37°C.

7.1. Pepper

7.1.1. Pollu beetle: Longitarsus nigripennis

Symptoms

• Grub feeds on growing tip, tender stem, leaf petiole, spikes and berry.

• Tunneling of tender stem causes drying up of shoot.

• Spikes tunneled by grubs turn black and cause dropping of spikes due to rotting.

• Grubs bore into the berries and feed on entire internal contents.

• Exit holes could be seen on dry berries and turn dark - called ’Pollu’ berries.

8.1. Pepper

8.1.1. Phytophthora foot rot / quick wilt: Phytophthora capsici

Symptoms

• Die back

• Discoloration occurs and rotting progress upwards and downwards resulting in die-back.

• Lateral branches of affected vines break off at nodes and fall off.

• Foot rot or collar rot

• Stem near ground level get infected and rotting and death of vine within 2-3 weeks.

• Affected portion emits bad odour.

• Root rot

• Infection starts at main root or at feeder root.

• Leaves become yellow and defoliate.

1.1. Origin and distribution

• The oldest known beverage, tea is native of China (Between China and Burma) in South East Asia.

• Known to the Chinese as early as 2737BC, but it was a popular drink in England in 1664 AD.

• Original species, which produce tea, were C.assamica (Assam jats), C.sinensis (China jats) and their natural hybrid, C.assamica subspecies lasiocalyx (Indo China or cambod type).

• Chinese (Small leaf) tea - C. sinensis var. sinensis: Originated in southern China possibly with hybridization of unknown wild tea relatives

• Chinese Western Yunnan Assam (Large leaf) tea

• Indian Assam (Large leaf) tea- C. sinensis var. assamica: Originated from Camellia taliensis in the area where southwestern China, Indo-Burma, and Tibet meet

• Chinese Southern Yunnan Assam (Large leaf) tea: Hybridized with the closely related species Camellia taliensis

• Difference between Assam and China types

2.1. Chromosome number

• Basic chromosome number for the genus Coffea is n=11

• Coffea canephora-diploid (2n=2x=22)

• Coffea arabica (2n=4x=44 )

2.2. Origin and distribution

• Original domesticated coffee plant is said to have been from Harar and native population is derived from Ethiopia (Abyssinia Plateau) with distinct nearby populations in Sudan and Kenya.

• From where, it was taken to Arabia in 11^th century.

• From Arabia, its seeds were brought to India by Baba Budan in the 17^th Century and were raised in the Baba Budan Hills of Karnataka.

• British planters established large coffee estates near Chikmagalur (Karnataka) in 1826, in Manantody (Wynad) and Shevoroys in 1830 and Nilgiris in 1839.

• Almost the entire production is shared by Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, smaller production in Andhra Pradesh, north eastern states and Madhya Pradesh.

• Karnataka is the largest producer accounting for 70% of total coffee production and 60% of the area

• Kozhikode, Waynad, Malappuram, Kollam, Kannur and Palakkad are the chief producing districts in Kerala.

3.1. Origin and distribution

• Origin is in South Asia - Malaysia, Pacific.

• In the Pacific, cultivated on islands in Southeast Asia - Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia.

• In the Indian Ocean, centre of cultivation is southern periphery of India including Sri Lanka, Maldives and Laccadives.

• In India, coconut palms are grown on the entire coastal belt of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu followed by Goa, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha.

• Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh are the major coconut producing states accounting for more than 90% of area and production

4.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to Indian ocean, Malaysia or Philippines

• Grows in tropical Pacific, Asia, and parts of east Africa.

• Areca is derived from a local name from Malabar Coast of India and catechu is from Malay name caccu.

• Karnataka (40%), Kerala (25%), Assam (20%), Tamil Nadu, Meghalaya and West Bengal are major arecanut growing states.

• India is the largest producer and consumer.

5.1. Origin and distribution

• Indigenous tree of tropical rainforest of Amazon basin of Brazil and introduced in Asia in 1876

• Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and Africa are the main rubber producing countries.

5.2. Economic importance

• Natural rubber is available from Manihot glaziovii (Cera rubber), Ficus elastica (India rubber), Castiolla elastica (Panama rubber), Parthenium argenatum (Guayul), Taraxacum koksaghyz and Hevea brasiliensis (Para rubber).

• Hevea brasiliensis is the most important commercial source of natural rubber.

• After proper chemical treatment, rubber wood provides enough strength and durability of any semi-hard wood available in India

• U sed for the manufacture of useful articles like door and window components, furniture, wall paneling, interior decoration, tool handles etc.

6.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of America and Brazil.

• Introduced in India during later half of the Sixteenth Century.

• In 2017, Vietnam, India, and Ivory Coast were the major producers.

• Cultivated in Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Odisha, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal; also in few pockets of Assam, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Tripura.

• Cashew is called gold mine of waste lands.

6.2. Economic importance

7.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to Tropical America, the Amazon Basin.

• Domesticated in Mexico and Central and South America.

• Cultivated in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu mainly as intercrop and multi-storey crop with arecanut and coconut from 1970 onwards.

7.2. Economic importance

• Cocoa is a cauliflorus beverage crop.

• Chocolate, hot chocolate, cocoa powder and dry powder are made

• Cocoa butter (the fat) can be extracted.

• Used in Mesoamerican foods including tejate and Mexican drink that also includes maize.

8.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated in South and South East Asia.

• Cultivated mostly from Pakistan to Papua New Guinea.

8.2. Economic importance

• In India and Sri Lanka, sheaf of betel leaves are traditionally offered as a mark of respect and auspicious beginnings like greeting elders at wedding ceremonies, celebrating the New Year, and offering payment to Ayurvedic Physicians and Astrologers (To whom money and/or areca nut placed on top of the sheaf of leaves are offered in thanks for blessings).

• Consumed in Asia as betel quid or paan with arecanut and/or tobacco.

• Used in cooking usually raw for its peppery taste.

• Medicinal use over a 300 years history in China.

.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated from West Africa.

• Cultivated in Malaysia, Indonesia, USA, Cameroon, Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana, Liberia, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Togo, Angola and Congo.

• Commercial scale plantation in Malaysia was found in 1917.

9.2. Economic importance

• Produces edible palm oil as well as palm kernel oil.

• Maj or constituent of oil is mono unsaturated oleic acid; rich in carotenoids.

• Unrefined palm oil is a significant source of tocotrienol, part of vitamin E.

• Oil content is 17 to 27% for palm oil, and 4 to 10% for palm kernels.

10.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to the tropical Africa and grows in the Nepal, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines.

• Palm is widespread in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Karnataka and Maharashtra.

• In Tamil Nadu, it is present in Tuticorin, Tirunelveli, Thenkasi, Virudhunagar, Ramanathapuram Madurai, Theni, Salem, Namakkal, Kancheepuram, Chengalpattu, Tiruvallur, Villupuram, Kallakurichi and Cuddalore districts.

• Palm is dioecious in nature.

• Palmyrah was declared as “State Tree of Tamil Nadu” by the Government of Tamil Nadu.

11.1. Tea

11.1.1. Tea mosquito bug: Helopeltis theivora

Symptoms

• Adults and nymphs suck sap from buds, young leaves and tender stems.

• Punctures appear as reddish brown spots.

• Leaves curl up, badly deformed and shoots dry up.

Management

• Spray clothianidin 50 WDG 120 g/ha or thiacloprid 21.7 SC 375 ml/ha or thiamethoxam 25 WG 100g/ha or bifenthrin 8 SC 500 ml/ha.

12.1. Tea

12.1.1. Algal leaf spot: Cephaleuros virescens

Symptoms

• Leaves develop lesions that are roughly circular, raised and purple to reddish brown.

Management

• Removal of infected portions and spraying of Bordeaux mixture

• Improving soil nutrient status by application of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium

12.1.2. Brown blight, grey blight: Colletotrichum sp., Pestalotiopsis sp.

An Abstract on Production Technology of SpicesAn Abstract on Production Technology of Spices and Plantation Crops

1.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Yemen, South Arabia, Sudan and Sinai.

• Introduced into Tamil Nadu in eighteenth century grown as an annual crop (5 to 7 months).

• C. angustifolia (Tirunelveli senna)

• Indigenous to Somalia, Southern Arabia, part of Sindh (Pakistan) and Kutch area of Gujarat.

• Cultivated in Gujarat, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu (Tirunelveli, Ramanathapuram, Madurai, Salem, Tiruchirapalli)

• C. acutifolia (Alexandrian senna)

• Indigenous to Sudan and Sinai.

• Cassia abovata

• Common all over India.

• C. italica

• Grows in west Rajasthan and Saurashtra (Gujarat)

• New source of the senna drug

2.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Madagascar and spread to India, Indonesia, Indo-China, Philippines, South Africa, Israel, USA and other parts of the world.

• In India, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Assam are the major states that cultivate periwinkle.

• USA - world’s largest user as raw material.

• Germany, Italy, Netherlands and the UK are interested in roots.

2.2. Economic importance

• Economic parts: Leaves, stem and roots

• Used as an abortificent, purgative, antidiabetic, diuretic, hemorrhagic antimalarial, antidysentric and against skin diseases

3.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of South East Asia

• Distributed all over tropical and sub-tropical regions of India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, tropical east Africa, Brazil.

• In India, sub-tropical Himalayan regions from Kumaon to Nepal.

• Cultivated in parts of Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

3.2. Economic importance

• Dried roots - rich source of forskholin (Coleonol) (0.10 to 0.80%)

• Used for treating hypertension, glaucoma, asthma, congestive heart failures and certain types of cancer.

• Tuberous roots, resembles carrot in shape and brown in colour - commercial part.

• Useful against cholesterol and activating the cardio vascular system

4.1. Origin and distribution

• It is called as Indian ginseng.

• Native of Africa, India and Mediterranean region.

• Wild in grazing grounds in Mandsaur and forest lands in Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh, all over foothills of Punjab and Himachal Pradesh and Western Uttar Pradesh, in Himalayas.

• Also wild in Mediterranean regions in North Africa.

4.2. Economic importance

5.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of tropical Asia and Africa.

• Tropical India, from North-west Himalayas to Assam and Deccan plateau.

• In Karnataka, it is grown along Western Ghats.

• Important species in India - Gloriosa superba and G. rothschildiana.

• Tamil Nadu leads in production of glory lily in India

• State flower of Tamil Nadu

5.2. Economic importance

• Economic part: Seed

• Rhizomes are used as a tonic, antiperiodic, antihelminthic and also against snake bites and scorpion stings.

• Used for promoting labour pains and an abortifacient.

6.1. Origin and distribution

• Indigenous to moist deciduous forest of south East Asia (Myanmar, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Andaman Islands)

• In India, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, North Bengal, Parts of Western Ghats and Assam are the major cultivators.

6.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Root.

• Used in treatment of snake bite, stings, nervous disorders etc.,

• Root bark - 40-60% alkaloids helps in reducing high blood pressure and sedative or tranquilizing agent.

• Fresh roots - Emit acrid aroma very bitter.

7.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of South East Asia, Central America.

• Mexico - largest producer of diosgenin.

• In India, it is grown in North eastern states and Goa

• Dioscorea alata and Dioscorea esculenta - edible tubers.

• Dioscorea floribunda, Dioscorea villosa, Dioscorea composita - widely grown

• Major producing countries - Mexico, Guatamala, Costa Rica, India and China.

8.1. Origin and distribution

• Indigenous to Eastern and Southern Africa, the Canary Islands and Spain.

• Spread to Mediterranean basin, West Indies, India, China.

• Also cultivated in India. It is the miracle plant.

8.2. Economic importance

• Source of drug aloe; aloe gel is a mixture of glucoside aloin, main constituent of atom is barbation.

• Commercially important species - A. barbadensis, A. ferox, A. africana and A. spicata

• Yellow bitter juice from leaves consists of aloin and gel.

• Other products - dehydrated aloe powder, concentrates.

9.1. Origin and distribution

• Originates in Tropical America

• Distributed in all tropical and sub-tropical regions

9.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Whole plant

• Phyllanthin (0.4-0.5%) and hypophyllanthin

• Antioxidant with free radical scavenging properties due to presence of high levels of super oxide dismutase.

• Effective in treatment of peptic ulcer, dyspepsia, diabetes etc.

• Treatment of Hepatitis B and j aundice

10.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of India and tropical South East Asia.

• Distributed throughout plains of India from Uttar Pradesh to Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

10.2. Economic importance

• King of bitters.

• Economic part - Dried leaves and tender shoots (Whole plant)

• Leaves contain three bitter principles: Deoxy andrographolide, Andrographolide and Neo andrographolide.

• Roots contain flavonoids like andrographin, panicothin, aplegenin etc.

11.1. Origin and distribution

• Originates in India

• Sikkim, West Bengal, Odisha, Upper Gangetic Plains and in Nilgiris, ascending to altitude of 1600 m.

• North-east, North-west, Southern as well as Central India, and extends into Myanmar and China.

11.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Whole plant

• Raw materials for production of steroidal drugs, steroid bearing solanum

• Yields a glyco alkaloid, solasodine, a nitrogen analogue of diosgenine.