eChapters

ntroduction

The marketing systems and post-harvest marketing infrastructure have not been able to keep pace with the growing production and marketable surplus. This has brought to the fore, the need for providing farmers with access to competitive markets with adequate infrastructure including cold chain logistics, to enable them to realise better prices on the one hand and providing nutritious food to consumers at stable and affordable prices on the other. With this objective in view, the Government of India on 13th November, 2013 approved the proposal of Department of Agriculture & Cooperation for continuation and integration of ongoing Central Sector Schemes as Integrated Scheme for Agricultural Marketing (ISAM) during the XII Plan (2012-2017). The ISAM have the following five sub schemes: (i) Agricultural Marketing Infrastructure (AMI) [the existing schemes of Grameen Bhandaran Yojana (GBY) and Development/Strengthening of Agricultural Marketing Infrastructure, Grading and Standardization (AMIGS) will be merged as AMI] (ii) Marketing Research and Information Network (MRIN) (iii) Strengthening of Agmark Grading Facilities (SAGF), (iv) 

Introduction

The quest for data and analysis of the economics of zoonoses control is now in its fifth decade: The World Health Organization (WHO) Executive Board having passed a resolution, recommending that a group of experts meet and discuss the subject and commission some pilot studies. (a) The health economics recognised as a sub-discipline of economics (b), the cost–benefit analysis established a notion for long enough to merit the writing of a survey article (c) and the difficulties of putting a monetary value on human life (d) the alternative non-monetary approaches being developed. The development of veterinary or animal health economics, partly spurred on by the gathering of experts initiated by that same WHO resolution. The International Society for Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics held its first meeting marking the formal launching of the fraternity.

1. Introduction

Uttarakhand is extremely vulnerableto climate-related changes due to its varied geography and rich glacier mass. The relationship between climate change and agriculture is not a new phenomenon. In the last 50 years, there has been a lot of academic focus on dealing with climate change issues in agriculture. Climate change is believed to affect agriculture by inducing changes in farmer’s behaviour, quantity, quality, cost of production, changes in production, consumption, prices & trade patterns; changes in market responses at global & local levels and these changes not only depend on the domestic and international adaptive capacity their economic impacts also vary by region, by sector, and by stakeholders’ groups. Climate change is a major global environmental problem and also an issue of great concern to all countries, irrespective of their size or level of development. It is established that adverse impacts are likely from increased frequency of extreme weather, floods & droughts, and submergence of coastal areas due to sea level rise and extreme climate variability. It is considered that mountain regions are vulnerable to climate change & it will have direct impacts on livelihoods as most of the economic & livelihood sectors are vulnerable to the effects of climate change.

Introduction

Agriculture is the primary source of livelihood for about 58 per cent of Indian population. Gross Value Added (GVA) by agriculture, forestry and fishing was estimated at Rs. 19.48 lakh crore in FY2020. Growth in GVA in agriculture and allied sectors stood at 4 per cent in FY2020. Share of agriculture and allied sectors in gross value added (GVA) in Indian economy at current prices stood at 17.8 per cent in FY20. Consumer spending in India will return to growth in 2021 post pandemic-led contraction, expanding by as much as 6.6 per cent (Anonymous, 2021). Total food grains production for 2020-21 is set at a record 298.30 million tonnes (MT), comprising 149.92 MT in Kharif season and 148.40 MT during Rabi season. In 2019-20, production was 291.95 MT, against the target of 291.10 MT (Anonymous, 2020b).

Introduction

Agriculture is one of the most important sector of the Indian economy Indian agriculture sector accounts for 18 per cent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and provides employment to 50 per cent of its workforce India is the world’s largest producer of wheat, rice, pulses and spices product and second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world The food grains production for the year 2019-2020 (291 95 million tonnes) as compared to the previous year 2018-2019 (285 21 million tonnes) was higher by 6 74 million tonnes (Anonymous, 2020).

Currently, India is Asia’s largest pesticide manufacturer, and ranks twelfth in the world for pesticide use (Abhilash and Singh, 2009) Conventional agricultural practices have a major impact on the environment Some of the issues related to agriculture are climate change, soil depletion, deforestation, pollution, irrigation problems and waste Excessive use of fertilizers such as urea, nitrogen and pesticides has affected air, water, and soil quality 

Introduction

Being a global agricultural powerhouse, agriculture sector’s importance in India’s economy goes well beyond imagination. As, our nation have second-largest agricultural land in the world, with around 60% rural Indian households making their living from agriculture. In India, the agriculture sector employs half of country’s growing population and rest of the population is greatly dependent on the farmers for subsistence. It has been the primary sector of India serving people from times immemorial till now.

Budget experts of India have estimated the agricultural growth rate to be near to 3.9 per cent in FY 2022-23, surpassing the 2021-22 growth rate of 3.6 percent approximately. The government of India’s priority shall continue on doubling farmers’ income by 2022-23 and becoming a USD 5 trillion economy by 2024-25.

Introduction

Organic farming is an inclusive system of producing high-quality products through such processes which have the least impairment on the environment, humans, plants, or animal health. Thus, the term in its essence concentrates on sustainability in the farm management practices and food production system. Chopra et al. (2013) in their study defined organic farming as a management & ecological production system that not only promotes biodiversity but also benefits biological cycles and soil nutrition activities. It focuses on minimal use of pesticides and encourages those farm practices that restore balance, and increase ecological harmony. 

The Himalayas, which cover 594 400 km2, run for about 2 500 km from west to east, between Nanga Parbat (8126 m) in the west and Namcha Barwa (7756 m) in the east with three parallel ranges namely The Great or Inner Himalayas, The Lesser Himalaya or Himachal and TheShiwaliks (Fig.1).The fish species distribution in the Himalayan streams depends on the flow rate, nature and substratum, water temperature, and the availability of food.This region has a dense net of rivers and streams, as well as numerous lakes, manmade reservoirs, floodplains and swamps, man-made ponds and irrigation canals of cold-water character. These water resources have a diverse fish fauna that support the livelihoods of rural communities within the region. They also provide various opportunities for development of cold-water fisheries and aquaculture.

Introduction

Agriculture is the foundation of India’s economy, as it provides food to people, feed to cattle, raw materials to primary and secondary industries, contributes upto 19 percent of GDP and employs 54.6 percent of the workforce (Kirti and Prasad, 2016). Due to diverse soil and climate conditions, vast varieties of crops such as cereals, pulses, spices , millets, oilseeds, flowers and fruits are being grown in India. Among these crops grown, India is among the leading producers of pulses, cereals and spices in the world (Mishra et al., 2021). India is the fourth largest oilseed economy in the world. Among oilseeds, there are nine crops that are the primary sources of oils in the country, out of which seven are edible oils (soybean, rapeseed-mustard , groundnut, sunflower, sesame, niger and safflower) and two are non-edible (linseed and castor).

Introduction

There are forty different edible oilseeds which can be used for edible and non-edible purposes. Out of which nine oilseeds are extensively used for edible and non edible purposes. The oilseeds such as groundnut (peanut), sunflower, sesame, soybean, rapeseed-mustard, niger and safflower are generally used for edible purposes and castor and linseed are used for non-edible purposes. Plants are the main source for 71 percent of edible oil. Some oil crops such as groundnut (peanut) and sesame can be used directly as food and edible oil, but others are mainly processed to obtain oil, and oil cake or meal (Hetje, 1989). The oil crops are grown all over the world (Girish Kumar, 2012). Area under cultivation of edible oilseeds in 2020 was 27.14 million hectares. The total production was 33.22 million tonnes with the productivity i.e. yield per hectare of 1025 kilogram per hectare in India (Ministry of Statistics). India is the world’s largest importer of edible oil (Santosha, et. al., 2017) and the import of edible oil in 2020 was 93.37 million tonnes.

Introduction

India is an agricultural economy and the agriculture sector contributes 18.40 per cent to the Indian Gross Domestic Product (National Accounts Statistics, 2020-21). It is considered to be a major sector for its contribution to the Indian GDP. Agriculture is the source of income for 65 per cent population of the country. This sector is becoming innately insecure due to several reasons such as production, lack of financial resources, climate conditions and personal attitude of the young generation towards agriculture. It is right to say that agriculture is the “Gamble of Monsoon’’ because lack of precipitation can lead to drought and excessive precipitation can leads to floods.

Biodiversity

Biological diversity, or biodiversity, is the scientific term for the variety of life on Earth. It refers not just to species but also to ecosystems and differences in genes within a single species. Everywhere on the planet, species live together and depend on one another. Every living thing, including man, is involved in these complex networks of interdependent relationships, which are called ecosystems. Healthy ecosystems clean our water, purify our air, maintain our soil, regulate the climate, recycle nutrients and provide us with food. They provide raw materials and resources for medicines and other purposes. They are at the foundation of all civilisation and sustain our economies. It’s that simple: we could not live without these “ecosystem services”. They are what we call our natural capital.

Introduction

Agriculture is the mainstay of Indian economy and it is not likely to change in the foreseeable future. Agriculture engages 54.6% of the total workforce (Census 2011) and contributes about 17% to the country’s Gross Value Added (Current price 2015-16, 2011-12 series). 90.2 million (57.8%) out of an estimated 156.1 million of rural households were agricultural households during 2013. The total agricultural workers (cultivators + agricultural labourers) increased from 97.2 million in 1951 to 263 million in 2011. According to the Agriculture Census 2015-16, the average size of landholding is 1.08 hectares and has been decreasing over the years in India. 85% small and marginal farmer’s holdings are less than 2 ha. In 2015-16, the average yearly earning at current prices of a small and marginal farmer was Rs 80,000.00.In 2016-17, the NABARD Financial Inclusion Survey (NAFIS) reported that the average monthly earning of an Agricultural Household was Rs. 8931.00. Of this, cultivation accounted for only 35% and the rest was from other sources including wage labour (34%).

Introduction

India has moved from an era of chronic food deficit during 1960s to food self-sufficiency and surplus in some sectors, because of the massive national efforts made to generate appropriate technologies, policy support and infrastructure development. Agriculture will remain central to India’s economic security, which in turn, depends largely on scientific developments and interventions made in the area. As the largest private enterprise (130 million farm families) of India, the share of agriculture in GDP increased to 19.9% (2020-21). This sector engages around 54% of the workforce. Hence, it is critical to visualize interventions to facilitate growth in agriculture and allied sectors to enable its GDP contribution commensurate with involved workforce. While the annual food grain production has increased from about 50.83 m tonnes in 1950-51 to over 305.44 m tones at present. The horticultural production has increased from 96.56 m tonnes to 329.80 m tonnes during the same period through science-led research interventions and development. The animal and fish sectors have

The Preamble of the Indian Constitution promises to all citizens of India social and economic justice apart from political justice and also equality of status and opportunity¹. Although every citizen in India who is more than eighteen years of age, including farmers and agricultural workers have got political justice in as much as they have a right to vote and also contest in elections to the State Legislative Assembly and to the Houses of Parliament, we have not been able to give them social and economic justice, and equality of status and opportunity mainly because they continue to earn income, which are not enough to take care of the essential needs of the family such as food, clothing, shelter, education, health, recreation etc. When the Constituent Assembly adopted the Constitution of India on November 26th 1949, agricultural land was owned by Zamindars and big landlords, and most of the agriculturists were working on their land either as tenants or as agricultural workers. Consequently, most of the citizens of rural India did not own agricultural land and had very little earnings either as tenants or as agricultural workers. 

Introduction

Eastern India comprises of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Assam plains, Bihar, and eastern Uttar Pradesh with a total geographical area (GA) of 71.84 million ha with highest in Odisha (15.57 million ha) and lowest in Assam (7.84 million ha) (Bhatt et al., 2016). Net cultivated area in the region is 31.21 million ha (about 44% of GA) with a cropping intensity of 150%. The total food grain production from the region is 86.71 million tonnes (31.51% of the total production). Eastern region is having population of 406 million (33.6 % of total) with the density of 567 person/sq km, which is much higher than national density i.e., 382. 

Background: Indian Agriculture

The share of agriculture in GDP of India has increased from 17.8% in 2019-20 to 19.9% in 2020-21 (Economic Survey, 2020-21). According to fourth advanced estimate, the food grain production in the country in 2019-20 was 296.65 million tonnes. In spite of lower contribution to GDP than industries and services sector, a trend that is expected in the development process of any economy, agriculture yet forms the backbone of development. An average Indian still spends almost half of his/her total expenditure on food, while roughly half of India’s work force is still engaged in agriculture for its livelihood. While agriculture’s share in India’s economy has progressively declined due to the high growth rates of the industrial and services sectors, the sector’s importance in India’s economic and social fabric goes well beyond this indicator. First, nearly three-quarters of India’s families depend on rural incomes. 

Introduction

Natural resources support livelihood of a large section of India’s population, despite its steady declining share in the Gross Domestic Production (GDP) and, in all probability these will continue to play the dominant role even in future. Interaction of several factors in the global climate change scenario has markedly limited the capability of natural resources and thereby threatened livelihood of small holders throughout the world. Factors like agriculture production crisis, fresh water unavailability, energy crisis, deforestation; degradation, wide pandemic, active climate change effects and continuous rise of input cost of farming create threats to the livelihood of millions and it has become imperative to collectively understand the complexities and challenges in natural resource conservation and management.

Introduction

‘Infrastructure’ connotes physical assets. The meaning may differ based on the sector under which the term is in use. More often, it has been used to describe the public as-sets that facilitate production. Historically, Lewis (1955) included public utilities, ports, water supply and electricity as infrastructure, whereas Hirschman (1958) outlined four conditions that characterise infrastructure or social overhead capital: the services provided to facilitate or are basic to economic activity; the services are usually public goods because of economic externalities; these services cannot be imported; these investments tend to be indivisible or ‘lumpy’. 

Introduction

Green revolution played a major role in making several counties self reliant in food production. But modern agriculture has degraded natural resources and made agriculture unsustainable. People are getting enough food, but the food is unsafe. Land, water and air have become polluted. People are suffering from the serious diseases like cancer. An alternate version of agriculture or organic farming that is necessity of the day. People are becoming health conscious day by day. There is good demand for Indian organic food in several countries. Niche areas exist for organic farming in several states of India. The Govt of India has launched several programs to promote organic farming.

Introduction

The Eastern India Region comprising of Eastern UP (8.67 Mha), Bihar (9.41 Mha), Jharkhand (7.97 Mha), West Bengal (8.87 Mha), Assam (7.84 Mha), Odisha (15.57 Mha), and Chhattisgarh (13.51 Mha) occupies about 21.8% of the country’s geographical area. Endowed with plenty of natural resources, the Eastern Region of India states has not yet been able to harness its potential adequately in terms of improving agricultural productivity, poverty alleviation and livelihood improvement. Of the total geographical area of 71.84 M ha, the net cultivated area in the region is 31.21 Mha with a cropping intensity of 150%. The total food grain production from the region is 86.71 million tonnes (31.5% of the total production of India) during 2016-17. There is a large gap between potential and productivity of major field crops, livestock, fisheries, etc. in the region.

Introduction

The eastern states of India comprising of Bihar, West Bengal, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Assam and eastern Uttar Pradesh occupy about 21.85% geographical area and supports 34% human and 31% livestock population of the country. Agriculture is the mainstay of economy in these states, since 83% population living in rural areas depends on it for their sustenance. The region has about 2.73 M ha of total area under reservoirs, ponds, tanks, lakes, brackish water, etc. besides 15046 km length of rivers and canals constituting about 18 percent of country’s utilizable water resources. The average rainfall in eastern region varies from 1091 to 2477 mm with a regional average of 1526 mm, which is sufficient and substantial for growing a variety of crops. However, the irrigated area in the region is 39% as against 45%, the national average.

Introduction

The tribal population comprising 705 tribal communities spread over various states of India contributes 8.6 % of total India’s population (Census 2011). Their culture, traditions and practices interpenetrate almost all the aspects of Indian culture and civilisation. From the Aryan, Dravidian to the Indo-Tibetan languages, Indian tribal culture has also seen a tremendous merging of cultures within its own people. Some of these communities share similarities and yet are diverse in their religious and traditional beliefs. Some are prominent worshippers of the Hindu deities while others follow the path of the Christian missionaries. Animism and all forms of pagan worship are still prevalent in these communities. The societies by which these tribal communities survive are very patriarchal in their outlook although some tribal communities have gradually inherited the modern forms of society where each one is respected for his or her own set of views and beliefs. India’s tribal population is over-dependent on agriculture and forest related livelihood sources. 

Introduction

In free India’s tryst with destiny, achieving survival and sustenance through agriculture, was not only an option but an imperative. This led to the remark of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru to say in 1947, “everything else can wait but not agriculture.” Green Revolution was indeed one of the major achievements of India in the post independence period. We no longer experience famines, where millions of people were starved to death in the pre independence period. But we still have over 200 million children, women and men who go to bed each night partially hungry. Access to clean drinking water and balanced diet remains a far cry despite substantial Govt expenditure in large number of programmes launched by the Centre and all the States. According to Niti Ayog, the country is far behind in reaching to the objectives of UN millennium development goal of reducing the incidence of hunger and maternal and foetal under- nutrition. 

Agriculture and its allied sectors support the livelihood of a large section of India’s population and these ultimately play a pivotal role in life. National Agricultural policy describes predetermined goals, objectives and pathways set by the national government for the purpose of achieving a specified outcome, for the benefit of the society and the nations’ economy at large. Effective policies are the best beginnings for driving effective programs that deliver to the people. The best policies are those that take a realistic view of our context, needs, priorities and future challenges. Government initiated economic reforms in 1991, which involved deregulation, reduced government participation in economic activities, and liberalization. Much of the reforms did not affect the agriculture sector. But agriculture was affected indirectly by devaluation of the exchange rate, liberalization of external trade. T

• Fruit research in India was started in the department of Botany in six-agriculture College in 1905.
• A pomological station was established at Coonoor, Ooty in 1920 to study the adaptability of temperate fruit varieties.
• Four Regional Research Station in - 1933

Subtropical location at

• Sabour, Bihar
• Koduru, Madras
• Krishnanagar, Bengal
• Temperate Region at Chaubatia, Uttarakhand
• The research was also initiated in 1945 in Jammu and Kashmir by the Survey of deciduous fruits
• In 1950, Horticulture Research Station was established at Kandaghat and Kullu

• Agriculture - 26% GDP, Processed food industry - 6.3% GDP.
  1. Simple fruits: Fruits which develop from a single ovary of a single flower e.g., Lemons, citrus, peach, apple, pear etc.
  2. Aggregate fruits: Fruits which develop from many ovaries of a single flower e.g., Raspberry, strawberry, blackberries.
  3. Multiple fruits: Fruits which develop from many ovaries of many flowers e.g., Pineapple.
• Pre harvests spray of calcium and brown on fruits and results in improving firmness.
• Worldwide postharvest fruits and vegetable losses are as high as 25-40.

Plant structure

• Peach – In leaf axils is called – as (blind bud).
• Pecans and walnut, 2-4 buds development at one bud.
• Plants which grow from adventitious buds on the roots are called suckers.
• Some are broad-leaved evergreen: Citrus, mango, litchi, avocado.
• Narrow-leaved evergreen – (coniferous trees)
• Deciduous plants: apple, pears, grape, apricots, pecans.
• Monoecious: Walnut, pecan nut, hazelnut, Tung coconut, cucurbits.
• Dioecious: Papaya, date palm, pistachio nut muscadine grape pointed and snake gourds asparagus.
• Spike inflorescence: Banana
• Catkin: is a spike pecan nut, oak, mulberry, dates and walnut.
• Raceme: Pear
• Corymb: Cherry, pear, candytuft.
• Fascicle Inf.: Phlox and apple.
• Panicle: Mango, grape, litchi.
• Self-pollination (autogamy)
• Cross-pollination (autogamy) (gait gamy)
• Dischongamy: Walnut, pecan nut, macadamia nut.
• Self sterility: Almond, some fruit, onion, marigold.
• Incompatibility: Mango, ber, loquat, apple.
• Wind pollination: Walnut, pecan, nuts, coconut, dates.
• Insect pollination: Apple, mango, peach, fig, coconut.
• Birds: Pineapple and banana.
• Water: Water lily, water chestnut.
• Seedless fruits: Banana, pineapple.
• When plants set and mature fruits without pollination, it is called as vegetative parthenocarpy. Banana, Japanese person, fig, orange, grapefruit.
• Monocarpic: One crop of seed and then dies.
• Polycarpic: One crop of seed and then does not die.
• Media for propagation: 5.5-6.5 pH.

Aonla

1. Fruit necrosis

• Fruit necrosis is especially a problem in ‘Francis’
• Boron deficiency / Borax at 0.6%, September-October.

2. Fruit drop

i) First wave: 70% lack of pollination

ii) Second wave: Dormancy break

iii) Third-wave:

Dry spell, number of developing fruits. Imbalance of hormones and improper nutrition.

Fluctuation in temperature, variety and age of the tree.

Apple

1. Scald

Introduction, importance and scope of Canopy management

• The tatura trellis uses more water than other systems.
• Light interception ranges from 57 to 81% of available light.
• HDP increases light interception of 20% and 60%.
• Meadow orchard system affords more light than other conventional systems.
• The orientation of North to South intercept should be about - 89% of direct and 87% of diffused light.
• Summer priming in combination with dormant priming reduces light interceptor by 15%.
• In the bottom of 4m tall trees, the light is reduced to 10% of full sunlight.
• Light transmittance is a logarithmic function of the leaf area index.
• Photosynthetic Active Radiation (PAR) is from 380-720 nm.
• Photosynthesis to be about 60% of the maximum at 25% of full sunlight.

Breeding objectives genetic resources and techniques for breeding

• There are countries that consume 100 to 150 kg yearly per capita while others which do not even make it to 10kg.
• Genetic variability is the raw material of the plant breeder.
• International network for the improvement of Banana and Plantain (1 NIBAP), Prance to conserve the available germplasm.
• Only pathogen gene-free planting material can be used for construction or distribution from the gene bank for further multiplication or utilization in any breeding program.
• Fruit breeders have therefore tended to utilize single gene variants in performance to polygenic variation.
• In general, for most commercial requirements, homozygous is inadequate by six or seven generations of selling (56 or 37).
• In the dominance hypothesis, it is assumed that the deleterious gene is normally recessive.
• The simplest approach for the selection of our breeders is mass selection.

Introduction to Hi-Tech Horticulture Greenhouse area in different countries

1. Japan - 42,000 (ha)
2. Holland - 10,000 (ha) 3) Italy - 20,000 (ha)
3. USA - 4,000 (ha)
4. India - 700 (ha)
   • Crops are grown in the greenhouse Strawberry, grapes, citrus, banana, papaya, melons.
   • Salt affected soils in different states: UP - 2,375 °
     • Gujarat - 1,334
     • W.B. - 1,150
     • RJ - 458
     • Punjab - 749 Haryana - 636

Annual rainfall requirement- 75-190 cm

Common names of Malda - Fazli in Calcutta Bombay green in UP Sehroli in Delhi

• The ‘Portuguese Jesuits in Goa started Inarching about 300 years ago. (90% success)
• The seedlings can be inarched when they are three months old as is done in the “Philippines”.
• The Indian nurserymen usually practice inarching in one-year-old seedlings.
• Grafts onto older seedlings result in poor root system.
• There should be no rain; otherwise, water gets inside the union and causes rotting of tissues.
• The name Mangifera was given for the first time by “Bontus” in 1658 when he referred to this as arbor Mangifera (the tree producing mango). Linnaeus also referred it as Mangifera arbor in 1747 before changing the name to its present form “Mangifera indica” in 1753.

Mango was firstly grown within glasshouse in 1960 at England.

• Seeds stratification at 4-7°C for 60-90 days from December to February.
• Scions cannot be used for grafting at their active stage of growth.
• Meadow orcharding: 20,000-70,000 plants/ha (Super high density)
• Bitter pit of apple: Golden delicious, yellow (due to calcium) Newton.
• Internal browning: Newton
• Himachal Pradesh is known as the “Apple bowl of India”
• Flower colour: White to Pink
• Apple is the most widely grown temperate fruit in the world
• India rank 5th in apple production in the world
• Apple crop accounts for 55% of the total area and 75% of the total production of temperate fruits in the country.
• 25% to 33% of pollinating trees in India are recommended for regular cropping.
• San Jose scale was introduced in India from France in 1906.
• Apple cider-fermented wine is prepared from apples.

• It is controlled to parthenocarpy and sterility which can be achieved by triploids. Wild species - M. acuminata and M. balbisiana
• The cultivated edible banana is mainly triploid.
• The major problems in the breeding of banana are sterility, polyploidy and parthenocarpy.
• The underground portion of banana is a modified form of stem known as rhizome.
• The portion above the ground made of sheaths of leaves is known as pseudostem.
• Banana initiates flowering 9-12 months after planting.
• Sword sucker with narrow, slender leaf blades is the best planting material.
• Banana is a moisture and nutrient loving shallow-rooted plant.
• Simmonds and Shephard (1955) devised a scoring technique for genomic classification of banana.
• Pollination in banana is mediated mainly by bees and birds.
• Banana fruit follows the double sigmoid growth curve (seeded -sigmoid parthenocarpic - double sigmoid)

Citrus reticulata

• A highly polyembryonic species of Chinese origin
• Mandarin occupies 43% area and 42% under citrus spp.
• Seeds of citrus plants do not have dormancy so they should be sown immediately after extraction.
• Blooms three times a year.

  a) February flowering – Ambe bahar

  b) June flowering – Mrig bahar

  c) October flowering – Haste bahar

• Mandarins are highly susceptible to waterlogging.
• Rootstock for HDP – Troyer citrange (1.8 × 1.8 m2)
• Best time for pruning – Last winter or early spring.

• Coconut Research Station (CRS)-1916.
• Central Coconut Research Station, Kayangulam, Kerala (CCRS)- 1947.
• Generic name (cocus) is derived from the Spanish word ‘coco’ which means ‘monkey face’.
• Coconut industry employs 10 million people.
• Monolaurin content of coconut oil has anti-HIV property.
• Dwarf coconut is self-pollinated while and tall coconut is cross-pollinated in nature.
• Fully mature nut has 30-40% coir.
• Kerala has the highest share (45%) in coconut production in India: followed by Tamil Nadu (22%) and Karnataka (12%).
• The productivity of (7608 nuts/ha) Indian coconut is the best in the world.
• India ranks no.1 in terms of coconut productivity in the world.
• In India, 9-12 months old seedlings are generally transplanted
• Coconut is derived from the Spanish word ‘coco meaning ‘monkey face’.
• Tall palms: Var. typical (Nar), most commonly cultivated in all the coconut growing areas of the world, the height of 25-30m. Long pre-bearing age of 6-10 years, cross-pollinated.

• Fresh seeds germinate in 20-30 days giving as high as 90% germinate.
• An NPK mixture supplying 375g N + 202 P2O5+375kg o/tree gave the highest mean-field of 33 fruits/tree and 14.88 kg fruit/tree.
• Flowering planting after four years.
• Flower bud differentiation of at 40 leaves stage.
• Flowering time March-April after 7 weeks of fruit development.
• Mealybug attacks shoots and in between the fruit segments – 0.5% phosphamidon or dichlorvos.
• A virus transmitted by lace bug or mealybug causes pineapple wilt.
• Ripon normally can be stored at 5°C for six weeks.
• Suckers weighing 500-750g and slips weighing 300-400g are better for yield and quality.
• Pineapple exhibits vegetative parthenocarpy and self-incompatibility.
• This is non-climacteric fruit.
• Sunscald discord is due to exposure of fruit to sun rays. Multiple crown/ fasciations is another important disorder probably due to genetics/nutritional factors.
• It contains an enzyme known as Bromelin.

Yellow pigment in papaya - Caricaxanthin

• The enzyme present in dried latex of papaya (papain) is pepsin.
• Frost is the most limiting factor for papaya cultivation in North India.
• Papaya is a polygamous plant. –
• 20 seeds of papaya weigh one gram
• Carpine obtained from papaya is used as a diuretic and heart stimulant.
• 10% male plants are planted wherein dioecious varieties are calculated.
• Papaya plants are extremely susceptible to waterlogging.
• Papaya is thermosensitive crop.

  Carica candoamarcensis is scientific name for Mountain papaya.

• Papaya has the highest production after banana.
• Sunrise Solo type papaya produces no male plants.

• More tolerant to wet soils but less tolerant to drought than apple.
• Browning of pears is due to polygalacturonase activity.
• Major acid - Malic Acid
• Chilling - China Pear (Low chilling) - 150 hrs.
• European pear - 1200-1500hrs.
• Most commonly used clonal rootstock - Quince A cutting.
• Quince is scientifically - Cydonia oblonga origin - South-Eastern Europe and Asia minor.
• Quince is a monotypic genus
• Vigorous rootstock - Pyrus pashia
• Graft incompatibility is overcome by double grafting with old home or hardy varieties.
• In India, the open center system is common
• Training system modified central leader system

• Delicious Fruit
• Sapota fruit is a good source of sugar which ranges between 12 and 14 per cent.

Cultivars

• Kalipatti, Chaatri, Dhola Diwani, Long Bhuni or Bhunipatti, Jingar, Vanjet, Pata Kirthabharthi Dwarapudi, Cricket Ball, Oval, Vavi Valosa, Bangalora Calcutta Round, Jonnavalosa I, II, round Baramari Pot Sapota, Gavarayya, Thagonampadi, Ayyangan (Rose scented)
• Flowers of Sapota and protogynous Pollination is mediated through the wind.
• The most ideal soils are deep alluvium, sandy loamy red late rites and medium black soils.
• Sapota is a tropical fruit crop optimum temperature ranges between 11°C and 34°C.
• Sapota is grafting of inarching.
• Rootstock – Sapota seedlings, Rayan or Khirnior pala Adam’s apple, Mahua, Star apple.
• Seed germinates by the 4th week, budding and grafting is done on seedling about 1cm thick.

• Air layering is called “Marcottage” in China and “Gootee” in India.
• IBA (2-10g/liter of water) is most effective in root promotion in air layering of litchi.
• Flowers are petalless.
• Subtropical evergreen fruit tree; prefers a moist climate.
• Moist summer and cool winter favour litchi production.
• Red pigment – Anthocyanin.
• The pulp is an outgrowth of the seed in litchi.
• Roots – Mycorrhizal association (Fungus).
• July-October is the most appropriate time for propagation.
• January end to the onset of monsoon is a critical period for irrigation of litchi.

• Fast track plum breeding started with an aim to reduce the juvenile period in temperate fruits.
• Transgenic early continuous flowering (ECF) gene induces early flowering.

  Chilling requirement

• Japanese Plum - 700-1000 hrs - below – 7°C
• European plum - 1000-1200 hrs - 7°C
• Clonal rootstock for raising plum plants: Myrobalan B.
• Dwarfing rootstock – P. subcordata
• Planting time – Dec-Jan
• Training System – Open centre system – oldest
• Japanese plums are mostly adaptable to open centre system.
• Fruit thinning agents – DNOC, Ethephon, 3-CPA
• Japanese plum needs thinning upto 25 - 40%.
• European Plum: President, Victoria, Starking Delicious, Greengage.
• Japanese plum – Beauty, Santa Rosa, Mariposa. Kelsey, Frontier, Elephant Heart, Satsuma
• Subtropical – Sultlej Purple, Kala Amritsari, Titron.
• Self-fruitful – Beauty, Mariposa

• L-42 is the most suitable cultivar for canning.
• A promising genotype in Allahabad is locally known as “Lal Sebia”.
• Strawberry Guava – P. cattlcianun, P. nolle is a shrub or small tree.
• Triploidy is the cause of seedlessness in guava.
• Red pulp colour is dominant to white and that this character is governed monogenic gene.
• Guava improvement work for the first time was initiated in 1907 at Ganeshkhind Experiment Station, Pune, Maharashtra.
• The fact that Guava wilt is soil-borne was first reported in 1935 from Babakkarpar Allahabad.
• Usually, fifteen days period is required for the complete wilting but some trees take even up to one year.
• In general, the more than 10-year-old plants are more prone to wilt incidence.
• Guava wilt, effects more severely in alkaline soils. Wilting is observed during the rainy season. It starts in August with the largest number of the plant dying in September and October.
• Guava improvement work was started at Pune in 1907.

• The skin of grape berry is covered with a wax-like layer which is called cutin
• Fe deficiency is very common in black soil
• Thompsom seedless variety with its done occupies 55 % area under grape cultivation
• Rains during ripening cause berry cracking and rotting
• Pruning
  • North India- December-January
  • South India- April and October
    • April- Back of foundation pruning
    • October- Fruit or forwarded pruning
• Mg deficiency is universal in grape cultivation
• CCC- for suppressing vigour of wine and increasing fruit fullness of bud
• GA3- For increasing berry size

• Highly susceptible to waterlogging.
• Self-compatible in nature.
• Low chilling peach - <500 hrs chilling requirement.
• Red blush skins are caused due to anthocyanins.
• The yellow colour of peach is due to xanthophylls.
• Acid present - Malic acid
• Prunasin is the principal glycoside present in the pulp.
• Amygdalin is present in the seeds of peach.
• The oil content of peach seeds is 40-50%
• Prunus behmi is a natural hybrid of Almond and Peach.
• - Smooth skinned peaches (Prunus persica var. nucipersica) also called nectarine.
• Yellow fleshed peaches are ideal for table and canning purpose.

• Gender change due to bud mutation in the mature male vine.
• Actinidia arguata is acold tolerant species.
• Commercial propagation - Stem cutting, Softwood cutting
• Flowering time is from the last week of April to 3rd week of May.
• Storage rot, a major disease during storage is caused by Botrytis cinerea
• Hayward is one of the a most popular cultivars in the world.
• It is a deciduous wine.
• It was planted for the first time in the Lal Bagh garden at Bangalore around 1960.
• T-bar or Pergola is adopted for training the vines.
• It is a rich source of Vitamin-C.
• The skin of the fruit is a good source of flavoured antioxidant.

• Drought resistant, Salt tolerant and hardy temperate fruit crop
• Highly perishable fruit
• Vitamin A 2600IU
• Thiamine : 217mg/100g
• Wild apricot or Zardalu has originated from India.
• Popular training system – Open vase system
• Apricot bears on spurs and laterally on 1year-old shoots.
• Apricot spur life – 3-4 years
• Ideal thinning agent – NAA @25-50ppm, 20 days after fruit set
• Ideal stage for freezing, canning and drying fully ripe fruits
• Chaubattia Alankar – Kaishu × Charmagz – Low chilling and early ripening
• Chaubattia Madhu – Turkey × Charmagz – Early ripening
• Chaubattia Kesri – St. Amrbois × Charmagz – mid season variety
• Low chilling subtropical varieties – New Castle, Early Shipley, St. Ambroise, Kaisha.

• Native to temperate regions of Northern Hemisphere.
• Chilling requirement – 2000-2700 hr, highest among temperate fruits.
• Heavy rainfall during flowering causes – Blossom wilt.
• Heavy rainfall during ripening causes fruit cracking.
• In Europe, a wine – ‘Kirschwasser’ is distilled from the pulp of cherries.
• Most of the commercial varieties of cherry are self-sterile.
• Seedling rootstock – Pazza, Mahaleb, Mazzard
• Clonal rootstock – Colt, Mazzard, F-12/1
• Cherry fruits are the first to appear in the market among temperate fruits.
• Cherry has more calorific value them apple.
• Donar vars: Stella, Vista, Vic, Seneca, Vega.

• Avocado is a dense and evergreen tree can grow about 80 feet height
  • Single seeded berry - Fat – 24-26%
  • Recalibrate seeds - Sugar – 1% Rich in K, Fe, Vitamins – B
• Its energy value is twice as much as Banana fruit.
• Most leading avocado cultivar in the world – Fuertes.
• Avocado is classified into 3 distinct horticultural races.
  1. Mexican – Coli fried Duke Pernod
  2. West Indian – Pollock, Simmonds, Black Prince Fuchsia, Peterson, Waldin.
  3. Guatemalan – Taylor, Linda, Queen, Benit
• Duke seedlings are resistant to root rot and cold hardiness.
• Important to salad fruit