eChapters

Introduction

The drying of fruits and vegetables during the season of abundance in order to preserve them for consumption during season of shortage is an ancient practice. Thus, drying is one of the oldest methods of preservation of the food commodities. It is practiced from ancient times and is a very common method of preservation in the tropical countries like India where conditions are much more favorable for sun drying. All micro-organisms need moisture to grow. So the removal of water in the food is brought down below a certain level at which they are unable to grow. Moisture content from food can be removed by different methods like sun drying (very oldest method and most popular), solar drying, cabinet drying, mechanical drying, tunnel drying, poly tunnel drying, adiabatic drying, spray drying, osmotic drying, fluidized bed drying etc. Grains are mostly dried in the sun. The moisture content of the grains can be reduced to a limit that is safer for their storage by sun drying. Many fruits and vegetables can also be dried by using sun energy. Some coastal areas of the countries fishes are also dried by exposing to the sun. After drying, sometimes the dried products are converted into powder. However, these powders are very hygroscopic and should be packed in airtight. Mango powder is prepared by this technique, but expensive and not popular in India. Nowadays many artificial methods have been developed for removal of the moisture. The relationship between the moisture content and temperature of air during process is referred as Psychrometric relation. An instrument used to measure the humidity (Relative humidity) of the atmosphere is known as Psychrometer (Hygrometer). The residual moisture in vegetable should not be more than 6-8% and in fruits it should be in the range of 10-20%. The dried fruit can be used as such or after soaking while dried vegetable are usually soaked in water overnight and then cooked. Vegetable are considered to be dry when they become brittle. There are generally two drying methods for foods like 1) Natural drying and 2) Artificial drying. The preservation / stability of the dehydrated products is conferred by the abstraction of water, so that the product is unable to support the microbial growth, its chemical forms of deterioration is inhibited and the drastic reduction in the weight / volume facilitate easier handling and marketing. Among dehydrated products, dehydrated onions have largest share of 45%. India is the third largest exporter of the onions in the world next to the Netherland and Spain. Besides this, India exports dehydrated bell pepper, garlic and mushrooms.

Introduction

Increased awareness about the food safety and various adulterations or crises reported in food industries, the food quality and its safety has emerged as the most important features of the modern food processing and preservation. The important historical dynamics which raised the concerns of food safety were motivated by accidents related to food borne pathogens and chemical contamination during the food processing and distributions. Many times, the terms food quality and safety are interchanged however, there is a difference in terms of their perception by the consumers and manufactures. In past few years, the food safety has become the characteristic of food quality and has been regulated by various national and international agencies. The increased concerns about the safe, nutritious and high quality food has over the time forced the public authorities to engage the food industries to construct the quality management systems in order to improve the food safety and build the consumers believe and trust towards processed foods. Food quality is a broader concept which includes food health quality attributes along with parameters like sensory characteristics like taste, smell and convenience like food preparation (Röhr et al., 2005). The food qualities like nutritional, convenience and sensory are not requested by the public laws but are desired by the consumers. The management systems for the quality assurance have evolved over the time and now we have systems like HACCP. ISO 9000 and ISO 14000 in place which are well known quality management modules to ensure the elimination of food hazards. On a broader scale of trading food several technical agreements under WTO (world trade organization) have been made which provide equal opportunities to all countries to trade the goods however, it imposes the similar food quality standards across all the participatory members. The responsibility of food safety is directly connected with all the stakeholders of the food chain which include manufactures, processors, farmers, food handlers and finally the consumers. Food contaminations may be a result of poor manufacturing practices and poor storage and handling practices at any stage in the food chain. To ensure the safety compliances, national food regulatory models plays a significant role. The guidelines issued by FAO/WHO, 2003 are focused on the public organizations, as well as food control authority self-assessment to ensure highest food quality and its safety from farm to fork. The base of the assessment includes 6 factors viz. food inspection, food quality management, food safety, official food control laboratories, food legislation food and quality information, education and communication (Shukla et al., 2014).For effective implementation of the food safety and quality module the countries have developed various food laws and legal norms which states the principles to be followed for raw materials, their processing and distribution in order to achieve the consumer expectations as well as the hidden food safety concerns.

Introduction

It is the process of retaining food over a period of time without being contaminated by pathogenic organisms or chemicals and without losing its colour, texture, flavour and nutritious value. It involves preventing the growth of bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms, as well as retarding the oxidation of fats which causes rancidity

Objective

• To increase its shelf life, retaining original nutritional values, colour, texture, and favour.

4.1 Introduction

It is an annual crop cultivated all over India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, China, Japan, South East Asia and Philippines. The fruits are available practically throughout the year. Brinjal fruits are a good source of calcium, phosphorus, iron and vitamins particularly ‘B’ group. A 100 g of edible fruit contains 91.5g of water, 6.4 g of carbohydrates, 1.3g of protein, 0.3g of fat and 0.5g of mineral matters. Its green leaves are the main source of vitamin C (38-104.7mg/100g). Dark purple brinjal has more vitamin C than those with white skin. Bitterness in brinjal is due to presence of glycoalkaloid solasodine. Generally, high amount of glycoalkaloids (20mg/100g) in the fruits produce a bitter taste and off flavour. Brinjal is reported to stimulate the intrapeptic metabolism of blood cholesterol and has marked drop in blood cholesterol level. The de-cholestrolising action is attributed due to the presence of poly-unsaturated fatty acids, PUFA (linoleic and linolenic) which are present in flesh and seeds of fruit in higher amount (65.1%). The presence of Mg and K salts also helps in de-cholestrolising action. Dry fruit is reported to contain goitrogenic principles. Aqueous extracts of fruit inhibit choline esterase activity of human plasma. Brinjal has got much potential as raw material in pickle making and dehydration industries. It is supposed to contain certain medicinal properties and white brinjal is said to be good for diabetic patients. The fruits are regarded as a cure for toothache. It is also an excellent remedy for those who are suffering from liver complaints. Cu content and polyphenol oxidase activity are highest in purple colour fruits and lowest in white fruit. Fe and catalase activity are highest in green fruited cultivars and lowest in white fruited cultivars. White fruited cultivars contain twice as much crude fibre as the purple and green fruited cultivars. Solanum ferox is yellow fruited type and is very popular in southern Europe, France and Italy and USA. Vitamin C content of brinjal is affected by canning. Toasting of fruits raises the nicotinic acid at the expense of trigonellin which is present in it and 66-69% of it is converted into nicotinic acid during toasting.

7.1 Introduction

Okra is a remunerative vegetable crop for the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Its fresh fruits are important vegetable in India, Brazil, West Africa and many other countries. For year-round consumption sun dried (Africa, India), and frozen and sterilized (USA) fruits are processed from fresh fruits. Tender green fruits are cooked in curry and also used in soups. The root and stem are useful for clearing cane juice in preparation of jaggery. Its ripe seeds are roasted, ground and used as a substitute for coffee in Turkey. Matured fruits and stems containing crude fibre are used in the paper industry. Okra is rich in vitamins, calcium, potassium and other minerals. A 100g consumable unripe okra fruits contain 10.4g dry matter, 3,100 calorie energy, 1.8g protein, 90mg calcium, 1.0mg iron, 0.1mg carotene, 0.07mg thiamin, 0.08mg riboflavin, 0.08mg niacin and 18 mg vitamin C. The dry seeds contain 13-22% edible oil and 20-24% protein. The seed cake is also used as an animal feed. Okra has high iodine content and it has ability to control goiter. Ratoon cropping can also be done in okra.

8.1 Introduction

Amaranth is one of the oldest food crops in the world, with evidence of its cultivation reaching well back to 6700 BC. The genus Amaranthus consists of nearly about 60 species, which includes leafy vegetables, vegetables for grains, ornamental plants as well as weeds. The word amaranth has actually been derived from the Greek word amarantos, which means unwithering and the people who used it symbolize immortality. The Hindi term for amaranth, Ramdana, means God’s own grain. Amaranthus tricolor L. is the most common species grown as leafy vegetable during summer and rainy season in India but it can be grown throughout the year. It fits well in crop rotations because of its very short duration and large yield of edible matter per unit area. The estimation of the extent of its cultivation is not available. Green or leafy types are usually grown in kitchen and market garden. Amaranth is more widely used as a potherb. The grain Amaranthus species are popular in the high lands of tropical and sub-tropical America. It is gaining importance in the Indian plains also, particularly in Gujarat and Maharashtra. Grain types are usually grown as mixed crops along with cereals, pulses and vegetables.

Short Transmission Line

A short transmission line is defined as a transmission line with an effective length less than 80 km (50 miles), or with a voltage less than 69 kV. Unlike medium transmission lines and long transmission lines, the line charging current is negligible, and hence the shunt capacitance can be ignored.

For short length, the shunt capacitance of this type of line is neglected and other parameters like electrical resistance and inductor of these short lines are lumped, hence the equivalent circuit is represented as given below. Let’s draw the vector diagram for this equivalent circuit, taking receiving end current Ir as reference. The sending end and receiving end voltages make angle with that reference receiving end current, of φs and φr , respectively.

Introduction to strategy implementation involves translating strategic plans into actions and achieving desired outcomes. While many organizations focus on the technical aspects of implementation, it is crucial to consider the behavioral dimensions as well. Behavioral dimensions encompass the attitudes, behaviors, and actions of individuals within an organization that impact the success of strategy implementation. Here are some key points to consider regarding the behavioral dimensions of strategy implementation:

Organizational culture: The culture of an organization plays a significant role in strategy implementation. It comprises shared values, norms, beliefs, and practices that influence employee behavior. An accommodating and flexible culture fosters employee engagement, commitment, and alignment with strategic goals.

Leadership and Communication: Effective leadership is essential for successful strategy implementation. Leaders must articulate the strategy clearly, provide guidance, and motivate employees towards the desired outcomes. Communication channels ought to be open, transparent, and promote a culture of collaboration and feedback.

Employee Involvement and Empowerment: Involving employees in the strategy implementation process increases their commitment and ownership. Empowering employees through delegation of authority and decision-making cultivates a sense of responsibility and accountability, leading to enhanced performance and innovation.

A. Rectangular Canals

5.1 Design of Best Rectangular Canals

After the Mehboob and Trapezoidal canals, next best section is rectangle. This section is also generally adopted for small discharges say upto 10 cumecs (350 cusecs). This section ranks at No. 4. Yet, this is the only section most commonly adopted for flumes of discharges upto140 cumecs (5000 cusecs). Typical example is Orsang acqueduct, 1 km. long for 1140 cumecs (40000 cusecs) in ractangular sections on Narmada Canal Project, Gujrat, India, built in the years from 1990 – 2000. Such sections are common in power house canals due to limitation of space and very sharp curves. It is free from the effect of change of side slopes as in the trapezoidal canals (see para 3.3) Still some small side slope (batter) is adopted in thick masonry / concrete lining. It adds to structural stability with economy in thickness of wall and as well as hydraulic efficiency. It may still be called as rectangular section.

Details of its hydraulic efficiency in comparison to semi circle, Mehboob and trapeziodal sections are discussed in chapter 1, para 1.8

Introduction

Agriculture is backbone of India’s economy and is largely dependent on the monsoon. Rainfall plays a dominant role in agricultural production and productivity, despite advancement in many technological fronts. Forecast of rainfall is essential for planning and management of water resources especially in an agriculture-based country like India. About 65 per cent of the total cultivated land in India is under the influence of the rainfed agriculture system. Especially, monthly and seasonal rainfall forecasts provide useful information for water resource management, agricultural planning and its associated crop insurance application (Garbrecht et al., 2010).

The early prediction of rainfall is essential which help farmers to make decisions on crop production and harvesting, as well as help prevent flooding, protect human lives and resources. Rainfall forecasting is very challenging due to its uncertain nature and dynamically changing climate. It is an application of science and technology to predict precipitation in advance. It’s always been a challenging task for meteorologists. Prediction of precipitation is categorized into short-range prediction and long-range prediction. Forecasting is done through the collection and analysis of weather and climate data. Avinash et al. (2022) studied temporal variation of land use pattern in Karnataka through indices and concluded that due to fluctuations in the rainfall the forest land is degrading year by year.

Introduction

The study of spatiotemporal time series forecasting has gained significant attention in recent years, as it involves analyzing records of events that occur over both space and time. Spatiotemporal models group time- and location-specific discrete variables and are used in various sectors, including agriculture, transportation, meteorology, economics, disease mapping, sociology, environmental sciences, and ecology. However, the popular Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) (Box and Jenkins, 1970) model has two major flaws: it assumes linearity, which is not always the case in time series data that may exhibit nonlinear interactions, and it is a univariate model that cannot capture spatial linkages. Hence, when investigating time series data that are not perfectly linear and involve spatial correlation, the ARIMA model should not be used. Other multivariate time series models like VARMA have also been used to represent spatiotemporal data. However, VARMA models require more parameters, and the STARMA model introduced by Cliff and Ord has fewer parameters (Cliff and Ord, 1975). In previous literatures, the STARMA model was commonly used for modeling different spatiotemporal time series data (Kamarianakis, 2003). The STARMA model was previously employed to forecast the spatiotemporal data in different fields such as economics, disease mapping, climate modeling, agriculture, etc. (Pfeifer and Bodily, 1990; Lee, 2005; Rathod et al., 2018; Saha et al., 2020 and Rathod et al., 2021).

Introduction

Agricultural residues encompass the byproducts that arise from the cultivation and processing of unprocessed agricultural commodities, such as fruits, vegetables, meat, poultry, dairy products, and crops. These residues are the leftover outputs that do not function as main products and may contain substances that have potential benefits for human use. However, their economic value is lower than the cost incurred for their collection, transportation, and processing for beneficial purposes. The composition of agricultural wastes varies depending on the specific agricultural activities and systems utilized, and they can exist in various forms, including liquids, slurries, or solids. Agro waste, which is another term for agricultural waste, encompasses a range of materials such as animal waste (including manure and animal carcasses), waste from food processing (where only 20% of maize is preserved and the remaining 80% is discarded), crop waste (including corn stalks, sugarcane bagasse, and discarded or imperfect fruits and vegetables), as well as hazardous and toxic agricultural waste (such as pesticides, insecticides, and herbicides). Although there is a scarcity of estimates regarding agricultural waste generation, it is widely recognized that they make a significant contribution to the overall waste volume in developed countries. The proliferation of agricultural production has inevitably caused a surge in the volumes of livestock waste, agricultural crop residues, and by-products from agro-industries. If developing countries persist in intensifying their agricultural systems, a substantial increase in global agricultural waste is foreseen. It is estimated that about 998 million tonnes of agricultural waste is produced yearly (Agamuthu, 2009). In any agricultural setting, the accumulation of organic wastes can constitute a significant portion, reaching up to 80 percent, of the overall solid waste generated. Specifically, the production of manure can contribute up to 5.27 kg per day for every 1000 kg of live weight, considering the wet weight basis.

Introduction

Agriculture is the backbone of many economies worldwide, providing food, f ibre, and other essential resources. However, production of these goods generates a significant amount of agricultural waste that must be properly managed.According to United Nations, agricultural waste often consists of silt and salt which get drained from fields, fertilizer runoff from fields, pesticides that end up in the water, air, or soil, harvest waste, and other wastes from farms, poultry houses,slaughterhouses and spoiled food waste too. Different agricultural activities generate agricultural waste, including materials like vegetable waste, sugarcane bagasse, rice and wheat straw and husks, food byproducts, jute fibers, crop stalks, and similar items.The generation of agricultural waste in large quantities pollutes the environment which causes many issues in the environment and is also hazardous to humans.Agricultural wastes like crop residues that are retained after harvesting get burned by the farmers leading to significant environmental consequences by emitting 141.15 million tons (Mt) of carbon dioxide (CO2 ), 8.77 Mt of carbon monoxide (CO), 0.23 Mt of nitric oxide (NO), and 0.12 Mt of ammonia (NH3 ).It contributes to air pollution and loses itshigh organic content. So the proper management of these wastes is of utmost importance for mankind and the environment. The basic principle of managing agricultural waste based on the concept of reuse, reduce, and recycle by adopting sustainable practices to minimize waste generation and promote environmental conservation. Agricultural wastes like Crop residues undergo physical, chemical, and biological decompositions, breaking down lignocellulosic linkages and enriching soil nutrient content, in which the most efficient decomposition process is biological, facilitated by bacterial and fungal spores (microbes) accelerating the waste breakdown aerobically and anaerobically. Microbes are ubiquitous and have played a very crucial role in addressing various environmental challenges faced by humanity. Decomposition with the help of microbes enhances soil nutrition through nitrogen fixation, phosphorus solubilization, and cellulose degradation in the decomposed end product.Microbes, such as bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes, are the driving force behind the natural decomposition of agri-waste.

HACCP: The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) is a scientific, rational and systematic approach to identify, assess and control hazards during production, processing, manufacturing and use of food. It ensures safety of the food. HACCP presents a good opportunity for the food industry for upgrading quality and bringing uniformity and consistency in their supplies to international market. or It is a systematic preventive approach to food safety that addresses physical, chemical and biological hazards as a mean of prevention rather than finished product inspection. It involves identification, evaluation and control of hazards which are significant for food safety.

HACCP plan: A document prepared in accordance with the principles of HACCP to ensure control of hazards which are significant for food safety throughout the food chain under consideration.

Haemagglutinins: A group of proteins of plants that are not antibodies and do not originate in an immune system but bind specifically to carbohydrate containing receptors on cell surfaces (red blood cells). It is also known as Phytoagglutins / lectins.

Introduction

Groundwater resources are under stress globally due to various reasons including increasing water demand, impending climate change, industrialization, land use/land cover changes, etc. Adequate sustainable development strategies have to be adopted for the management of groundwater resources. Irrespective of the developmental status of countries all over the world, groundwater serves as a crucial resource for meeting fundamental needs. However, increasing population, water demand, surface water contamination, and recent patterns of climate unpredictability have caused increasing reliance on groundwater as reported by several researchers (Adimalla and Taloor 2020; Aladejana et al. 2020; Cuthbert et al. 2019; Green 2016; Hamed et al. 2018; Jasrotia et al. 2019; Khalaj et al. 2019; Li 2016; McGill et al. 2019; Morsy et al. 2017; Taloor et al. 2020).

Even in India, water scarcity has been reported in many parts, though the country receives relatively higher rainfall. However, the rainfall pattern has changed over the last few years. The country has been experiencing significant spatiotemporal changes in rainfall patterns, leading to fewer rainy days and more extreme rainfall, which many studies have attributed to global climate change and anthropogenic influences. The rainfall variability has substantial impacts on water availability, agricultural productivity, and welfare of the 1.2 billion people in India because agriculture in India feeds about 17.2% of the global population and more than 56% of the agricultural land is rain-fed. Rapid and heavy patterns of rainfall result in the draining of most of the rainfall as surface runoff particularly on higher slopes, and reaches the surface water bodies, thereby reducing the infiltration and subsequent groundwater recharge. These variations in rainfall have ultimately affected the groundwater behavior and availability in many river basins.

Introduction

Climate change and human activities have emerged as significant factors affecting water resources in diverse regions (Kumar et al. 2022; Haddeland et al. 2014). The escalation in human water consumption for domestic and industrial purposes enhanced by the impacts of climate change has resulted in an overall decline in water availability (Liu et al. 2017; Paul et al. 2021). Rising temperatures and altered precipitation patterns directly influence water availability for ecosystems and agriculture potentially leading to greater evapotranspiration rates, intensified rainfall events, and prolonged droughts (Sharannya et al. 2021; Myers et al. 2023). Furthermore, urbanization, deforestation, and agricultural practices alter landscapes, affecting water resources in these areas.

Water shortages pose threats to ecosystem health, and socio-economic development and disrupt agricultural production (Piao et al. 2010). Thus, ensuring sustainable and efficient water usage necessitates accounting for water usage and quantifying it in a changing environment. To comprehensively assess the significance of water resources in the environment, Falkenmark (1995) introduced the concept of blue water (BW) and green water (GW) water, particularly for managing water resources in water-stressed regions. Green water refers to the portion of precipitation that infiltrates into the unsaturated soil layer and is subsequently utilized by plants through transpiration and soil evaporation. In fact, “blue water” represents surface and groundwater flow in rivers, lakes, and aquifers (Abate et al 2024; Sharannya et al. 2021). While numerous studies have investigated the spatial and temporal variation of BW and GW using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) (Feng et al. 2021; Li et al. 2009; Lyu et al. 2019), fewer publications have focused on assessing these variations and uncertainties at the basin scale under varying climate scenarios (Sharma et al. 2023). Hydrological models such as SWAT, serve as valuable tools for simulating past and future hydrological changes in the watersheds using projected climate data. SWAT specifically can simulate both blue and green flows at the watershed scale.

2.1 Introduction

Horticulture plays a pivotal role in global food production and is essential for ensuring food security and improving nutrition. However, the increasing pressure on agricultural resources, coupled with environmental challenges, necessitates the adoption of innovative technologies to enhance productivity and sustainability. Artificial Intelligence (AI) has emerged as a powerful tool in this regard, offering unprecedented capabilities in data analysis, pattern recognition, and decision-making. In horticulture, AI holds immense potential for revolutionizing crop and soil monitoring practices, enabling more efficient resource utilization and better management strategies.

2.2 Foundations of Ai in Crop and Soil Monitoring

Artificial Intelligence (AI) forms the backbone of modern crop monitoring techniques, enabling the processing of vast amounts of agricultural data and the extraction of actionable insights. This section provides an in-depth exploration of the fundamental principles of AI, machine learning, and deep learning, elucidating their applications in crop monitoring within horticulture.

2.1.1 Understanding Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Definition and Scope: AI refers to the development of computer systems capable of performing tasks that typically require human intelligence, such as learning, reasoning, and problem-solving.

Types of AI: AI can be categorized into two broad types: narrow AI, which is designed for specific tasks, and general AI, which exhibits human-like intelligence across a wide range of domains. In the context of crop monitoring, narrow AI applications are more prevalent, focusing on tasks such as image recognition, predictive modeling, and decision support.

Technically, seed is the sexually produced matured ovule consisting of an intact embryo, endosperm and or cotyledon with protective covering (seed coat). A true seed consist of an embryonic plant, a store of food which consists of cotyledons and endosperm and a protective seed coat. Seed can also be considered as any material that is used for planting or regeneration purpose. Rather than seed, propagating materials like healthy seedlings, tuber, bulbs, rhizome, roots, cuttings, setts, slips, all types of grafts and vegetatively propagating materials used for production purpose is also referred to as seed. Thus, seeds are of two types namely sexual or botanical seed and asexual seed. Both can be used for raising the crops thus forms the agricultural seeds.

Based on the moisture content present, seeds are of two types, orthodox seeds and recalcitrant seeds. Orthodox seeds are the botanical seeds which contain moisture content less than 20%. Such seeds do not germinate even if the moisture content is more than 20% unless artificially forced to germinate. Recalcitrant seeds contain moisture content more than 20% and such seeds will not germinate if moisture content is less than 20%. These seeds cannot be stored for long and for long storage, special structures or conditions are required. Mostly perennial plant species produce this type of seeds.

Bulb Crops

Bulb crops are cool season vegetables that are grown during the winter months in plains. They are mainly growing for its fleshy leaf bases or fleshy axillary buds or blanched stem and leaves. Major bulb crops that are widely cultivating in our country comprises of onion, garlic and leek. They possess a characteristic odour due to the presence of volatile oil, allyl propyl disulphide (onion) and diallyl disulphide (garlic). They are either seed propagated as in onion and leek or through cloves as in garlic or through bulblets in multiplier onion. Seed propagated bulb crops are annual for bulb production and biennial for seed production. Seed production of bulb crops can be undertaken in plains especially in the central part of the country and southern plains whereas, northern plains hold the problems of Stemphylium and purple blotch during the seed crop and subsequent lower seed yield makes northern plains unfit for seed production. But these areas can be utilized for seed production by following the delayed planting of seed crop and avoiding the climate favouring the diseases.

Onion (Allium cepa)

Onion is a popular vegetable grown for its pungent bulbs. Bulbs are consumed as raw vegetable, as cooked vegetable or in preserved forms. Onion is reported to be originated in Central Asia and Mediterranean region is considered as the secondary centre of origin. It is adapted to a wide range of climate and it is being cultivated in India in three seasons viz., kharif, late kharif and rabi. India is having the largest area under onion cultivation in the world. It is also contributing substantially towards the export of the value-added products from our country. White or yellow onions are commonly using for producing dehydrated products whereas, the red ones are more preferred for direct consumption.

Introduction

Tissue culture refers to the technique of growing cells, tissues, or organs under controlled, artificial conditions. This allows propagation of tissues from a small sample of cells/tissues under sterile conditions. Plant tissue culture is widely used for various purposes, including the production of disease-free plants, rapid multiplication of plants with desirable traits, genetic modification, conservation of rare or endangered species, etc. Tissue culture is a valuable technique because it enables consistent and large-scale production of plants, ensures genetic uniformity, and allows manipulation of plant biology at cellular level. In this chapter, we will discuss about the major types of tissue culture techniques and their advantages, disadvantages, as well as applications in brief.

Different Types of Tissue Culture

Callus culture involves induction and growing of unorganized, undifferentiated cell masses from an explant on a nutrient/culture medium. The part of plant used to induce callus is called explant which can be tissue, organ or part of a plant.

Organ culture is used to maintain or grow an entire organ or a part of organ in vitro. It preserves the structure and function of the organ for studies or transplantation.

Embryo culture involves isolating and growing embryos from seeds or ovules in a nutrient medium. It is used to bypass seed dormancy or rescue embryos from hybrid crosses that may not develop naturally.

Cell suspension culture involves growing dispersed cells or small cell clusters in a liquid medium under continuous shaking. This is used for large-scale production of cells, secondary metabolites, and studying cell biology..

Introduction

Regenerative agriculture is an approach to farming and land management that focuses on restoring and improving the health of ecosystems and the soil (Latacz and Nuppenau. 2019). It goes beyond sustainable agriculture by actively seeking to regenerate and rejuvenate the natural resources utilized in agricultural practices (Lal, 2018). The goal of regenerative agriculture is to create a resilient and sustainable farming system that enhances biodiversity, improves soil health, sequesters carbon, and promotes overall ecosystem health (Paustian, et.al., 2018). Regenerative agriculture encompasses a range of practices and principles that vary depending on the specific context and agricultural systems (Smith et. al., 2015).

Regenerative Agriculture often include:

• Conservation tillage: Minimizing soil disturbance to maintain soil structure, prevent erosion, and preserve beneficial microorganisms.

• Cover cropping: Planting cover crops in between cash crops to protect the soil from erosion, improve nutrient cycling, and enhance soil fertility.

• Crop rotation and diversification: Alternating crops and incorporating diverse plant species to improve soil health, break pest cycles, and optimize nutrient use.

• Composting and organic matter management: Adding organic materials to the soil to improve its fertility, water-holding capacity, and nutrient availability.

• Managed grazing: Employing rotational grazing strategies to mimic natural grazing patterns, improve soil health, and promote plant growth.

• Agroforestry: Integrating trees, shrubs, or other perennial plants into agricultural systems to provide additional ecosystem services, such as shade, windbreaks, and habitat for beneficial organisms.

Introduction

Landscaping is an expanse of scenery, a great way to add beauty, and curbs appeal to the place. The urban landscaping designs the outdoor and indoor places marveling the beauty of nature, i.e., the warmth, breeze, sunrays, shade, and the cool climate. Sustainable Landscaping can be defined as the designing of a garden considering the environmental issues at hand and landscaping in such a way that the designs, the planting materials, and the management are in balance with the locality with minimal resources. According to Loehrein (2013), organic gardening practices are integral to the design, construction, and maintenance of sustainable residential and commercial gardens.

Precision sustainable gardening, which involves applying specific amounts of care and resources to individual plants at precisely the right time and in the right place, is a form of precision farming. The local community, the environment, and the health of birds, bees, and other wildlife can all benefit immediately from a sustainably landscaped yard. Xeriscaping, grasscycling, erosion control, water conservation, carbon sequestration, habitat creation, mulching, and composting are all practices that contribute to more sustainable and climate-appropriate landscapes (Kamakshi, 2022).

Introduction

The history and evolution of extension in India during the Pre- independence and Post- independence periods have been narrated in Chapter 2. The major breakthrough in Agricultural Extension was the introduction of the T&V system with WB support from 1977 to 1997. The system tried to establish a strong linkage between the research and extension. Technical messages received from research stations were transferred to the farmers through an organized extension system at fixed time intervals and obtained feedback from the farmers about the technologies. However, the system was constrained by structural problems at organizational level. The system adopted a classical top- down approach and the recommendations were suitable for irrigated areas bypassing the rain- fed areas. After the withdrawal of support from WB, the T&V system was constrained by the paucity of funds to manage the manpower created, and the unpaid farmers did not continue to work. After withdrawal, it was considered necessary to make the extension more demand- driven, participatory, group extension, and farmer- centric with possible convergence for which extension reform in India was necessary.

Extension reform in India

There are many countries where extension and advisory services reforms are occurring globally (Swanson and Rajalahti 2010; World Bank 2012). Since agro- ecological conditions and access to markets vary within most countries, decentralized extension system was needed. It was considered that decentralized and demand- driven extension allows farmers to participate in setting the agenda and demanding extension and research priorities. The extension reforms made the system reach the smallholders, resource- poor, and women, and also focused on sustainability. When the donor funds dry up or the pilot projects end, the farmers no longer have access to the extension services (Birner and Anderson 2007). Therefore the public extension needs to be sustainable in extension services delivery.

Concept of Review of Literatures

The Review of literature is a systematic, explicit, and reproducible method for identifying, evaluating, and synthesizing the existing body of completed and recorded work produced by researchers, scholars, and practitioners. The Review of literature is also a resource paper, which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic. These are available mostly in academic and scholastic journals.

Review of literature provides the basics for research in nearly every academic f ield. The aim of review of literature is to highlight what has been done so far in the field of interest and how our findings are related to earlier research. The review of literature also indicates the following by providing referential inputs.

(i) Approaches

(ii) Methods

(iii) Variables used

(iv) Statistical procedure

(v) Expected results

Introduction

Quality of fish is affected by various factors, which are classified into two categories: intrinsic factors and extrinsic factors. Intrinsic factors are the chemical and physical properties inherent to fish. Extrinsic factors are treatments given to fish before and after catch until it reaches the consumer, which includes the method of catch, cross contamination, processing, preservation, and product storage environment (temperature, humidity, packaging). The processing methods such as drying, smoking, chilling, and salting greatly help to minimize the spoilage. The quality of fish is also dependent on cold chain, in which the temperature is managed and monitored at every stage of production, transport, storage and sale.

2.1. Pre-Harvest Factors

Pre-harvest factors relates to the intrinsic factors affecting the quality of fish, as they are beyond the direct control of human. Various intrinsic factors affecting quality are fish species, size, sex, physiological state, parasites, naturally toxic fish, pollutants, and occasional peculiarities. Additionally, some of the extrinsic factors like method of catch and feeding interruption for starvation are also considered as pre-harvest factors affecting the quality of fish.

2.1.1. Species Characteristics

The quality of fish is related to species. For instance, flat fish keep better than round fish. Post-mortem pH varies between species. For example, long rigor period and low pH (5.4-5.6) of very large flatfish and halibut give relatively long iced storage life of 21 days, while mackerel with low post-mortem pH has no effect on shelf life. Some fish are rated as good quality as they are expensive, example, seer fish and pomfret. Fatty fish are rejected sensorial before lean fish due to the appearance of oxidative rancidity. So, lean fish keep longer than fatty fish under aerobic storage. Bony fish are edible longer than cartilaginous fish. Skin of fatty pelagic fish is very thin and contribute to faster

spoilage rate, as it allows enzymes and bacteria to penetrate more rapidly. Thick skin and slime of flatfish contribute for better keepability, as slime contains bacteriolytic enzymes, antibodies and other antibacterial substances.

Introduction

The risk assessment is gaining importance as the scientifically-based approach for the development of food safety and quality standards. It is a logical extension of HACCP revolution. In hazard analysis, first the hazards likely to occur in foods are identified, then an assessment is made of the severity of each hazard, and an evaluation is done of its likelihood to occur. Severity and likelihood are the two factors involved in risk assessment. Second, the increase in international trade has raised new safety and quality challenges. New approaches address the risk of cross-border transmission of infectious and hazardous agents with emerging food-borne diseases and quality problems. This has led to the development of a new safety and quality regulatory framework in 1995, the Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) and the Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Agreements of the World Trade Organization (WTO). In these two Agreements, two provisions are of importance to fish safety and quality:

• National SPS and quality requirements should reflect standards agreed on in the international standards setting bodies i.e. Codex Alimentarius for food quality and safety.

• Domestic standards can be developed based on scientific risk assessment.

Risk assessment of microbiological hazards is identified as a priority area by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC). In 1999, the Codex Committee on Food Hygiene (CCFH) in the 32nd session, identified a list of 21 pathogen commodity combinations that require expert risk assessment advice. FAO and WHO jointly launched a programme with the objective to provide an expert advice on risk assessment of microbiological hazards in foods to their member countries and to the CAC. Under which, expert groups are established to examine four priority pathogens: product pairings, e.g. Listeria monocytogenes in ready-to-eat food; Salmonella in eggs and broiler chickens; Campylobacter spp. in broiler chickens; and Vibrio spp. in seafoods. Risk assessment is therefore important throughout all aspects of the seafood industry - for companies, national governments and for international regulators.

Introduction

The international fish trade increases day by day reaching to a tune of USD 151 billion in 2020 (FAO, 2022). Many developing countries like India gain benefits from this trade as income through net foreign exchange reached to a level of 8.09 billion USD in 2019-20. Seafood supplied by developing countries contribute to 77% of fish consumption worldwide. The European Union (EU) is the single largest market for fish and fishery products to a tune of 91.74 billion USD in 2022 as a consequence of an increased per capita consumption among its Member States. Spain, Italy, Germany and the United Kingdom are the largest importer of fish and fishery products.

To protect consumer health and to protect the territory from the introduction of animal and plant diseases, the European Community (EC) has laid down joint conditions for imports of foodstuffs. The Directorate General for Health and Consumer Protection (DG SANCO) is responsible for food safety in the EU. The import rules for fishery products are framed of high standards with respect to hygiene, consumer safety and animal health status. It is important that importing countries and food business operators (FBOs) must understand the fundamental principles and requirements of the European Food Law to ensure efficient and smooth imports. The EU system relies on Government to Government assurances without any intervention of any private type certification or standards. The Competent Authority (CA) in the country of origin is responsible for giving the official guarantees to the EU regarding compliance and conformity to all requirements of its legislation. The Export Inspection Agency (EIA) is the Competent Authority in India for issuing the required official guarantees for export of fish and fishery products. The EIA maintains a complete list of all establishments under its control.

Introduction

Nutrition is the study of how food and nutrients affect the body’s health and well-being. It encompasses all aspects of food, from the food production, processing, consumption and digestion by the body. A balanced diet included all the essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, protein, fat, vitamins and minerals for maintaining good health. The recommended daily intake of nutrients varies depending on the age, gender and physical activity of a person. The nutritional need also varies depending on the lifestyle and medical condition of a person. The nutrition facts are based on recommended daily intakes for various nutrients, which vary based on factors such as age, sex, and physical activity. These facts are given on food packaging or label, providing important information on the serving size, calories, macronutrients and micronutrients, and other ingredients.

Nutrition labels are mainly intended to guide the consumer in food selection. Nutrition information provided on labels must be true and should not mislead consumers. Nutrition labelling regulations are provided by countries to help manufacturers. The Codex guidelines on Nutrition Labelling provide guidance to member countries to develop or update their national regulations and to encourage harmonization of national standards with international standards. According to it, no food should be described or presented in false, misleading or deceptive way. Nutrition labelling cannot solve nutrition problems, instead it is one of the elements of nutrition policy.

11.1. Nutrition Facts

Nutrition Facts means the nutritional information required for most of the packaged food in many countries giving the energy value and nutrients contained in the food. Nutrition facts labels are required by regulation similar to other types of food labels. It provides detailed information on the nutrient content of the food such as the amount of fat, sugar, sodium and dietary fiber.

Introduction

A fundamental issue when analysing trade policy reform in global seafood market is the extent to which domestic agricultural commodity markets in developing countries respond to changes in international prices. Price trans mission from the world to domestic markets is central in understanding the extent of the integration of economic agents into the market process.

Studies on the transmission of price signals are founded on concepts related to competitive pricing behavior. In spatial terms, the classical paradigm of the Law of One Price, as well as the predictions on market integration provided by the standard spatial price determination models (Enke, 1951; Samuelson, 1952; Takayama and Judge, 1972) postulate that price transmission is complete with equilibrium prices of a commodity sold on competitive foreign and domestic markets differing only by transfer costs, when converted to a common currency. These models predict that changes in supply and demand conditions in one market will affect trade and therefore prices in other markets as equilibrium is restored through spatial arbitrage.

The absence of market integration, or of complete pass-through of price changes from one market to another has important implications for economic welfare. Incomplete price transmission arising either due to trade and other policies, or due to transaction costs such as poor transport and communication infrastructure, results in a reduction in the price information available to economic agents and consequently may lead to decisions that contribute to inefficient outcomes. Fisheries and seafood food trade policy reform, especially, is a priority issue in the next WTO negotiations, as trade liberalization is viewed as encouraging allocative efficiency and long run growth.

Introduction

Impact Assessment is simply defined as the process of identifying the future consequences of a current or proposed action. The “impact” is the difference between what would happen with the action and what would happen without it (International Association for Impact Assessment). It’s a structured process for considering the implications, for people and their environment, of proposed actions while there is still an opportunity to modify (or even, if appropriate, abandon) the proposals. It is applied at all levels of decision-making, from policies to specific projects.

IA aims to

• provide information for decision-making that analyses the biophysical, social, economic and institutional consequences of proposed actions;

• promote transparency and participation of the public in decision-making;

• identify procedures and methods for the follow-up (monitoring and mitigation of adverse consequences) in policy, planning and project cycles; and contribute to environmentally sound and sustainable development.

Introduction

Ornamental fishes have been recognized as the important avenue for the income and employment generation in the country. The economic activities of ornamental fish culture involve a complete chain of the entrepreneurs and enterprises i.e. fish collectors from natural water bodies, local traders, exporters, manufacturers of the aquarium, fish breeders, ornamental fish farmers, vendors etc. With the increase in income and urbanization, the habit of keeping ornamental fishes has been increasing at rapid pace. However, there are no consitenet markets for Indian ornamental fish and a regular fluctuation with respect to destinations is reported since the geographical spread of the markets has exhibited an ever changing hue. The top markets of ornamental f ish from India are Singapore, USA, Hong Kong, Malaysia and Japan, which jointly accounted for about 70% of total India ornamental fish export. Amongst them Singapore alone accounts for almost 43% of total export in ornamental f ishes followed by Japan (14%) and Malaysia (10%). USA and Hong Kong both accounted for 7.5% each. However, contribution of India in world market is negligible. In India, the main objectives of ornamental fisheries are employment generation, women empowerment and earning foreign exchange. Keeping the imense potential of ornamental fish trade in mind the sector is identified as one of the thrust areas for development to augment exports in the country. To prosper any trade there are three pre-requisites called sustainability, quality and quantity.Potential natural resources of indigenous ornamental f ish of high value in the country has greatly contributed in development of ornamental fish industry.It provides enhanced cash income and thus provides better living standards for those involved in the trade. About 400 species of marine ornamental fish and 375 freshwater ornamental varities are available in varoius parts of our country. The domestic trade of ornamental fish is mainly dominated by production and marketing of low value ornamental fish like Gold fish, Koi carp, Sharks, Gourami, Angels, Barbs, Live bearers etc. The retail prices for these fishes vary around INR 15-50 each. The sustainable growth in this segment is possible through captive breeding to ensure a constant supply of hatchery-bred young ones to the global markets round the year. Breeding and culture of ornamental fish can be a promising alternative livelihood for women and unemplyed youth. The key factors for success in commercialization of ornamental fish farming are cluster/group approach in farming with wide species variability, production scale, and quality. The price competitiveness is limiting the middlemen to possible extent in the marketing and overcoming the supply or delivery limitations. Recognizing the potential and possibilities, Government of India has envisaged a program to unlock the country’s ornamental fisheries sector through implementing different activities in this sector. Implementation of Ornamental Fisheries on pilot basis, in its scope and reach, focuses mainly on creating an enabling environment for a sustainable and holistic development and management of ornamental fisheries for the socio-economic benefit & development of ornamental fisheries in India. Thrust areas have been identified for enhancing ornamental fish production through farming and conservation of natural resources through habitat restoration and creating mass awareness amongst the stakeholders.

Introduction

One of the greatest challenges facing the world is how to meet the nutritional needs of a growing human population that is projected to hit 10 billion by 2050. To meet the additional food demands imposed by the nearly 30% population increase, global food production has to increase by as much as 50% (FAO, 2017). This problem is further multiplied due to the imminent threat of an acute shortage of space to grow food, degradation of arable land, limited resources, climate change etc. in traditional ways (Yang and Kim, 2020). Between 1984 and 2016, India faced depletion of arable land at a rate of 0.12 % per year, which means we are left with land to live on, but shortage of food. Hence, to tackle these problems, there is a need to adopt intensive, environmentally friendly, multidimensional and sustainable food production systems like aquaponics (Dijkgraaf et al., 2019).

Aquaponics is a sustainable method of growing fish, and vegetables as well as f lowers (Mohapatra et al., 2020). It is becoming quite popular with individuals as well as commercial farming entrepreneurs, and governments interested in modern farming for year-round food production in different climatic conditions. Moreover, with this type of versatile farming, we can grow considerably more food with less water, land and labour than the traditional farming systems.

Introduction

The Himalayan and peninsular regions of India comprise of diverse coldwater resources in terms of upland rivers, fast flowing streams, high, mid and low altitude natural lakes and reservoirs (Singh and Akhtar, 2015; Singh and Sarma, 2017; Sarma et al, 2018). The Indus, the Brahmaputra and the Ganga basins in the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) is a domicile of over 4 % of the country’s population having rich repository of biodiversity, a natural habitat of over 8000 species of flowering plants, 816 tree species, 675 edibles, nearly 1740 species of medicinal plants and about 258 species of fish (Singh and Akhtar, 2015; Pramanik and Bhaduri, 2016; Singh and Sarma, 2017). IHR mainly encompasses the states of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh where the diverse natural resource-base and wide climatic range, harbour huge inhabitants of endemic, indigenous and exotic coldwater fish species extending an enormous scope of developing upland farming practices (Singh and Sarma, 2017; Singh, 2020), game and ornamental f isheries of large extent (Zaidi et al., 2018). These can provide an excellent opportunities for augmenting livelihood security of upland people residing in the Himalayan terrain, where opportunities to earn revenue is difficult and hard to adopt the farming practices. Today, the Himalayan states offer a unique value proposition in coldwater fisheries to harness its potential. There is an increasing trend of coldwater fish production from the present level of 52,084 MT to 90 thousand MT by FY 2024-25 boosting current productivity from ~1 ton/ha to 3 ton/ha. Coldwater fisheries in the country is now occupying a key place among India’s freshwater fishes, contributing significantly to the nutritional security and job creation in rural hilly areas. More than 1.40 lakh fishermen in India directly depend on coldwater fisheries in hilly areas. In Himalayan region, aquaculture and fisheries represent an essential, often irreplaceable source of high quality animal protein crucial to the balance of diets in marginally food secure communities. The aquatic resources in the IHR are quite valuable for the development of aquaculture and fishery for food, sport, recreation and employment. In this paper, the author has attempted to present possible opportunities in coldwater aquaculture and fisheries which has great promises of future for job creation and nutritional security.

A. Bacterial Diseases in Shrimp

Bacterial diseases in hatcheries and farms are being increasingly recognised as major hurdles to successful shrimp farming (Plate 6). Among the several bacterial diseases, diseases due to Vibrio sp. (vibriosis) are common. As majority of the Vibrio are secondary opportunistic pathogens, problems related to vibriosis can be traced to stress, poor water quality and bad management. It is widely accepted that the ubiquitous opportunistic vibrios are always responsible for causing mortalities in shrimp which are already stressed by poor water quality, external fouling and primary pathogens like viruses.

Vibrios are gram negative, oxidase positive, motile rods. Most frequently reported species in hatchery situations include Vibrio harveyi, V. vulnificus, V. parahaemolyticus and V. alginolyticus. All species of cultured shrimp are susceptible to vibriosis under stressful condition.

The common clinical signs associated with vibriosis are: 1) high mortalities, particularly in PL and young juveniles shrimp, 2) Moribund shrimp appearing hypoxic and often coming to pond surface and edges, 3) Reddening of shrimp, 4) Shell and appendage necrosis with blackening, 5) Presence of luminiscence in affected shrimp in tanks and ponds.

Viruses are submicroscopic particles made up of nucleic acid covered with a protein coat. The nucleic acid is either RNA or DNA and not both. Protein coat is often covered with an envelope and depending on the presence or absence of an envelope, virus can be an enveloped or non enveloped virus. Size of the virus vary from 20-200 nm. Shape of the virus varies from a simple icosahedra to bullet shape to complex brick shape.

Virus are classified based on their nucleic acid (DNAor RNA) and protein profile. However, additional details on type of disease, host range, and geographic distribution of the virus are also used in classification. The classification of the virus is decided by the International committee on taxonomy of virus (ICTV).

Viruses are obligatory intracellular parasites requiring a living cell to replicate. As the virion is lacking its own metabolic machinery, it depends fully on the living host cell for machinery and raw materials for its metabolism and replication. This complex biology of the virus has made it difficult to clearly identify a viral process to design drugs for selective killing without damaging the host cell. Any attempt to kill the intracellular virus affects the host cell.

Replication of Virus in a Cell

There are two kinds of entry into and exit of virus from a cell: a) receptor mediated endocytosis (RME), b) direct entry by fusion. Non-enveloped virus enter the cell by RME (Fig. 1). RME of virus is similar to regular entry of other macromolecules into the cell. With this receptor mediated specified process, virus enter a cell in a vesicle which later fuses with lysosome. Inside the lysosome, viral particles undergo partial changes in protein coat due to digestion by lysosomal enzymes and move to cytoplasm. Finally, this uncoated nucleic acid replicates followed by synthesis of proteins and assembly of viral capsid proteins and genome to full blown virus particles. The site of assembly of the virus may be in the cytoplasm or nucleus of a cell which is referred to as inclusion body. Inclusion bodies which varies in size, shape, location and staining reaction can be used as a diagnostic feature for some viruses. Non- enveloped virus exit from a cell by damaging plasma membrane and hence clearly show cytopathic effect(CPE) in cell culture.

Introduction

Oomycete and fungal diseases are considered as the second most economically impactful diseases in aquaculture, after bacterial diseases. However, among both the diseases, oomycetes are more common. The oomycetes are members of the Kingdom Chromista, which also includes diatoms, kelps, and brown algae. These group of pathogens form free-swimming zoospores and their cell walls are composed of cellulose and glycans rather than chitin. Fish-pathogenic oomycetes (Saprolegnia, Achlya, Aphanomyces and Branchiomyces), are commonly known as water moulds, are ubiquitously distributed in a variety of aquatic environments and ecological niches, and belong to the Order Saprolegniales. These pathogens have low host specificity and infect a diverse range of fishes. On the other hand, most of the fungi (Fusarium sp., Aspergillus sp., Candida sp., Paecilomyces sp., Penicillium sp. and Cladosporium sp.) responsible for infection in fish, form non-motile spores and their cell walls are made up of chitin. In addition, Ichthyophonus sp. an important pathogen which, superficially appears like fungus and produces spores and hyphae, belongs to a distinct clade of protistan parasites. Among the oomycete diseases, infection with A. invadans is considered as one of the most serious fish disease. Therefore, the disease is discussed elaborately.

Infection with Aphanomyces invadans: Infection with Aphanomyces invadans is popularly known as, Epizootic Ulcerative Syndrome (EUS). It has a complex infectious aetiology and is clinically characterised by the presence of invasive Aphanomyces infection and necrotising ulcerative lesions, typically leading to a granulomatous response (Plates 9 and 10). In an expert consultation held during the sidelines of the Fifth Symposium on Diseases in Asian Aquaculture (DAAV) at Gold Coast, Australia in November 2002, it was proposed to rename the disease as epizootic granulomatous aphanomycosis; however, the term EUS is still used popularly.

Introduction

Aquaculture and Zoonotic Diseases

Diseases that can transfer from wild or domestic animals to humans are referred to zoonosis (Fig 1). Zoonosis also includes biotoxin producing agents from fish to human beings which is well documented. There are a number of pathogens which spread from fish and shellfish to human and other domestic animals causing diseases.There are also many other infectious organisms of fish origin that have not been reported but have potential to infect and harm man. Zoonotic diseases originated from fish and shellfish have been documented in the past mostly from wild caught fish and shellfish. However, in the last 30 years as the capture fisheries is declining and aquaculture is growing steadily worldwide, zoonotic incidences from the latter are increasing.

Aquaculture growing at 6-7% annually world over including India is contributing to 50-60% of total fish production today. Additionally, aquarium industry is booming worldwide. Therefore,incidences and scale of zoonosis due to aquaculture are quite different from that from capture or wild fisheries. Disease outbreaks in cultured fish are often by pathogens indigenous to aquatic environment. In aquaculture, disease outbreaks are associated with quality and quantity of nutrients and high stocking density which increase pathogen load leading to easy transmission to human. Apparently healthy fishes may also harbor bacterial pathogens, especially in their kidneys and intestines. World Health Organisation (WHO) considers many diseases in aquatic animals as emerging type. Emerging diseases appear in a population for the first time or it may have been existed before, but is now increasing rapidly. Usually information on zoonotic potential of emerging diseases is limited which is essential to disseminate to human health managers. Potential biological contamination of aquaculture products can occur from bacteria, fungi, viruses, parasites and biotoxins. The location of the farm, the species being farmed, water temperature, husbandry systems, postharvest processing, and habits in food preparation and consumption are among the main factors influencing the zoonotic risk associated with aquatic animals and their products.

Introduction

Owing to several biotic and abiotic stresses, the problem of agrarian distress in India has accentuated in recent years. The Indian government set a target of doubling farmers’ income by 2022–2023 in its annual budget for 2016–17 and started a number of initiatives to achieve this goal, including better irrigation efficiency, crop insurance, market infrastructure improvements, organic farming promotion, soil health restoration, and others. The pathway for doubling of farmers’ income encompasses several dimensions, from production to post-harvest management. These include: bridging yield gap, crop diversification, improvements in total factor productivity and proper management of irrigation (GoI, 2007, Evenson et al. 1999) alongwith the provisions of market and institutional support for efficient post-harvest management. With respect to Himachal Pradesh, in order to improve the productivity levels of existing crop enterprises and promote the diversification of cropping systems, various steps have been taken by the line departments which include the creation of water harvesting and irrigation infra-structure, skill up gradation of farmers, subsidy on critical inputs like seed, fertilizers, plant protection materials, market access through information technology and village road network, crop insurance schemes, etc. The impact of these interventions is reflected through the continuous increase in the productivity levels and inclination of farming community towards the adoption of new crop enterprises vegetables and fruit crops.

Introduction

A large number of institutions in the field of agriculture and allied sectors are contributing to research in development of high yielding varieties of crops, technological innovations and other initiatives to boost production and human resource development. The technology available has to be permeated depending upon the necessities of the region – its soil, climate, culture and needs and means of the farmers, available human resources, feasibility and viability of different parts of the country. It has been observed that there are variations in knowledge and technological percolation. The National Commission of Farmers (founded in 2004) raised the issue of knowledge deficit, which directly impinges on agriculture productivity. There are significant gaps in backward and forward linkages between the agricultural laboratories and the farmers, in so far as transfer of technology is concerned. The 10th and 11th plans have emphasized the need for effective extension services. The 11th Plan Approach Paper also states that “in the longer run, growth in agriculture productivity can be sustained only through a continuous technological progress”. The 11th Plan shows a concern towards the problem of transfer of technology and knowledge at grass-root level and puts forth challenges before the extension agencies. The 11th Plan points out that extension services are to be treated as a service delivery mechanism. The 12th Plan also emphasizes the need for mechanisation of agriculture with robust extension services.

1. Introduction

Sustainability embodies an ecological vision aimed at fostering enduring human coexistence on Earth. Over time, its definition has evolved in literature and context, generating ongoing debate. Generally, experts frame sustainability around three pillars: social, economic, and environmental. While environmental concerns often dominate discussions, sustainability encompasses broader challenges like pollution, land degradation, biodiversity loss, climate change, and ecosystem service decline. This concept influences decision-making globally, politically, and personally.

Sustainable development, often used interchangeably with sustainability, is distinguished by UNESCO as a long-term objective versus the diverse processes and pathways to achieve it. Within the economic dimension, the tension between welfare and environmental preservation is explored through concepts like “weak and strong sustainability,” acknowledging the necessity of trade-offs. Ideal policies would aim to decouple environmental degradation from economic growth.

Introduction

The “plant disease triangle” is a fundamental concept in plant pathology that illustrates the interaction between three essential components necessary for the development of a plant disease. Firstly, the host plant which refers to the plant species or cultivar that is susceptible to the pathogen. Host plants provide the necessary environment and resources for the pathogen to establish, grow, and reproduce. Secondly, the pathogen which is any organism (such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes, or other microorganisms) that can cause disease in plants. Pathogens can infect host plants through various means, including direct contact, airborne spores, soil-borne organisms, or vectors such as insects. And thirdly, the environment which encompasses all external factors that influence the interaction between the host plant and the pathogen. This includes abiotic factors such as temperature, humidity, soil moisture, light, and nutrient availability, as well as biotic factors such as the presence of other organisms (competitors, predators, symbionts) that may affect disease development.

The plant disease triangle illustrates that the occurrence of a disease requires the presence and interaction of all three components: a susceptible host, a virulent pathogen, and a conducive environment. If any of these components is missing or unfavourable, disease development may be inhibited or prevented. Any change in ecosystem can affect plant diseases, because plant disease is the result of interaction between a susceptible host, virulent pathogen and favourable environment. If any of the three factors are altered, the progress of any one disease can change. Although interactions among the three factors must be matched, weather is an important variable due to its dynamic behaviour.

Introduction

The mammary glands of female mammals secrete milk, a necessary food that is liquid and meets the newborn’s nutritional needs. All mammals consider milk to be a complete food for their newborns. It is considered a necessary food for humans and can be consumed as a product or as liquid milk. It contains almost all essential nutrients except iron, which is very low in milk. In essence, milk is an emulsion of protein and fat in water, supplemented with carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals.

Definition of Milk

• Milk is a complex biological fluid that differs from species to species in both composition and physical properties. It is the full lacteal secretion of a mammary gland that is obtained by milking mammals for a minimum of 72 h after calving or until the milk is free from colostrum.

• FSSAI defines milk as the normal mammary secretion derived from the complete milking of healthy milch animals. It should be free from colostrum.

From a chemical perspective, milk is a dynamically balanced mixture that comes in different forms such as emulsion, colloidal suspension, and true solution. It also contains varying amounts of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, salts, and water.

Gross Composition of Milk

Milk composition varies among different mammals. The average chemical composition of milk in various species is given in Table 1. Buffalo milk and sheep milk contain higher amounts of fat, while human milk comparatively has the highest lactose content. Human milk has lower protein content as compared to milk of other species.

Proteins are composed of amino acids and are large molecules that play a crucial role in various biological processes. They are considered the fundamental building blocks of life due to their abundance in the body, constituting approximately 60% of the dry weight of cells. These complex biomolecules are intricately folded and twisted strands of amino acids, actively participating in vital life processes, including metabolism, locomotion, immune response intercellular signaling, and molecular identification. As macronutrients proteins are present in all living organisms and directly contribute to numerous metabolic pathways. It is important to note that proteins are unique to each organism, exhibit species specificity, and vary within different organs of the same organism. With 22 different amino acids, the properties of a protein molecule are determined by the specific arrangement of these amino acids. While plants can synthesize all the necessary amino acids for protein production, animals rely on external sources for certain amino acids. Proteins consist of amino acids connected through peptide bonds, formed by the linkage between the amino (NH2 ) group of one amino acid and the carboxyl (COOH) group of another amino acid.

Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Recent advances in the field of regenerative medicine have opened up newer therapeutic modalities using cell-based and cell-free therapies, particularly stem cells, as potential candidates. As per the definition, stem cells are the undifferentiated progenitor cells that can regenerate and can also differentiate into various specialized cells (Hoang et al., 2022). They can be classified as embryonic stem cells (ESCs), induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and postnatal adult stem cells (Locke et al., 2009). Among postnatal adult stem cells, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have emerged as a popular choice of candidate for therapeutics due to the relatively easy availability, simple isolation techniques, low risk of teratogenicity, minimal ethical and legal concerns unlike embryonic stem cells, hence, are easy to apply in clinical research and practice (Voga et al., 2020). Among MSCs of different origin, bone marrow and particularly adipose tissue-derived stem cells (ADMSCs) received more attention and are one of the most common and promising stem cell types. These cells can be simply obtained from subcutaneous and omental fat or liposuction aspirates for the treatment of diverse clinical applications (Kim &Heo, 2014). These cells can also be expanded vigorously in vitro and differentiated into specific cell lineages such as adipocytes, osteoblasts, chondrocytes, and neurocytes and are even genetically stable in long-term cultures (Miana& González, 2018). Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent progenitor cells possessing self-renewal ability (limited in vitro) and differentiation potential into mesenchymal lineages, according to the (ISCT) International Society for Cell and Gene Therapy (Dominici et al., 2006).

11.1 Quality

• Quality of fruit or any other commodity is combination of attributes, properties or characteristics like appearance, texture, flavor and nutritive value that determine their value to the consumer.

• Keeping quality is also an important quality attributes in all fruits.

• Quality parameters • Appearance (size, shape, color and freedom from defects)

• Texture (firmness and juiciness)

• Flavors (swetness, sourness, bitterness, astringency, aroma and off f lavour)

• Nutritional (vitamins and minerals)

• Quality management Quality management is a method of ensuring the effectiveness of all the factors those implemented to improve and maintain the quality in acceptance form at consumer’s level.

11.2 Pre-harvest management of quality

11.2.1 Genotype and rootstock management

INTRODUCTION

Fish live in a variety of watery habitats and comprise around 50% of all vertebrate species worldwide. There are approximately 21,723 known living fish species out of a total of 39,900 vertebrate species, with 8,411 found in freshwater habitats and 11,650 in marine environments (Jayaram, 1999). Fish are used as markers of contamination and contribute significantly to the preservation of human history and welfare, either directly or indirectly. According to Mittermeier et al. (1997), India ranks eighth in the world for freshwater biodiversity, making it one of the nations with significant biodiversity. There are over 2,500 fish species in India; roughly 930 of them are found in freshwater environments, and roughly 1570 are found in marine ones (Kar et al., 2006).

Fish diversity is particularly rich in the northeastern part of the nation; studies have shown that there are 267 freshwater fish species from 114 genera distributed over 38 families and 10 orders (Mahanta et al., 2003). Fish plays a crucial role in Assam's cuisine, where a wide range of fish species may be found in the region's floodplain wetlands because of the subtropical climate, favorable ecological and topographical circumstances, and inherent capacity for stocking. Assam's waters, including its wetlands, are home to around 217 fish species, representing 104 genera, 37 families, and 10 orders, according to Goswami & Singha (2023). Assam's lakes and marshes are vital for supplying the state's domestic fish needs, fostering economic growth, and giving the general public access to fairly priced food. In Maguri Beel, several fish are in danger of going extinct because of pollution, habitat damage, and the introduction of non-native species, overexploitation and human activity (Moyle & Moyle, 1995; Malakar & Boruah, 2017). The 2020 oil spill incident might have had a major impact on the variety of the ichthyofauna's composition. To address the same, a comparison of the same with earlier research is desperately needed. As a result, the current study intends to examine the fish variety of Maguri Motapung Beel, close to Motapung Village in the Tinsukia region of Assam and Dibru-Saikhowa National Park.

India has a primarily agrarian economy. A significant portion of the country’s land is utilized for agriculture, and many of its agro-ecological regions cultivate a broad spectrum of crops. With a production of 93.9 million tons (Mt) of wheat, 104.6 Mt of rice, 21.6 Mt of maize, 20.7 Mt of millets, 357.7 Mt of sugarcane, 8.1 Mt of fibre crops, 17.2 Mt of pulses and 30.0 Mt of oilseeds crops, in the year 2011-12, it is usual that a massive amount of crop residues are produced both on-farm and off-farm. The country produces approximately 500-550 Mt of crop residues per year in the country. Therefore, landholders are facing difficulties in managing crop residues in the country. The human population has grown four times in the last century. With a projected 9.7 billion people in the world by 2050, worldwide food consumption and the demand for meat and milk are likely to increase by as much as 73% and 58%, respectively. Improved agricultural and industrial practices have contributed to the population boom, which continues to put pressure on food supply to feed a growing population. Huge quantities of food resources will be needed, but again, the crop residues produced at these levels of global production pose major challenges.

Availability of Crop Residues

India produces more than 500 million tons (Mt) of agricultural residue on an annual basis. The quantity of residue produced has grown significantly due to the cultivation of wheat and rice. Crop residue output varies greatly, and the use of these residue is influenced by the crops cultivated, the intensity of cropping, and the productivity across different Indian regions. About 70% of the total crop residues (352 Mt) are contributed by cereal crops (rice, wheat, maize, millets), with rice contributing 34% and wheat 22%. The excess agricultural residues—that is, the residues left over after subtracting the amount used for other purposes—are often burned on the farm. The amount of surplus crop residues available in India is estimated between 84 and 141 Mt per year where cereals crops contribute 58. As an estimate, about 70 MTs of surplus crop residue are burned annually.

Field-ready pregnancy diagnostic tests are an important tool for improving reproductive performance in livestock. They help optimize breeding programs, resource allocation, and decision-making processes, leading to better economic outcomes and sustainable livestock production systems. Pregnancy diagnosis is an important tool for improving reproductive performance in livestock for several reasons:

1) Timely management: early and accurate pregnancy diagnosis allows farmers and livestock producers to make timely decisions about the management of pregnant and non-pregnant animals. This includes adjusting feeding regimes, providing appropriate veterinary care, and establishing breeding plans.

2) Optimized breeding programs: In livestock, controlling the timing of pregnancies is critical to maintaining a well-organized breeding program. With accurate pregnancy testing, farmers can identify non-pregnant animals and breed them back earlier, optimizing resource utilization and shortening the generation interval.

3) Resource allocation: early identification of non-pregnant animals helps avoid unnecessary allocation of resources such as feed and health care to animals that will not produce offspring in the current cycle. This efficient allocation of resources is essential to maintaining a cost effective production system.

4) Lower costs: unproductive animals consume resources without contributing to farm productivity. By quickly identifying non-pregnant animals, farmers can avoid the cost of keeping these animals during their non-productive period.

5) Genetic improvement: for livestock programs focused on genetic improvement, accurate pregnancy diagnosis is critical. It enables the selection and promotion of animals with desirable traits for breeding purposes, thus accelerating genetic progress.

Animal diseases on livestock farms can have significant impacts on animal health, farm productivity, and economic sustainability. Effective disease management and prevention strategies are crucial to minimize the risk of disease outbreaks and their consequences. Managing animal diseases requires a proactive and collaborative approach involving farm personnel, veterinarians, and animal health authorities. By implementing a combination of prevention, early detection, diagnosis, monitoring, rapid response and control measures, farms can effectively manage and mitigate the impact of diseases on animal health and farm operations. Outlined below are several prevalent animal diseases that can affect farms, along with prevention and management strategies.

Haemorrhagic Septicemia (HS)

It is an acute infectious disease of cattle and buffaloes characterized by sudden onset, high fever, edematous swelling of subcutaneous tissues particularly under the neck, pneumonia and fatal septicemia. HS is highly infectious OIE enlisted disease caused by two specific serotypes of Pasteurella multocida, the Asian serotype B:2 and the African serotype E:2. It causes huge economic losses to dairy farmers of Asia and Africa due to high morbidity and case fatality. The outbreaks of HS are quite common in North region of the country