eChapters

Genomics is the study of whole genomes of organisms, it uses a combination of DNA sequencing methods, bioinformatics to sequence, assemble, analyse the structure and function of genomes. In another words, it can be defined as it is the study of the structure, function, and inheritance of the genome of an organism. Moreover, genomics focuses on interactions between loci and alleles within the genome and other interactions such as epistasis, pleiotropy and heterosis. Genomics is divided into two basic areas: structural genomics, characterizing the physical nature of whole genomes; and functional genomics, characterizing the transcriptome (the entire range of transcripts produced by a given organism) and the proteome (the entire array of encoded proteins).

Most biological traits are controlled by a large number of genes, which, in addition to their additive effects, may interact with each other, and their expression might be altered based on a variety of environmental effects. Researchers who were among the first to use molecular genetics to the study of cattle began by employing DNA markers to locate genes or sections of the genome affecting features of interest. For instance, identifying a group of genes based on Genome wide association study (GWAS) provides evidence that a causal relationship between a phenotype and a single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) may exist. These findings of GWAS, however, do not improve our understanding of complex traits in which many pathways may be involved. The growing use of genotyping technologies has generated a large quantity of genomic information on the dairy population. Since the draft sequence of the bovine genome was published in 2009 (Zimin et al., 2009), whole-genome sequence data of cattle have also become available.

1.1 Common Logarithm

Logarithms to the base 10 are called common logarithm. This system was first introduced by Briggs in 1615. The mathematician Napier was the inventor of logarithms and Briggs was a contemporary of Napier. From the equation 10x = N, it is evident that the common logarithm will not always be integral and that they will not always be positive.

We have

 3154 > 103 and 3154 < 104

 Hence, log10

 3154 = 3 + a fraction

 Again we have

0.067 > 10–2 and 0.067 < 10–1

 Hence, log10

 0.06 = –2 + a fraction

 = 2+ a fraction

9.1 Introduction and Definition

Literally, econometrics means “Economic measurements”. Although measurement is an important part of econometrics, the scope of econometrics is much broader. Econometrics is an amalgam of economic theory, mathematical economics, economic statistics and mathematical statistics. It can also be stated that “Econometrics consists of the application of mathematical statistics to economic data to provide empirical support to the model constituted by mathematical economics and to obtain numerical results from such data.

Introduction

The sex of the animal is one of the most easily observable attributes of a livestock population. The importance of the sex ratio lies in the fact that it sets the future rates of fertility, mortality, and migration. In livestock, male animals are required in fewer numbers compared to females for breeding. So, for profitable management of a farm, the sex ratio has been fixed for each species. But because of the natural 50:50 chance of both types of sperms to fertilize an ovum, this preferred sex ratio is never achieved. In order to reach this economical ratio, additional efforts must be done in the form of culling. Moreover, in monotocous species with nearly one year gestation period, a long wait is sometimes required for getting the offspring of particular sex.

In dairy farming, the number of female offspring born is always an asset to the farm. For the species reared for meat, the males are often avoided due to the intense odor of their meat and handling difficulty while rearing. But when there is shortage of good quality breeding bulls, the sorted sperms will be helpful for producing the elite bulls for breeding. If we can produce only the animal of the desired gender, we can eliminate split-sex feeding, reduce problems related to animal welfare and castration, improve production efficiencies. Additionally, the costs of the progeny testing programme and embryo transfer are reduced as a result, and the value of genetic markers is increased. Apart from the livestock species, sex pre-selection is also important in breeding of companion animals, zoo animals and endangered species.

15.1 Agricultural Economics and Definition

As a separate subject, agricultural economics emerged in the beginning of 20th century when the economic issues related to agriculture aroused interest at various educational centres. The depression of 1890s which wrecked have in agriculture at many places and it forced organised farmers groups to take keen interest in farm management problems. The study and teaching of agricultural economics was started at Harvard University (U.S.A.) in 1903 by Professor Thomas Nixon Carver. Agricultural economics may be defined as the “Application of Principles & Methods of economics to study the problems of agriculture to get maximum output and profits from the use of minimum in but for the wellness of society in general as well as the farming industry in Particular.

Entrepreneur - Derived from French verb enterprendre meaning “to undertake”.

The entrepreneur as a person brings in overall change through, innovation- for the maximum social good. Human values remain sacred and inspire him to serve society. He has firm belief in social betterment and he carries out this responsibility with conviction. In this process, he accelerates personal, economic as well as human- development.

The entrepreneur is a visionary and an integrated man with outstanding leadership qualities. With a desire to excel, he gives top priority to Research and Development. He always works for the well being of the society. More importantly entrepreneurial activities encompass all fields / sectors and foster a spirit of enterprise for the welfare of mankind. Urges of an Entrepreneur

An urge to exercise powers over things and objects persists among all human beings. The urge may vary in degree from person to person. This urge is an intrinsic quality of an entrepreneur. Sociologists consider him as a sensitive energizer in the modernization of societies.

The entrepreneur is a critical factor in the socio-economic change. He is the key person who envisages new opportunities, new techniques, new lines of production, new products and coordinates all other activities. The true entrepreneur is one who is endowed with more than average capacities in the task of organizing and coordinating the various other factors of production. He should be a pioneer, a captain of industry. The supply of such entrepreneurship is however quite limited and enterprise in general consists of several grades of organizational skill and capability. The more efficient entrepreneurs receive a surplus reward over and above the managerial wages and this sum constitutes true profit ascribable to superior talent.

Popularly the term management is used to refer to the group of managerial personnel of an enterprise. But the use of the term management in this sense is not correct, because the managerial personnel of an enterprise are usually designated as ‘managers’, ‘executives’ or administrators. Strictly speaking the term management refers to functional concept of management. Management refers to the sum total of all those functions or activities, which relate to the laying down of policies, plans and purposes, securing men, money, machinery needed for the achievement of the organisational objectives, putting all of them into operation and supervising and checking their performances in order to ensure the productive use of human and material resources for the maximum benefit or profit of the organisation, its employees and society in general.

Management is the sum total of five principal functions namely planning, organising, staffing, directing and controlling. The functional areas of management include: a) Financial management, b) Personnel management, c) material management, d) Production management, e) marketing management and f) Office management.

What is book keeping?
Book keeping    is defined as;
1. The art of recording business transactions (pecuniary transactions) in a regulator and systematic manner.
2. Book keeping is the science and art of correctly recording in books of  accounts all those business transactions that result in the transfer of  money or money’s worth.
3. Book keeping is an art of recording day to day business transactions in a  set of books in a most systematic manner.
4. It is the process of analysing, classifying and recording transaction in accordance with pre-conceived plan.

1.1 Introduction

Temperate fruits are those fruits that are adapted to the temperate climate where the winter is distinctly cold. They can tolerate both diurnal and seasonal wide fluctuation of temperature and are grown only in places where winter is distinctly cold. They require exposure to specific chilling temperature for certain period to break bud dormancy and initiate bud break. These fruit plants are generally deciduous and suitable for higher elevation as they can withstand frost. Their cultivation is confined to Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Assam, Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh; they are also grown to a small extent, at suitable elevations in south India as in the Nilgiris of Tamil Nadu. They shed the leaves during winter and remain in dormant condition throughout the winter. The most economically important temperate fruits belong to Rosaceae family and includes peach, pear, cherries, almond, apple, apricot, plums, raspberries and strawberries (Ferree and Warrington, 2003). Among them apple is the dominant temperate fruit with greater than 71 million tonnes of global production. It was perceived as native to Central Asia and now grown in many countries across the world (Janick et al., 1996; FAO, 2009).

1.1 Introduction

Horticulture is defined as “The science and art of growing vegetables, fruits, flowers, ornamental plants and landscaping of gardens and surroundings in small and commercial gardens”. The Latin word “horticulture” comprises two parts: “hortus” (which means “garden”) and “cultura” (which means “cultivation”). In other words, horticulture is the nurturing of gardens. Pomology, olericulture, floriculture, and landscaping are the main aspects of horticulture. Horticulture is becoming more and more important since it produces greater output per unit of land and provides humans with nourishing food, improving their quality of life and enhancing the visual beauty of nature. Regarding the worth of the goods, one of the main branches of horticulture is vegetable growing.

Technically speaking, every component of a vegetable is edible. However, the phrase is typically used to refer to edible plants that include reserves of food in the form of roots, tubers, bulbs, stems, petioles, leaves, buds, flowers, fruits, and seeds that can be consumed either cooked or raw. Growing vegetables is crucial not only for supplying food that is protective but also for serving as a substantial auxiliary food that contributes more significantly to food consumption. They are vital parts of a balanced diet since they are nutrient-rich.

1.1 Introduction

Horticulture is defined as “The science and art of growing vegetables, fruits, flowers, ornamental plants and landscaping of gardens and surroundings in small and commer cial gardens”. The word ‘horticulture’ has been derived from Latin language and con sists of two parts, viz., ‘hortus’ means garden and ‘cultura’ means cultivation. Thus, the word ‘horticulture’ means garden cultivation. Horticulture basically deals with Pomology, Olericulture, and Floriculture and Landscaping. Horticulture is gaining im portance as it gives more returns per unit area and also gives nutritious food to human beings thereby improves quality of life and enhances the aesthetic beauty of nature. Vegetable growing is one of the major branches of horticulture with respect to value of the products.

1.1 History and Evolution of Aquaculture

Aquaculture, the cultivation of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, mollusks and aquatic plants, has a rich history dating back thousands of years. Its evolution has been shaped by diverse cultural practices, technological advancements, and growing demands for sustainable food production. This essay explores the history and evolution of aquaculture, highlighting key developments from ancient times to the modern era.

Ancient Origins of Aquaculture

The earliest records of aquaculture date back to ancient China around 2500 BCE. The Chinese practiced fish farming, particularly with carp, in ponds. Carp were favored due to their resilience and adaptability. This period marked the beginning of organized aquaculture, where fish were bred and raised in controlled environments. The Chinese recognized the benefits of aquaculture for food security and sustainability, laying the foundation for future practices.

In Egypt, evidence suggests that tilapia were farmed as early as 1500 BCE. Ancient Egyptians built ponds along the Nile River to cultivate fish, which were an essential part of their diet. These early aquaculture practices were driven by the need for a reliable food source, especially during periods of low f ish availability in natural waters.

Roman and Greek Contributions

The Romans and Greeks also contributed to the development of aquaculture. In ancient Rome, mullet and oysters were cultivated in man-made ponds called “vivaria.” These ponds were designed to mimic natural habitats, providing ideal conditions for the growth and reproduction of fish. The Romans were known for their engineering prowess, and their aquaculture systems reflected this, with intricate designs to regulate water flow and quality.

3.1 Applications

Nanotechnology, with its ability to manipulate materials at the atomic and molecular scale, offers diverse applications across various sectors, including aquaculture. In this extensive exploration, we delve into the innovative applications of nanotechnology in aquaculture, focusing specifically on areas beyond water parameter control and disease prevention. This comprehensive review highlights how nanotechnology enhances feed efficiency, improves growth and health monitoring, develops novel materials, and addresses environmental and sustainability challenges within the aquaculture industry.

1. Introduction to Nanotechnology in Aquaculture

1.1 Understanding Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology involves the manipulation and engineering of materials at the nanoscale, typically ranging from 1 to 100 nanometers. At this scale, materials exhibit unique physical, chemical, and biological properties that differ significantly from their bulk counterparts. These properties make nanomaterials highly versatile for applications across various industries, including agriculture and aquaculture.

2.1 Introduction

Apple is the most widely grown temperate fruit of the world. It is considered as ‘King of Temperate Fruits’. Apple is popular because of its delicious taste and pleasant aroma. It is rich in carbohydrate, calcium, phosphorous, iron, and vitamin B6. Apple is rich in anti-oxidant, flavonoids and dietary fibre. The phytonutrients and anti-oxidants may help reduce the risk of developing cancer, hypertension, diabetes and heart disease. Apple is mainly used for table purpose. The various processed products are prepared from fruits like juice, jelly, candy, preserve, canned slice, wine, concentrated juice and cider.

3.1 Introduction

Tomato is one of the most versatile vegetable with wide usage not only in Indian culinary but also in world cuisines. Despite botanically being a fruit, it is generally eaten and prepared like a vegetable. Tomato is producing a very good source of income to small and marginal farmers and provides nutrition to the growing population. Sometimes, it is called poor man’s orange in India and Love of Apple in England. Tomato is one of the most important “protective foods” because of its special nutritive value. The100 g of edible portion of tomato contains 94.1 g of water,2.5 g of total sugar, 1.0 g of protein, 0.3 g of fat, 4.0 g of carbohydrates, 0.6 g of fibre, vitamin A (1100 I.U), vitamin B (0.20 mg), vitamin C (23 mg), malic acid (150 mg), citric acid (390 mg), oxalic acid (3.5 mg), potassium (268 mg), and phosphorus (27 mg). Tomato is a rich source of minerals, vitamins and organic acid. Tomatoes are the major dietary source of the antioxidant lycopene, which has been linked to many health benefits, including reduced risk of heart disease and cancer. It is used for treating chronic dyspepsia, bronchitis, asthma and also used as a blood purifier. Tomato fruits contain 20-50 mg of lycopene/100 g fruit. Tomatine is a steroidal glycoalkaloid present in tomato. Tomatine content is higher in leaves and flowers than fruits. Tomatine content is 300 mg/100 g in small hard tomato fruits whereas in large green tomato it is 150mg/100 g. There are various types of flavouring compounds found in fruits, which enrich the taste;so, several processed items like paste, puree, syrup, juice, ketchup, drinks etc are prepared on large scale. Tomato fruit aroma is due to sulfonium. Tomato acidity is due to citric acid and pH of the tomato juice is 4.5.Tomato is very good appetizer and its soup is said to be a good remedy for patients suffering from constipation. Three flesh colours are found in tomato, namely, red (lycopene pigment), yellow (carotenoid) and tangerine (prolycopene).Tomato seed oil (24%) is used for manufacture of margarine. About 33% of total tomato growing area is covered by F1 hybrids which is highest among the vegetables grown in India. A book entitled Tomato was written by Dr. G. Kallo in 1986.

6.1 Alternative Protein Sources

Introduction

The rapid expansion of aquaculture as a significant contributor to global food security has highlighted the need for sustainable feed and nutrition practices. Traditional aquaculture feeds rely heavily on fishmeal and fish oil, derived from wild-caught fish, which poses ecological and economic challenges. The overreliance on these marine resources can lead to overfishing, increased production costs, and environmental degradation. To address these challenges, the aquaculture industry is increasingly exploring alternative protein sources that are sustainable, cost-effective, and nutritionally adequate. This essay discusses various alternative protein sources, their benefits, and challenges in the context of sustainable aquaculture feed and nutrition.

Plant-Based Protein Sources

Plant-based proteins are among the most promising alternatives to fishmeal in aquaculture diets. These proteins are derived from crops such as soybeans, peas, and canola. They offer several advantages, including wide availability, cost-effectiveness, and relatively low environmental impact.

9.1 Success Stories from Around the World

Sustainable aquaculture practices are essential for ensuring the long-term viability of the aquaculture industry while protecting the environment, supporting economic development, and enhancing social welfare. This article highlights several success stories from around the world that exemplify innovative and sustainable aquaculture practices. These case studies demonstrate the diverse approaches taken to achieve sustainability in different regions and contexts.

1. Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) in Canada

Location: Bay of Fundy, Canada

Species: Atlantic salmon, blue mussels, kelp

Approach: Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) is a practice where different species are farmed together in a way that mimics natural ecosystems. In the Bay of Fundy, Canada, salmon, mussels, and kelp are cultivated in proximity, creating a balanced system. The salmon are fed traditional aquaculture diets, and their waste provides nutrients for the mussels and kelp.

6.1 Introduction

Let

v : Represents the volume of a gas.

p : Represents the pressure of a gas.

t : Represents the absolute temperature.

The law is represented by the relation writen as t v k. p ? where k is a constant.

1. Suppose the temperature varies and pressure remains constant then

2. Suppose the pressure varies and temperature remains constant then

Abstract

The participation level of farm women in economic activities of self-help groups to know the socio-economic factors contributing to their participation in such groups and the constraints faced by them was studied during 2004-05 at Kadur taluk of Chikkamagalore district of Karnataka. Apart from these findings on the factors affecting their involvement in SHGs and the problems faced by them, the study also revealed that majority of farm women had medium level of family income, mass media participation and, low level of communication status.

Abstract

Jasmine production in coastal Karnataka was confined to only few farmers with some specified pockets of coasted belt. Only a hand full of farm women in Belman, Manchakal areas were cultivating jasmine successively. The scientists of Extension Education Unit (EEU), Mangalore Campus of University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore visited the area and conducted a Survey during September 2001 and gathered information about farmers practicing jasmine production in the area and came out with some success stories from the jasmine growing belt. The jasmine market was studied especially the demand for jasmine flowers (Udupi Mallige). It was observed that there was huge demand for Udupi Mallige. The extension specialists conducted training programmes in different locations in the coastal belt of Karnataka which are not traditional jasmine cultivated areas. As a result the technology has spread to the entire coastal belt. At present farm women are supporting themselves soley by cultivating jasmine in an area of 3-5 cents with a minimum of 20 bushes. Further, the KVK’s which are working in Udupi and Dakshina Kannada districts are also working in this direction through On Farm Testing, Frontline Demonstration, Off campus and On campus training.  Since it involves only women labourers, it is one of the most important and viable subsidiary as well as main occupation of the women folk in the district

Youth of today are the hopes of tomorrow.  They are the backbone of a country.  Youth reflect the national potentiality and represent the life blood of a nation. The future of the country lies in their hands.  What they will become, what they will do, what role they will play in the free democratic society, will depend, to a greater extent, on the period between childhood and adulthood.  They are the most potent segment of the population of a country. It is they who are to shoulder responsibility for the future development of the country.

The socio-economic development and prosperity of the rural areas depends, to a considerable extent, on the type of the youth the country side has, because the rural youth have abilities to orient themselves to go along the main stream of the development process.  The youth, a bulk of total population of the country, are the national cream and the future crown with full possession of physical built and mental tenacity and power. They are the precious human assets who can play an important role in nation building activities if opportunities are provided.  If a country can harness a creative and pervasive force like youth, it can substantially and quickly advance towards modernization. Youth are the nation builders of tomorrow. They are not only carriers of new ideas and are more receptive to new ideas, ready to bear risk and willing to work as a Team.

Summary

ISFM is important, cost-effective and has the potential of improving farming efficiency and crop productivity. This is only possible when farmers understand the concept and follow recommended practices in the ISFM approach.
 
The challenge is how to effectively disseminate ISFM practices to farmers for sustainable crop production.

7.1. People’s Participation in Observation, Analysis and Planning for Rural Development

Why should people participate?

There is no controversy as to whether there should be people’s participation in the development programmes in the development programmes designed to meet the basic needs of the people. The post-mortem of any unsuccessful programmes has shown that they have invariably failed when they failed to provide an adequate place and importance to people’s participation in the planning and analysis.

There is a body of philosophy and a set of assumptions behind people’s participation in rural development. These are;

i) It should be people’s programme with government’s participation;

ii) Community needs to build up their own capacity, agents have got a catalytic role;

iii) Self- imposed changes have got permanence as compared to those imposed from outsides

iv) Holistic approaches are far better than the fragmented approaches;

v) People need certain help to solve unique problems;

28.1 INTRODUCTION

Precision Farming has assumed great significance in the country for making the use of available resources more judiciously and efficiently. It is farm management strategy which utilizes precise information to increase profit and to reduce enviornmental impact. It takes into account in field variability in soil fertility and crop conditions. In nutshell, it may be defined as management of input variables such as application rates, cultivars selections, tillage practices, irrigation scheduling, optimization of soil and plant nutrient through nutrient management practices and management of pest and diseases by reducing the quantities of pesticides. Development of new technologies has become integral part of precision farming.

Precision farming was widely accepted firstly as a management practice in corn belt of mid west United States of America which helped in increasing the yield and significant reduction in production costs. Besides, crops like wheat and soybean have also been included in its purview. In south east parts of U.S.A., research is currently on in the crops of citrus, cotton, groundnut, vegetables and even livestock. Precision farming management practices have also integrated controlling and monitoring of field information using geographical information system (GIS), Global Positioning System (GPS), sensors, Variable Rate Technology (VRT) and yield monitoring. These components are highly sophisticated. GIS software stores data pertaining to soil type, nutrient levels etc in layers and assign that information to the particular field location. It can also be used to analyze characteristics between layers to develop application maps or other management options. Global Positioning System is a referencing device capable of identifying sites within a field. Global positioning system (GPS) helps in storing information regarding field location in terms of latitude and longitude. Maps showing variability of nutrient levels soil types, topography, pest incidence and yield can be created by virtue of it. It is a set of 24 satellites in high altitude orbit above the earth for pin pointing objects on the surface of the earth. These satellites continuously transmit radio signals which are picked up and deciphered by special receivers. A GPS receiver requires at least four satellites to determine its position on earth. Receivers are mounted on tractors/top of cab or on some high point to get a clear view of the spy. Crop stress, soil properties, pest incidence etc. are determined by the help of sensors through traveling over the field by tractors or combine. These can be used for measurement of soil conductivity, fertility status, weeds etc. Another type of sensor viz Remote sensors (aerial/ satellite) can provide instead maps of field conditions. Computer control device and associated hardware are part of Variable Rate Technology (VRT) for application of fertilizers, pesticides etc on the basis of field characteristics of the specific location. In precision farming, information is needed about mean characteristics of small, relatively homogenous management zones. It is data acquisition of the farms to find the soil, vegetation and other parameters which are amenable to remote sensing. Remote sensing techniques are helpful in providing continuous acquired data of agricultural crops. Remote sensors image vegetation growing on different soil types with different water availability. The following applications can be made by relief sensors:

Participatory technology development (PTD) is an approach to learning and innovation that is used in international development as part of projects and programmes relating to sustainable agriculture. The approach involves collaboration between researchers and farmers in the analysis of agricultural problems and testing of alternative farming practices.

Origins of participatory technology development

The origins of Participatory Technology Development can be found in a number of approaches, concepts and techniques that became popular in the 1970s and 1980s:

Farming systems research and extension, an approach that introduced social-ecomomic issues into organisations previously dominated by biological and chemical scientists. FSR/E also promoted the idea on ‘on-farm’ trials:

Appropriate technology, a concept that recognises the importance of matching the design of technology to the resources and culture of the user.

ABSTRACT

Soil samples from pepper growing tracts of six districts of Kerala viz., Ernakulam, Idukki, Kollam, Kottayam, Thrissur and Pathanamthitta were assessed for total microbial population. Thirty two fungi, 17 bacteria and three actinomycetes were isolated and studied for their antagonistic potential against the foot rot pathogen, Phytophthora capsici. All the 32 fungal isolates were found antagonistic to the pathogen and majority of them belonged to the genera Trichoderma, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Pythium, Cunninghamella and Rhizopus. Among these maximum inhibition was recorded by Trichoderma spp. which included T. pseudokoningii, T. longibrachiatum, T. polysporum and T. harzianum. The laboratory studies were followed by field trials laid out in farmers’ fields (newly planted pepper gardens) in six districts of Kerala. Effect of biocontrol agents in wilt incidence revealed that the two-time treatment of combined application of Trichoderma local isolate and potassium phosphate was superior in checking the foot rot incidence. The treatment, Trichoderma local isolate + Bordeaux mixture applied twice came in the second position. Data on biometric observations revealed a significant increase in the number of laterals in plots treated with Trichoderma local antagonist and potassium phosphate as compared to plots treated with Bordeaux mixture and copper oxychloride. Results of quality analysis of berries revealed that oleoresin content ranged from 6.98 - 11.84 per cent and piperine content from 3.61 - 5.92 per cent and the quality remain unchanged due to various treatments. The study has provided an ‘eco and health friendly’ biological control for the management of Phytophthora foot rot, the most devastating disease of pepper.

Farming System Development (FSD) is better perceived as a means of facilitating interactive links between the actors (Table-1) who play significant roles in the process. A system perspective is needed in designing and evaluating suitable technologies as well as in designing policy / support system that improve both productivity and sustainability. Considerable challenges do exist in modifying the conventional top-down orientation characteristics of extension services. This requires the fundamental principle of FSD i.e. interactive mode of operation.

Approaches in Extension

Agricultural extension services have gone through various stages over the years, from the individual farm visits approach to the T&V approach. All these approaches are characterized to a greater or lesser extent, by a “ top- down” planning. Extension approaches mostly determine the direction and nature of the system in terms of structure, leadership, program, methods and techniques, resources, and linkages. Extension approach is a style of action within a system which embodies the philosophy of the system. Although there are many approaches to agricultural extension, there is certain commonality in them. All approaches function through non- formal education and all have agricultural content for the development of rural people.

Ministry- based General Extension

Ministry of Agriculture was entrusted with agricultural extension in a top- down manner for planning for the adoption of technologies. An increase in national production is taken as the measure of success.

All persons engaged in agriculture are the clients of this public extension who are served by extension staff. Program formulation and implementation are guided by public interest. Ministry- based extension faces difficulty in serving the majority of potential clientele and financial constraints that force it to reduce the staff. Whereas extension demands location- specific technologies and flexible decisions, the university extension is mostly top- down in nature. As the approach lacks a two- way approach the messages are not location specific. Production alternatives are absent in this approach.

The Training and Visit Approach (T&V)

Participation means the involvement of the stakeholders in all the activities. In a true sense of participation, the farmers are involved in identifying the problems they face, prioritising the problems, determining ways to overcome them, designing realistic plans by themselves or with others to achieve the goals, and carrying them out. Participation puts emphasis on people’s involvement in decision-making processes, implementation of programmes, sharing of benefits of development programmes and involvement to evaluate such programmes. Community participation is an active process by which beneficiary or client groups influence the direction and execution of a development project with a view to enhancing their well-being in terms of income, personal growth, self-reliance, or other values they cherish. Community participation concerns the engagement of individuals and communities in decisions about things that affect their lives. Sometimes you have observed that some people do not want to be involved in decision making process and remain aloof, but it is our responsibility to create a situation so that everyone should have the opportunity to associate with the programme. We should not force people to participate in the project/programme which they perceive that it will affect their livelihood. In that case, we have to create awareness among the people regarding the beneficial effects of the programme. Solutions devised and fulfilled by the people and community in need are far more likely to prove successful than those imposed from outside.

Key words : Participatory GIS (P-GIS), Geo-Participatory Rural Appraisal (Geo-PRA) Social Mapping, Resource Mapping, Seasonality Maps, DGPS.

Participatory GIS

Geographical information System (GIS0 and Geographics Information Technologies (GITS) are no more restricted to the elite group of the society. Planners are busy in searching ways in merging community participation with GIS in the context of urban planning, environment equity, sustainable development etc. (Aitken and Michael, 1995, Craig and Ehwood, 1998; Talen, 2000 and Sieber, 2000). In all the cases, common thing is the linking of community participation and GIS in a diversity of social and environmental contexts. Through development, demonstration and modification of methodologies by academics and practitioners the concept of Participatory GIS (P-GIS) emerges. It is an outcome of a spontaneous fusion of participatory forms of development planning with modern information technologies. Experts gave considerable thoughts on the probing questions like whether a bottom up GIS could be successfully developed, how many community participation could be incorporated into GIS and to what context such participation would serve only to legitimize conventional top-down decision making. From these reflections only the concept of people’s participation GIS arose.

Mango is the choicest fruit of tropical world. Originated in Indo-Malayan region (Mukherjee, 1985), more than one thousand varieties are under commercial cultivation in India (Mukherjee 1949). South Indian varieties of mango are distinct (Yadav and Singh, 1985).  Naik and Gangolly (1950)  described 135 South Indian varieties, taking fruit character as the main criteria. North Kerala experiencing humid tropical climate is an important zone of variability of mango (Kannan, 1982). Polyembryonic mango cultivars like ‘Vellaikolamban’, ‘Kurukkan’ and ‘Bappakkai’ are traditionally grown here. Over the years, there is erosion in  gene pool of rich varietal wealth due to deforestation, urbanisation and large scale rubber cultivation in Kerala. Establishment of field gene bank is an important ex situ conservation strategy. Systematic attempts to conserve  genepool  resulted  in collection of  more than 1266 varieties in various field gene banks in our country (Chadha, 1976). Field Gene Bank (FGB) has the advantage of being continuously evaluated and desired accessions can immediately be utilized directly or in breeding programmes. Field gene bank very often represents only a fraction of variability of the gene pool and  enrichment of the collection is always required for capturing  available diversity.

Information and Communication Technology is ruling the world in all walks of life and access to mobile phones and internet facility is growing in India at a rapid rate in recent years. However, the access to internet based technologies have confined primarily to the urban areas. Rural communities have not been able to gain to the same extent from IT. As a means of agricultural technology transfer to farmers, information technology has had a limited impact.

Initially, rural development followed a top-down approach based on the information collected through the traditional survey method. It was soon noticed that the perception of the development professionals from the “top” was at variance with the perception of the rural masses. Visits were made and extractive surveys were carried out with the help of structured formats and questionnaires. These surveys had several biases such as spatial, season, person, caste, religion, project, education, etc. These limitations led to a search for a new method for understanding rural situations. New methods and approaches such as Farming System Research (FSR), Exploratory Survey and Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) were attempted during the 1970s to overcome the deficiencies of conventional survey methods. Moving away from extractive survey questionnaires, two families of approaches and methods, referred to as Rapid Rural Appraisal and Participatory Rural Appraisal evolved in the 1980s and 1990s.

Origin of PRA

Participatory Rural Appraisal is ‘an approach and methods for learning about rural life and conditions from, with and by rural people’. It is defined as a family of approaches and methods to enable rural people to share, enhance and analyse their knowledge of life and conditions, to plan and act.

According to Robert Chambers (1992), there are five main trends that decorate the principal method of PRA: Activist Participatory Research, Agro-ecosystem Analysis, Social Anthropology, Field Research on Farming Systems, and Rapid Rural Appraisal.

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) stands as a methodological framework comprising participatory and visually oriented techniques for assessing communal and group resources, discerning and prioritizing challenges, and evaluating strategies to tackle them. It serves as a research and planning approach wherein local communities, with or without external guidance, engage in a comprehensive examination of issues pertinent to their populace. The process involves identifying problems, weighing various solutions, and formulating a Community Action Plan to address the identified concerns. Central to PRA is the inclusion of diverse community perspectives in the analysis and empowering the community to lead the evaluation of its circumstances and the search for remedies. While external actors may partake as facilitators or providers of technical expertise, the autonomy of the community in driving the process is paramount.

Introdution

In developing countries, traditional methods have special advantages over modern agricultural techniques. The capital and technological skill requirements in the use of traditional technologies are generally low and their adoption often requires little restructure of the traditional societies. By adopting such indigenous knowledge, our ancestors did not face any problem of large scale pest out break or economic crisis unlike the today’s farmers. The present study focused with this central theme of research.

Indigenous Technical Knowledge refers to the unique, traditional, local knowledge existing within and developed around the specific conditions of women and men indigenous to a particular geographic area (Grenier, 1998). Indigenous Knowledge is the accumulated knowledge, skills and technology of the local people. Indigenous Knowledge has two powerful advantages over scientific knowledge like it has little or no cost, and is readily available. Indigenous Knowledge can be defined as the knowledge built up by a group of people through generations of living in close contact with nature over the years; the farmer in India had been using cow dung and cow urine as manure in the fields.

Participatory water management, principles of sustainable farming and crop water productivity and strategic water management practices
Participatory irrigation management
Farmers’ participation in management of water resources is one of the prime requirements to improve the irrigation efficiency and enhance food production to meet the future requirement. The objectives participatory irrigation management (PIM) are to achieve equity in water distribution, make best use of rain, surface and ground water conjunctively, develop community responsibility to collect water charges and create a sense of ownership of water resources and the irrigation system among the users so as to promote economy in water use and preservation of system, improve service deliveries through better operation and maintenance and achieve optimum utilization of available resources.
Participation of farmers in the realm or irrigation water management implies an active role of beneficiaries in all the facets of irrigation water management and its attendant linkages with the main system of management in agricultural/agronomic activities. This role is very different from the traditional passive role of farmers to look to the department for irrigation, for water supply and its distribution. The timing of farmers’ involvement is crucial. Farmers’ participation is most effective, when it takes place from initial stages of project planning, including the stage of project formulation. Such involvement forms part of ideal conditions for a partnership between farmers and government. The present theme “more crops per drop” is feasible provided the farmers are encouraged and supported to play an active role in the operation and management of the irrigation system. However, to operationalize this concept, there is a need to involve all the farmers within the command area, so that collective and collaborative action becomes possible.
Importance of Participatory Water Management
The per-capita availability of cultivable land as well as water is going to be stagnated, wherein irrigation is the only key factor leading to increased

Particulate soil organic matter (POM) is one of the important soil organic matter (SOM) pools and matches the characteristics of a slow, decomposable or stabilized SOM pool. The POM fraction is considered as one of the indicators to changes in management and thus has been used in soil quality assessment studies.

The animal bodycan be imagined as a machine, which is gettinginput of desired or available feed given by the farmer and this animal body after processing through various metabolic activities, output of product is given off. Feed is composed of organic nutrients-carbohydrate, fat and protein and after reaching in the animal body, used for constructive work, for example synthesis of body tissues and other associated work. Later, milk or egg is produced as an output. Now putting the same perspective in terms of energy, that is, these organic nutrients of the feed contain chemical energy and after reaching in the animal body, used as mechanical energyin muscles or heat energyin metabolism. The energy in the body would be utilized for the synthesis of body tissues or other productive output, for example, draft work by bullocks. Therefore, energy is primarily required for the maintenance of the body and then, for the productive purposes :

• Growth for all the farm animals

• Milk from cow, buffalo, sheep, goat • Eggs from poultry, duck, turkey

• Wool from sheep

• Meatfromfatteninganimals under the law, for example– mutton, chevon, pork, chicken.

Abstract

The paper deals with the roles played by the NGO’s in the relief and rescue phase of Dec, 2004 tsunami and the effective role played by NCRC -NGO Coordination and Research Centre - in the rehabilitation phase along Tamil Nadu coast by creating successful partnership with government and the public.

Keywords: The Role of NGO’s, Tsunami 2004, Relief and Rehabilitation, NGO Coordination Research Centre.

INTRODUCTION

The scale of the tsunami disaster was unprecedented and the response too was out of the ordinary. Tamil Nadu was the worst affected state in India with Nagapattinam district being the most affected with over 6000 lives lost, about 40,000 houses damaged or destroyed and 1.96 lakh people affected. Relief poured in from both government and non-governmental organizations, including the religious organizations, and the first few days witnessed heartwarming outpourings of help and support.

There were about 400 NGOs and an equal number of volunteers to help in the relief operations which included food, clothing, household utensils and bedding. With such a large scale of external support, mainly from organizations and people from outside Nagapattinam, it was not surprising that chaos and confusion marked the first few days of relief operations still. Based on the experience of some professionals experienced in disaster management, a coordination platform was created called the NGO Coordination Cell. This platform was managed by two NGOs, who had long standing field presence in Nagapattinam, viz., South Indian Federation of Fishermen Societies and SNEHA, with the mandate and support of the District Administration. The main role of this platform was to meet the field based requirements of all the relief camps with the resources and materials available with the NGOs and the Govt. The paper briefly deals with challenges faced by the NGO’s in relief and Rehabilitation of the historical Dec 2004, Tsunami.

Introduction

Goats provide multiple products like chevon, milk, skin, fibre, manure and transport. Pashmina occupies a prime position among animal fibres for its firmness, warmth, durability, lightness, softness and ability to absorb dyes and moisture compared to mohair and/or wool for being free from modulation and crimps. Pashmina is highly valued fibre for manufacturing quality apparels. It has recorded its name in the Guinness Book of World Records for being costliest cloth in the world after trade ban of most precious natural fibre Shahtoosh (King of fibre) of small Tibetan Antelope known as Chiru. In India, two recognized pashmina breeds are Changthangi and Chegu. Changthangi is native to high altitude areas (3700 to 4500m) in Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir reared by a pastoralist nomads Changpas whose population is 1,96,000 (LADHC, 2006). The Chegu breed is distributed in cold-arid trans-Himalayan mountain ranges from Himachal Pradesh to Uttaranchal at an altitude of more than 3000 m (Thakur et al., 2006).

Passion fruit, (Passiflora edulis Sims) belongs to the family Passiflora. Within this species, there are two distinct forms, the standard purple, and the yellow, distinguished as P. edulis f. flavicarpa Deg., and differing not only in color but in certain other features. The purple passionfruit is native of southern Brazil. The yellow form was unknown in India until just a few decades ago when it was introduced from Ceylon and proved well adapted to low elevations around Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

Uses

Passionfruit juice can be boiled down to a sirup which is used in making sauce, gelatin desserts, candy, ice cream, sherbet, cake icing, cake filling, meringue or chiffon pie, cold fruit soup, or in cocktails. The seeded pulp is made into jelly or is combined with pineapple or tomato in making jam.

The purple passion fruit (Passiflora edulis) is a native of the rainforest margins in the Amazon region of Brazil. Passion fruit acquired its name from Spanish missionaries who thought that parts of the plant’s flower resembled different religious symbols such as the crown of thorns. Passion fruit grows on a vine in tropical regions. It has a tough, smooth, waxy rind that can be either yellow or purple. The flavour is like a cross between melon and guava. Passion fruits get sweeter as they shrivel. The fruit will quickly turn from green to deep purple (or yellow) when ripe and then fall to the ground within a few days. They can either be picked when they change colour or gathered from the ground each day.

Genus : Passiflora 
Species : edulis Sims.
Family : Passifloraceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 18

The passion fruit (Passiflora edulis) is another fascinating tropical fruit besides having both dessert and processing qualities, the crop also has a big multi coloured very attractive flower and fruit with district taste  and flavour. Passion fruit is very popular in number of tropical and subtropical countries. Despite having variability at the species level the commercial development has not progressed as desired which is evident from the fact that the available commercial types are highly susceptible to diseases, lack of adaptation to soil and climate extremes, high establishment costs growing management problems  harvesting and market costs have forced the grower to focus on other remunerative crops. Passion fruit is said to be good source of minerals especially calcium, phosphorus and iron, vitamin A, niacin and riboflavin.

Introduction

The thermal performance of a building refers to the process of modeling the energy transfer between a building and its surroundings. For a conditioned building, it estimates the heating and cooling load and hence, the sizing and selection of HVAC equipment can be correctly made. For a non-conditioned building, it calculates temperature variation inside the building over a specified time and helps one to estimate the duration of uncomfortable periods. These quantifications enable one to determine the effectiveness of the design of a building and help in evolving improved designs for realizing energy efficient buildings with comfortable indoor conditions. The lack of proper quantification is one of the reasons why passive solar architecture is not popular among architects. Clients would like to know how much energy might be saved, or the temperature reduced to justify any additional expense or design change. Architects too need to know the relative performance of buildings to choose a suitable alternative. Thus, knowledge of the methods of estimating the performance of buildings is essential to the design of passive solar buildings.

Abstract
The development of aquaculture from its prehistoric beginnings to a highly developed, international sector emphasizes the need for cutting-edge equipment to guarantee sustained production. Passive Integrated Transponder (PIT) tagging is a cornerstone for selective breeding programs, enabling precise monitoring and managing aquatic species. PIT tags, tiny electronic microchips implanted into fish, offer a reliable and durable method for individual identification without affecting species growth or survival. Their versatility extends across various applications, from studying migration and behaviour to monitoring genetic traits critical for breeding. PIT tagging stands out due to its simplicity, cost-effectiveness, and compatibility with various aquatic environments. PIT tags offer a long-term solution with less interference than external tags, which are more likely to be lost or damaged. Technological advancements have refined PIT tagging, allowing its application even in small-bodied fish, thus broadening its utility in ecological and genetic studies. These tags also play a pivotal role in reducing inbreeding in hatcheries by maintaining precise genetic records. Despite the proven benefits, PIT tagging requires careful consideration of fish species, size, and environmental factors to optimize tag retention and ensure minimal stress. Advancements in tagging techniques, such as improved surgical techniques and new equipment for tag implantation further increase the dependability of this technology. Studies confirm that PIT tagging has negligible effects on fish physiology and behaviour, making it an indispensable tool in aquaculture research and management. The aquaculture sector can enhance broodstock quality, guarantee genetic diversity, and tackle climate change issues by incorporating PIT tagging into selective breeding strategies. This technology not only supports the production of high-quality seed stock but also aligns
with sustainable aquaculture practices, ensuring the long-term viability and growth of the industry.
Keywords: Tag retention, Biotelemetry, Tag implanter, Tag position and Broodstock

The modern or climate controlled greenhouse requires massive inputs of energy and cost of claddings to grow crops out of season making them high cost structures. However, growing of certain horticulture crops and their nurseries out of season is happening in a sustainable way, using the heat from the sun and soil too. These are called passive solar greenhouses designed to retain as much warmth as possible. This concept has revolutionized vegetable production in Ladakh, high altitudes and other parts of the country in winter months.

The solar greenhouse is especially successful in China and are contributing mainly in vegetable production. Solar passive greenhouses are designed in different shape size using different local and other materials keeping in view the local climate and terrain. The poly houses mentioned earlier such as, low cost polyhoses, Ladakhi poly house, solar trench, polyench are passive solar green houses. Being the opposite of the climate controlled greenhouse, the passive solar greenhouse is heated all-year round with solar energy alone, even when the outdoor temperature drops below freezing point. The indoor temperature of the structure can be higher than the outdoor temperature. The temperature can be around 25°C (45°F).

Such greenhouses have been experimented by Defence Research and Development Organization through its establishment FRL (Field Research Laboratory) now DIHAR (Defence Institute of High Altitude Research), Leh/ Ladakh since 1962 during November to the end of March, the period during which the outside temperature drops there below freezing. The average temperature in the coldest month is between -15°C and -18°C. Over the several decades of research different and effective designs of such greenhouses have been standardized which are suitable to produce fresh vegetables like most of the leafy vegetables, tomato, cole crops and potato at sub zero temperature.

18.1. Basic for Government Intervention in the Economy

One of the most powerful arguments to justify government intervention in the economy in the economy is the so-called concept of market failure. In a typical free enterprise system where demand and supply forces operate, the efficiency which results only relates to economic welfare. The social cost implications of economic activities tend to be ignored. Governments therefore intervene in the economy with the social welfare objective in mind. One popular way by which governments have intervened in the economy is through ownership of particular industries or outright nationalization of some private enterprises. The advantages usually claimed for such an action are as follows:

Introduction

The ancient agriculture as an each class of advice has been well connected into several subcategories. As such, the advice under centennial sub-category has been divided to a few references, in adjustment with proper specification not to access only the aggregate of the publication. However, the information on past day agriculture to attending for data has been collected from the adapted references. There are several pictures assuming seeds of cereals and legumes and those of a collection of agricultural tools and implements begin in archaeological excavation and office texts. These are mentioned to advance how accurate to accept in aggregate of every fragment of advice and verify it from added sources more than one. The painstaking and thorough going work have revealed the state of agriculture during the period under study and its gradual development through the ages. The recorded findings are no doubt those have not been comparable with present-day agriculture. The awareness of the people engaged in agriculture regarding the types of food-crops to be grown, the animals to be domesticated and reared for agricultural operations as well as sources of food and nutrition, the design and preparation of tools and implements for agricultural operations and machineries for food processing unfolds gradually with experience gathered in course of time. The agriculture in past period wherein the population was predominantly pastoral and agricultural such great strides were noticeable in the pursuit of agricultural sciences with a sound traditional and scientific practice. Therefore, the recognizable endeavor throughout the period gives sufficient reasons to be proud of cultural continuity towards agricultural heritage.

Introduction

Military personnel’s are deployed for operation in adverse climatic conditions like desert, cold (arctic) and high altitude regions. Stressful and challenging living conditions have affected the outcome of many battles, campaigns and wars. Acclimatization to the environmental condition is a very essential stage of deployment. The time for acclimatization is restricted/limited for the effective operation towards the purpose of deployment. The performance of the military personnel in various deployed regions depends on the nutrition provided by the food consumed. The operational rations are designed to provide the essential nutrition to enhance their performance during training and/or operational situations.

Nutrition requirement of military personnel is different from that of the civilians. The nutrition requirement also varies with the kind (sedentary or continuous work) and region (plain, desert or high altitude) of deployment. The environmental stress caused by extreme heat, cold, etc. also influences the nutrient requirement/ intake. The insufficient dietary nutrient intake affects the immune function, pace of recovery from illness and injury and also the physical performance (Tharion et al., 2005).

The operational ration is also designed in such a way that it provides to the military personnel the required nutrition from the build in nutrition reserves during certain operational situations. Considering the vital criteria for nutritional requirement, the menu for the military personnel is designed. The chapter discusses the past, present and future of the army operational ration (AOR) in various countries of the world and the influence of advances in food processing methods in AOR menu.