eBook Chapters

1. Introduction

Food poisoning is a major concern for both the food industry and consumers inspite of different preservation practices some species of pathogenic bacteria causes food spoilage leading to outbreak of illness. Spices and herbs have been added to food since ancient times, not only as flavouring agents, but also as food medicine and as food preservative (Nakatani, 1994). Additives need for food preservation may be harmful to human health and has led to use of natural products especially plant extracts, their essential in food preservation.

More than 90 percent of the cases of food poisoning each year are caused by Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi, Vibrio cholerea, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Clostridium perfringens, Campylobacter, Listeria monocytogenes, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Bacillus cereus and Entero-pathogenic Escherichia coli. These bacteria are commonly found on many raw foods and cause severe disorder in humans. Spice posses anti adhesive properties that prevent the microbe to the host tissue, thus preventing the primary infection. It also possesses a rich array of phytochemical and a rich source of antioxidant. Some studies claim that the phenolic compounds present in spices and herbs might also play a major role in their antimicrobial effects.

1. Introduction

Medicinal plants are rich source of novel drugs that forms the ingredients in traditional systems of medicine, modern medicines, nutraceuticals, food supplements, folk medicines, pharmaceutical intermediates, bioactive principles and lead compounds in synthetic drugs (Ncube, 2008).  In recent years, antibiotic resistance has become a global concern. This drives the need to screen medicinal plants for novel bioactive compounds as they are biodegradable, safe and have fewer side effects (Prusti et al., 2008). Higher plants, as a source for new potential drugs is still largely unexplored and screening of active agents helps to design the lead molecule later in drug development.

Aegle marmelos(L.) Corr., belongs to the family Rutaceae, and is popularly known as Vilvam tree (Tamil) (Gamble, 1935; Mathew, 1983). It is an indigenous tree found in Iran, India, Myanmar, Pakistan, Bangladesh and most of Southeast Asian countries (Singh, 2009).  A. marmelos has been used from time immemorial in traditional systems of medicine for relieving diarrhoea, dysentery, stomachic, digestive, astringent, peptic ulcer and respiratory infection (Nadkarni, 2000). The fruit, leaves, bark and root are edible and possess medicinal values. The unripe dried fruit used to be astringent, digestive and stomachic, the ripe fruit is aromatic, cooling and is used as laxative.

1. Introduction

Seaweeds are the extraordinary sustainable resources in the marine ecosystem which have been used as a source of food, feed and medicine. The number of natural products isolated from marine organisms increases rapidly, and now exceeds with hundreds of new compounds being discovered every year (Chapman and Chapman. 1980, Cheennubhotla et al., 1986; Chennubhotla et al., 1987; Faulkner, 2002; Proksch and Muller, 2006). Several products of algal origin such as alginate, carrragenean and agar as phycocolliods have been used for decades in medicine and pharmacy (Fitton, 2006). Seaweeds are considered as source of bioactive compounds and produce a great variety of secondary metabolites characterized by a broad spectrum of biological activities.  Seaweeds contain various inorganic and organic substances which can benefit human health (Kuda et al., 2002). The in vitro studies on green, brown and red algae confirmed the following potential activities viz., cytostatic, antiviral, antihelminthic, antifungal and antibacterial (Lindequist and Schweder, 2001; Newman et al., 2003; Dhargalkar and Neelam, 2005; Huang et al., 2005; Gonzalez del Val et al., 2001; Espeche et al., 1984).

1. Introduction

Medicinal plants are nature’s priceless gift to human. They have been used all over the world for the treatment and prevention of various ailments particularly in developing countries where infectious diseases are endemic and modern health facilities and services are inadequate. Medicinal principles are present in different parts of the plants such as root, stem, bark, heartwood, leaf, flower, fruit or plant exudates (Thenmozhi et al., 2010). Phytochemicals from medicinal plants serve as lead compounds in drug discovery and design (Sofowora, 2006).

Free radicals are chemical species which contain one or more unpaired electrons, due to which they are highly metastable and cause damage to other molecules by extracting electrons from them in order to attain stability (Chakraborthy and Ghorpade, 2010). Hyper-physiological burden of free radicals causes imbalance in homeostatic phenomena between oxidants and antioxidants in the body. This imbalance leads to oxidative stress that is being suggested as the root cause of aging and various diseases like diabetes, cancer, and liver damage (in severe conditions like cirrhosis and hepatitis) (Wagh et al., 2010).

1. Introduction

Plant-derived substances have recently become of great interest owing to their versatile applications. Medicinal plants are the richest bio-resource of drugs of traditional systems of medicine, modern medicines, nutraceuticals, food supplements, folk medicines, pharmaceutical intermediates and  chemical entities for synthetic drugs Medicinal value lies in certain chemical substances that have its physiological action on the human body. Many indigenous medicinal plants are used as spices and food plants. The general techniques of medicinal plant extraction include maceration, infusion, percolation, digestion, decoction, hot continuous extraction (Soxhlet), aqueous-alcoholic extraction by fermentation,  counter-current extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, ultrasound extraction (sonication), supercritical fluid extraction, and phytonic extraction (with hydrofluorocarbon solvents). For aromatic plants, hydrodistillation techniques (water distillation, steam distillation, water and steam distillation), hydrolytic  maceration followed by distillation, expression and enfleurage (cold fat extraction) may be employed.

ABSTRACT

Advances in biotechnology, particularly methods for culturing plant cells and tissues can provide new means for the commercial processing of even rare plants and th chemicals they produce. These new technologies will extend and enhance the usefulness of plants as renewable resources of valuable chemicals. Aristolochic acid is mainly found in the genus Aristolochia. Aristolochic acid has been shown to hav anti-tumour activity and has been recommended for its activity against various effect of snakebite and its capacity to inhibit phospholipase A2 or other enzymes Considering the importance of medicinal use of A. bracteolata and A. indica, in th present study, they were selected for in vitro development and rapid multiplication o plant through tissue culture. The study was undertaken to enhance the in vitr production of Aristolochic acid in different tissue cultures. Cell suspension culture was established from friable calli of both the species in M liquid medium. Bergmann plating technique was carried out for cell line selection fo more production of Aristolochic acid. Primary transformation was carried out by Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain LBA4404 / pTOK233 with Gus and hpt genes to confirm the transgenic potential of A. bracteolata and A. indica. In order to enhance the productio of aristolochic acid in in vitro culture condition, the physical, chemical and biologica conditions were altered. Aristolochic acid was isolated, identified and purified from naturally growing plants as well as from tissue culture plants and all other cultur stages.

Abstract

Upcoming era of functional foods has led food scientists and food processors to deeply understand the role of phytochemicals in promoting human health. Phytochemicals are the secondary metabolites produced by plants and are commonly found in our daily food. Natural food products seem to be good substitute for pharmaceutical supplements to improve health status of people. Therefore, consumer's interest is growing in the food items naturally containing phytochemicals, each having there own functional and health aspects. Most discussed phytochemicals in the present paper are carotenoids such as lycopene, beta-carotene, lutein and, polyphenols such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, anthocyanins and isoflavones. Major dietary source for carotenoids include orange and yellow fruits and vegetables as well as green leafy vegetables whereas polyphenols are found abundantly in green tea, wine, berries, cocoa, broccoli. Carotenoids can also be used as colorants in foods during processing. The role of polyphenols as an antioxidant is well characterized because of there ability to scavenge free radicals or bind pro-oxidant metal ions by means of their hydroxyl group. Carotenoids also play an important role in protection against photooxidative processes by acting as singlet molecular oxygen as well as peroxyl radical scavengers, thus acting as potent antioxidant. Apart from antioxidative properties multitude of health benefits are associated with carotenoids and polyphenols such as reduced risk of age-related macular degeneration, certain cancers such as prostate, lung and colon, prevention of cardiovascular disease and enhancing immunity towards infection. Hence, continuous developments are being made to combine phytochemicals to avoid improper combinations that may nullify the effect of supplements and cause lower absorbance.

Introduction

Plants are the principal producers of phytochemicals, which are compounds with biological activity. Plants serve as the primary source of many active compounds in the pharmaceutical business. Their pharmacological character istics make them useful in the treatment of fungal and bacterial infections, as well as degenerative conditions such as diabetes and cancer that progress over time. Pharmacologically, it has specific effects on human health, including anti-inflammatory properties, antiallergic, antioxidant compounds, antimicrobial, antifungal, antispasmodic, chemopreventive, hepatic-protective, hypolipidemic, neuroprotective, hypotensive, antiaging, bone density loss, DNA damage, cancer, and heart diseases.

1. Introduction

Plant metabolites are the major sources of pharmaceutical food additives, fragrances and pesticides. It is estimated that the market potential for herbal drugs in the western world alone could range from US $ 4.9 billion to 47 billion by the year 2000 if the AIDS epidemic continues unchecked (Biotechnology and Development, 1991). A similar situation exists for plant based food additives, fragrances and bio-pesticides. The natural resources for plant based chemicals are limited but the consumer preference for natural products is greater. Alternative avenues for plant products have gained prominence during the past few years. In recent years, plant Biotechnology has gained considerable importance for the production of phytochemicals (Heble, 1996).

During the past three decades, several phytochemicals with biological activities have been identified from higher plants for plant tissue culture industry (Verpoorte et al., 1991). Vincristine, vinblastine, artemisinin, taxol and podophyllotoxin are in the list of approved drugs. Some products under clinical trials are forskolin, castanospermine, ginkgolides and hyperin (Heble, 1996). In recent years, there has been renewed interest in screening higher plants for novel biologically active products particularly to combat such ailment that have defined synthetics and antibiotics. This has resulted in the development therapeutics used in the treatment of cancer, hypertension, AIDS, malaria and other diseases.

Abstract

Recently there has been increasing interest in plants and plant-derived compounds as medicinal agents. In Ayurveda, a wide range of medicinal uses of Pterocarpus santalinus is described. Many important bioactive phytocompounds have been extracted and identified from the heartwood of P. santalinus. The major bioactive compounds present in the heartwood of P. santalinus are santalin A and B, savinin, calocedrin, pterolinus (K,L) and pterostilbenes. These phyto-compounds present only in small amounts and have more effect than nutrients. The heartwood of the plant is used traditionally for the treatment of inflammation, diabetes, headache, skin diseases, jaundice, and in wound-healing. A wide range of pharmacological activities and health benefits of P. santalinus have been reported, including antioxidative, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory properties, and protective effects on liver, gastric mucosa and nervous system. All these protective effects were attributed to bioactive compounds present in P. santalinus. Most of the secondary metabolites reported from this plant are terpenes, phenolics, flavones and sterols. The present communication gives the phytochemistry and pharmacological activities of P. santalinus on health with up-to-date information.

Phytochemistry

Pytochemistry is concerned with enormous variety of organic substances that are elaborated and accumulated by plants and deals with chemical structures of these substances and biosynthesis, and their natural distribution and biological function. Chemical constituents of plants can be classified in different ways. Based on biosynthetic origin, solubility properties and presence of certain key functional groups, it is classified as phenolic compounds, substances that are readily recognized by their hydrophilic nature and by their common origin from aromatic precursor shikimic acid. Terpenoids share lipid properties and a biosynthetic origin from isopentenyl pyrophosphate (Fig. 1). Organic acids, lipids, alkenes and related hydrocarbons, polyacetylenes and sulphur compounds are derived biosynthetically from acetate. Nitrogen compounds of plants like amino acids, amines, alkaloids, cynogenic glycosides, indoles, purines, pyramidines and cytokinins and chlorophyll are basic substances recognized by their positive responses to either ninhydrin or Dragendorff reagent. Monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, sugar alcohols and cyclitols are water-soluble carbohydrates and their derivatives. Macromolecules of plants such as nucleic acids, proteins and polysaccharides are easily separated from other constituents by their high molecular weights (Harborne, 1984). Some of the therapeutically active compounds are discussed below:

1. Introduction Plants naturally contain compounds called phytochemicals. Due to their numerous therapeutic applications, these phytochemicals are becoming more and more well-known these days. Phytochemicals are essential in the fight against a variety of illnesses, including cancer, arthritis, and asthma. These phytochemicals have no side effects like pharmaceutical compounds do. Because the phytochemicals treat illnesses without harming people, they can also be referred to as “man-friendly medicines.” The primary topics of this study are phytochemical collection, extraction, and qualitative and quantitative analysis. In order to protect themselves against herbivores, many plants secrete chemical substances. Examples of therapeutic plants that include the main groups of pharmacologically active phytochemicals are provided below. Weeds that contain phytochemicals, like chickweed, dandelion, and nettle, are frequently found surrounding human settlements. Many phytochemicals, including curcumin, epigallocatechin gallate, genistein, and resveratrol are pan-assay interference compounds and are not useful in drug discovery.

Introduction

Plant products have been used for centuries by humans as food and to treat ailments. Natural medicinal products originating from herbs and spices have also been used as feed additives for farm animals in ancient cultures for the same length of time. Keeping farm animals healthy is necessary to obtain healthy animal products. The main scope in animal husbandry is to ensure good performance of farm animals and get quality animal products, which can be achieved only with the effort to keep the animals healthy. Only quality feed together with proper hygiene, potable water and management can ensure the production of nutritious animal products with desired organoleptic properties (Saxena, 2008). A ban of antibiotics as feed additives in animal nutrition is realized since 1986 in Sweden and later on to various countries. A general ban is foreseen in some years from now, because of the increased occurrence of pathogens resistant against therapeutical antibiotics used in animals and humans. With the restricted use or ban of dietary antimicrobial agents we must explore new ways to improve and protect the health status of farm animals, to guarantee animal performance and to increase nutrient availability (Wenk, 2003). In this aspect, herbs and spices are not just appetite and digestion stimulants, but can, with impact on other physiological functions, help to ensure good health and welfare of the animals, what can positively affect their performance.

Aim

Phytosynthesis of silver (Ag) nanoparticles using Cassia roxburghii aqueous leaf extract.

Introduction

The Ag nanoparticles constantly exhibit adverse effects on microbes such as inhibition and inactivation (Nasrollahi et al., 2011). The Ag nanoparticles synthesized by using various biological sources such as herbs, plants and biological organisms display excellent properties in various fields i.e., non-linear optics and intercalation materials for electrical batteries as optical receptors, catalysts in chemical reactions biolabelling and as antibacterials (Sanghi and Verma, 2009).

1. Introduction
Aquaculture, the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, shellfish, and aquatic plants, has become one of the fastest-growing food production sectors globally. This growth has been driven by the increasing demand for high-quality protein to feed a growing global population, coupled with the depletion of wild fish stocks due to overfishing. As the aquaculture industry expands, so too does the need for sustainable practices that balance productivity with environmental and animal welfare considerations. One of the critical challenges faced by modern aquaculture is the need to maintain fish health and growth performance while minimizing the industry’s ecological footprint. Traditionally, synthetic additives such as antibiotics, chemical growth promoters, and other artificial substances have been used to improve fish health, enhance growth rates, and prevent disease outbreaks. However, the excessive use of these chemicals has led to several issues, including antibiotic resistance, chemical residues in fish products, and environmental pollution. These concerns have spurred a shift toward more sustainable, eco-friendly alternatives in aquaculture production systems.
In this context, phytogenics—natural, plant-based additives—have garnered increasing interest as a promising solution. Phytogenics are bioactive compounds extracted from various plant sources, including herbs, spices, and essential oils, that possess multiple beneficial properties. These compounds have been used in traditional medicine and animal husbandry for centuries due to their antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory effects. By leveraging the natural bioactive compounds in plants, phytogenics offer a range of advantages for aquaculture, including enhanced growth performance, improved feed efficiency, strengthened immune responses, and reduced disease susceptibility. The need for sustainable and natural alternatives to synthetic additives is becoming more urgent as the global consumer base becomes more health-conscious and environmentally aware. Consumers today increasingly demand seafood products that are free from chemical additives

Plant hormones - They are defined as:

1. Small
2. Organic compounds;
3. Synthesized by the plant;
4. Active in low concentration (<10^-6);
5. Promote or inhibit growth and developmental responses;
6. Often show a separation of the site of production and the site of action (although this isn’t as clear a distinction as in animals).

Based on these criteria, would the following substances be considered hormones? Ca²⁺, sucrose, 2 4 - D, glycine, or K⁺?

Plant diseases caused by variety of pathogens pose a serious challenge and economic threats to various agricultural crops all around the world. It has been evidenced that despite wide use of chemical pesticides in crop production, the losses due to pests and diseases are significant. Phytonematodes are one of the major groups of organisms that live in diverse habitat and continue to challenge variety of agricultural crops all around the world. Since early times the major agricultural crops have been plagued by these noxious nematodes that feed on various plant parts viz. roots, rhizome, sucker, tubers, seedlings, stem, leaves, buds, crowns and cause damage worth more than 100 billion dollars annually. The major crops severely affected by these pests are, vegetables, fruits, sugarcane, sugar beet, cotton, oil seed, pulses, tobacco, tea, coffee, cereals, spices, medicinal and aromatic plants.

Introduction

India has the distinction of being the largest producer of pulses in the world. Among the important pulse crops cultivated in the country are: chickpea, pigeonpea, lentil, mungbean, urdbean, fieldpea, rajmash and lathyrus. The pulse crops occupied an area of 22.85 million ha with a total production of 13.07 million tones and average productivity of 572 kg/ha. Being a high protein grain, pulses have special status in the diet, particularly for vegetarian population. Apart from being a good source of protein, they are also good source of energy, essential amino acids and vitamins in the daily diets of the people, especially of low-income group. Pulses have importance in sustainable agriculture by way of fixing atmospheric nitrogen in the soil.But with intensification of agriculture and introduction of irrigation and other facilities the area and production under pulses is declining so much so that per caput availability of pulses has declined from 69 g day-1 to about  36 g day^-1.

Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa L.), one of the most important cereal crops of India, occupies 23.3 per cent of total cropped area of the country. Rice contributes 43 per cent of total food grain production and 46 per cent of total cereal production. It continues to play a vital role in the nation’s food grain supply. It is also a staple food of nearly half of the world population. Rice is primarily a high caloric food having protein content (6-17%) with high biological value and a low amount of fat (2-2.5%). B-group vitamins content in rice grains are at par with wheat, however, calcium content in rice is generally low. It ranks third after wheat and maize in terms of worldwide production. Asia accounts for 90 and 92% of the world’s rice area and production, respectively. Thus, rice production, consumption and trade are concentrated in Asia. Among the rice growing countries in the world, India has the largest areas under rice crop and ranks second in production next to China.

Abstract

During inspection of several lily plantations under cover in different districts of Himachal Pradesh plants with severe disease symptoms were observed. The affected plants showed a progressive loss of vigor, were stunted and had a severely malformed leaves. These symptoms were observed on large scale mainly in oriental lily hybrids ‘Acapulaco’. The plants were suspected to be infected with phytoplasma, the presence of which was demonstrated with fluorescent microscopy (DAPI stain). The phytoplasma etiology was further confirmed by conducting nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays using universal primer pairs P1/P7 followed by R16F2n/R16R2, which amplified a fragment of phytoplasma 16SrDNA. This is the first report of phytoplasma infection in lilies identified by molecular assays from India.

Introduction
Toxic inorganic and organic compounds are continuously contaminating our environment, endangering both human health and the planet’s ecosystems. This is a major worldwide problem. Because they persist in the environment, these pollutants which are caused by industrial processes, agricultural practices, urbanization, and over use of natural resources are very hard to control. While inorganic contaminants, including heavy metals, are difficult to break down naturally and need more complex remediation techniques, organic molecules may frequently be broken down into less dangerous components. Among these methods, bioremediation has become a viable, environmentally beneficial option that uses the inherent powers of fungus, bacteria, and plants to purify
and repair polluted soils and streams.
Phytoremediation, a specific form of bioremediation, harnesses the power of green plants to absorb, accumulate, degrade, or stabilize these harmful substances (Wang et al., 2021). This process not only mitigates pollution but also revitalizes ecosystems by improving soil structure, increasing biodiversity, and supporting sustainable land use. Phytoremediation provides a low-cost
and less intrusive substitute for conventional cleanup techniques, which frequently entail high-energy procedures, chemical treatments, or considerable excavation, as the globe struggles with the growing danger of environmental deterioration. Rapid industrialisation, urban waste, and natural activities can introduce large quantities of highly toxic organic pollutants, including
petroleum hydrocarbons, nitro and halogenated aromatic compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dibenzofurans and dibenzop-dioxins (PCDD/Fs), solvents, explosives, and pesticides, into both aquatic and soil ecosystems (Tanwir et al., 2021). One of the major challenges to reducing water pollution is the presence of heavy metals including cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and chromium (Cr) in industrial and agricultural runoff. Associated with other pollutants, these metals disrupt aquatic ecosystems at the species and community levels, which has an array of negative impacts on animal and human health. The World Health Organization (WHO) has emphasized how important it is to keep an eye on these chemicals in drinking water because of their link to serious health concerns including cancer, respiratory disorders, and cardiovascular illnesses.

8.1. Phytosanitary Capacity Evaluation (PCE): The Tool, and Its Relation to Invasive Alien Species

Phytosanitary Capacity Evaluation (PCE) is a diagnostic tool enabling a country to assess the weaknesses and strengths of its phytosanitary system in relation to its ability to fully implement the International Plant Protection Convention and other international phytosanitary obligations. PCE has also been applied as a cross-disciplinary tool among the sanitary, phytosanitary and food safety areas in the Andean subregion. Since “quarantine pests”, as defined by the convention, constitute a subset of invasive alien species, PCE results are already useful in relation to invasive alien species. PCE methodology has the potential to be further developed to cover a country’s needs in implementing Article 8(h) of the Convention on Biological Diversity.

Article XX of the International Plant Protection Convention establishes the agreement by contracting parties to promote the provision of technical assistance to facilitate implementation of the IPPC. Phytosanitary Capacity Evaluation (PCE) is the first tool approved by the Interim Commission of Phytosanitary Measures to address that commitment, assisting contracting parties to perform a needs assessment and identification of their constraints for achieving full implementation of the IPPC at the national level.

Introduction

Banana is the forth ranked agricultural crop in the world and first among fruits. A large number of pests and diseases threaten banana production. The major constraints in production are diseases and pests transmitted through the conventional planting materials. Although the average yield for bananas worldwide is over 40 t per hectare, production in India averages only 20 t per hectare. The nematode parasites are among the most important pests on commercial and subsistence banana production and their control remains difficult, as the nematodes are involved in the destruction of primary roots that disrupt the anchorage system resulting in toppling or uprooting of plants. The most widespread and important are burrowing nematode, Radopholus similes, some species of root lesion nematode, Pratylenchus coffeae and P. goodeyi, species of root knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and M. javanica; the spiral nematode, Helicotylenchus multicinctus, H. mucronatus and semi endo-parasitic nematode Rotytlenchus reniformis.

14.1 Introduction

The observation of phytosociology deals with the germination of growth on tree species in the industrial effluents. It shall be calculated germination potential based on germination capablility of the seeds. The growth parameters are measured then calculated leaf weight ratio, stem weight ratio, root weight ratio, top dry weight, sturdiness quatient, volume index and quality index. The following sub chapters dealing with formulae used to calculate the above parameters. The data so collected is then analyzed. The usual methods, which are employed in analysing the data, are averages, dispersion, skew ness, correlation, etc. The leaf weight ratio, stem weight ratio and root weight ratio are calculated by using the following formulae made by Kumaran (1991).

Introduction

Phytosterols, phytostanols and their esters are a group of steroid alcohols and esters that occur naturally in plants as nonsaponifiable fraction of plant oils. Phytosterols (including plant sterols and stanols) cannot be synthesized by humans, and all plant sterols and stanols in the human body therefore originate from the diet. They are known to have several bioactive qualities with possible implications for human health. Their properties for reducing blood cholesterol levels, as well as their other beneficial health effects, have been known for many years. It was recognized in the 1950s that plant sterols lower serum concentrations of cholesterol. Plant sterols might also protect against certain types of cancer such as colon, breast and prostate. Scholarly reviews have all confirmed the health benefits and safety of phytosterols.

People with high blood cholesterol levels are typically advised by health professionals to exercise and consume a diet high in fiber and low in saturated fats and cholesterol. Although these measures can reduce blood cholesterol, sometimes they don’t go far enough. Other cholesterol-lowering interventions may be needed, including cholesterol-lowering medicines or adding phytosterol esters to the diet. The primary phytosterols in the diet are sitosterol, stigmasterol, and campesterol and typical consumption of plant sterols is approximately 160 – 400 mg/day. The enrichment of foods with phytosterols is one of the recent developments in functional foods to enhance the cholesterol-lowering ability of traditional food products.

11.1 Introduction

Phytosterols or plant sterols are bioactive plant constituents having similar chemical structure and biological functions as cholesterol (cholest-5-en-3b-ol), but differ in their side chain configuration. They are non-nutritive compounds with chemical structure differing from that of cholesterol only by minor modifications like in the structure of their side chain by a methyl or ethyl group at C-24. Sitosterol and campesterol have an ethyl and a methyl group at C-24, respectively (Fig. 11.1). Phytosterols present a tetracyclic ring and side chains linked to C-17 that differ according to sterol compound same as cholesterol, to which they resemble structurally as well as biosynthetically. Saturated form of sterols referred to as stands, occurring in small amounts, mainly in cereals are represented by the absence of the double bond at the D5 position. Phytosterols represent a part of the broad group of isoprenoides and are 28- and 29-carbon atom steroid alcohols naturally occurring in plants. Phytosterols and phytostanols are triterpene compounds, found ubiquitously in plants which can only be synthesized by plants, whereas humans and animals obtain them from their diet.

Abstract
Phytotechnology, particularly through the utilization of plankton such as phytoplankton, offers innovative solutions to pressing environmental challenges, including pollution control, resource scarcity, and climate change. These microorganisms excel in carbon sequestration, pollutant removal, nutrient recycling, and resource recovery. They can address issues like eutrophication, heavy metal contamination, and oil spill degradation, while also contributing to biofuel production, agricultural enhancement, and the development of high-value products. However, large-scale implementation faces several challenges, including energy-intensive processes, high costs, resource competition, and environmental safety concerns, particularly the risks associated with genetically modified organisms. Progress in genetic engineering, photo bioreactor design, and integration with wastewater treatment systems, along with collaboration among scientists, policymakers, and industries, is essential for overcoming these challenges. Strategic investments have the potential to fully harness the capabilities of plankton as sustainable agents for environmental restoration and resource recovery.
Keywords: Phytotechnology, Planktons clean-up, Plankton recovery, Remediation

Introduction

Plants are the main source of nutrition to farm animals for their maintenance and production. But, under certain conditions, plants intoxicate farm animal life due to the presence of some deleterious substances called phytotoxins. Such plants include a variety of fodder plants (Jowar, wheat straw, Lucerne), grasses (Millet grass), ornamental or fencing plants (Crotons, Nerium sps) and weeds (Tribulis) in the farm premises.

Introduction

Plants are the main source of nutrition to farm animals for their maintenance and production.  But, under certain conditions, plants intoxicate farm animal life due to the presence of some deleterious substances called phytotoxins. Such plants include a variety of fodder plants (Jowar, wheat straw, Lucerne), grasses (Millet grass), ornamental or fencing plants (Crotons, Nerium sps) and weeds.

(Tribulis) in the farm premises.
Generally, farm animals avoid such plants and weeds due to their unpleasant taste and offensive odor but during fodder scarcity caused by drought, floods or overgrazing, animals consume these plants. In addition, animals introduced into new areas, stall fed animals also sometimes lose their sense of discrimination and ingest such plants containing phytotoxins.

INTRODUCTION

Phytotoxin literally means “plant poison”; it may refer to any toxin produced by a plant. Phytotoxins generally have allelopathic effect. Allelo-chemicals when added/released to substratum may be directly or indirectly harmful or beneficial to the growth and development of the associated vegetation or to the source plant itself. The definition of allelopathy accepted by the International Allelopathic Society is; “any process involving secondary metabolites produced by plants, algae, bacteria and fungi that influence the growth and development of agricultural and biological systems” (Torres et al. 1996). Allelo-chemicals are defined as bio-communicators suggesting the possibility of active mixtures, because of the findings in which single compounds are not active or are not as active as a mixture (Macias et al. 1998). 

8.1 Introduction

In the modern world, the most elementary desire of every common man is to have sufficient food and mental peace. With the increasing world population, pressure on both peace and availability of food are continuously increasing. Advancing agricultural research can explore a possibility to feed to all living beings. Agricultural crops are highly susceptible to climatic conditions and crop productivity which are mainly influenced by extreme weather conditions; including temperature and water availability. In open field conditions, during long dry weather condition, soil moisture reduces and increases the transpiration.

Plants are very important to all forms of life on the earth because they consume carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and produce oxygen. In addition, plants make up the base of the food web. Basically, plants need five things in order to grow and these are: sunlight, proper temperature, moisture, air and nutrients. These five things should be provided by the natural or artificial environments where the plants live. If any of these elements are missing, they can limit plant growth. If any environmental factor is less than ideal, it limits the plant›s growth. People began putting plants indoor to avoid the damage from cold weather and this practice led to development of greenhouse. With the improvement in living standard and upgradation in agricultural technologies, off seasoned cultivation is also possible by providing desired artificial environmental conditions. The environmental stress weakens a plant and makes it more susceptible to disease or insect attack. In the modern engineering era, plant production systems have become more sophisticated. The desired climatic condition to grow plants and its control have changed from manual to automated digital operations and control computers have become faster and more capable.

Environmental control techniques are essential for protected cultivation and are not only for greenhouse’s cultivation but are also applicable to tissue culture and space farming as well. Environmental control in the present protected crop cultivation practices has been profusely supported by computer and sensor developments which is sometimes aslo called controlled environment agriculture.

The preservation of food in common salt or in vinegar is known as pickling. It is one of the most ancient methods of preserving fruits and vegetables. Pickles are good appetizers and add to the palatability of a meal. They stimulate the flow of gastric juice and thus help in digestion. They are prepared with salt, vinegar, oil or with a mixture of salt, oil, spices and vinegar.

Pickles:- Pickles are a product which is prepared by using the common salt or vinegars of fruits and vegetables. It is a good appetizer and adds to the palatability of a meal. It’s also help full to stimulating the flow of gastric juices and thus helps full indigestion. Pickles are mainly preserving by salt, vinegar, oil and it can also be preserved by the mixture of salt, spices, vinegar and oil.

Ingredient of 1kg mango pickles: Mango piece 1kg, salt 150g, fenugreek powder 25g, turmeric powder 15g, nigella seed 15g, red chilli powder 10g, clove headless 8 number, black pepper 15g, cumin 15g, cardamom large 15g, aniseed powder 15g, asafoetida 2g and mustard oil 350ml.

Pickles known to be good appetizers, aid digestion and pallate are edible products preserved and flavoured in a solution of common salt and vinegar. Spices and oil may also be added. There are a number of pickles very popular in India i.e. mango pickle, cauliflower pickle, lime and lemon pickles, ginger chilli pickle etc. But, some pickles like Sauerkraut are not very common in India but are very popular in European countries.

ABSTRACT

Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth.is a perennial herbaceous plant species of the family Scrophulariaceae growing at high altitude regions of Himalayas, and recorded to have a wide application in Ayurvedic system of medicine known by the name of kutki. In traditional system, this plant species is used to cure disorders of liver, respiratory tract fever, dyspepsia, chronic diarrhea and scorpion sting. P. kurroa is a growing source of interest because of having number of interesting activities such as immnunomudulatory, hepatoprotective and anticancer, highly used by pharmaceutical companies for development of new molecules and herbal botanical formulations. It has been scientifically validated that this species is a repository of bioactive chemicals such as picrosides, kutkoside, and cucurbitacins isolated and characterized mainly from the roots of this plant. This communication deals with the chemistry and biological activities associated with its main chemical constituents, and can be helpful in development of new drug as medicine. This communication will provide a baseline information and useful tool for researchers who work on the area of natural products, and look for new direction in drug discovery.

Introduction

Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth is an important alpine medicinal plant of the Himalayan region. The root and rhizome of P. kurroa are source of the crude drug, which is characteristically bitter in taste and is linked to the medicinal properties. In Indian system of medicine, the species popularly known as Kutki, is an important constituent of several drugs items. This plant also finds a place in Chinese system of medicine where it is known as Hun-hung lien. Chemically, compounds of interest in Picrorhiza are iridoid glycosides: picroside-I and picroside-II. Material for crude drug has traditionally been extracted from the wild. Natural stands have sharply dwindled due to over extraction and habitat degradation. The species was listed as “endangered” in 1997 by International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Commercial cultivation is not popular, but is urgently recommended.

Pork production in India is limited, representing only 9% of the country’s animal protein sources. Production is concentrated mainly in the northeastern states of the country and consists primarily of backyard and informal sector producers. The contribution of pork products in terms of value works out to 0.80% of total livestock products and 4.32% of the meat and meat products. The contribution of pigs to Indian exports is very poor.

The chromosomes of the domestic pig (Sus scrofa domesticus) are known to be prone to reciprocal chromosome translocations and other balanced chromosome rearrangements with concomitant fertility impairment of carriers. The domestic pig has diploid chromosome (2n) number 38. The domestic pig karyotype shows a tendency for balanced structural chromosomal rearrangements, such as reciprocal, Robertsonian, and tandem translocations, as well as inversions. There is extensive polymorphism in the heterochromatin, with G-C-rich heterochromatin located in centromere regions of biarmed chromosomes and less G-C-rich heterochromatin in the centromere regions of one-armed chromosomes.

The diploid chromosome number of the pig is 2n = 38, consisting of 18 autosomal chromosome pairs, which vary in length and morphology (12-bi-armed and 6 one-armed pairs), and two sex chromosomes, XX or XY. Robertsonian translocation is known to occur in the acrocentric chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18. In these cases, the chromosomes fuse at the centromeric region, resulting in the production of two derivative chromosomes, a large bi-armed chromosome, and a secondary short chromosome often lost in subsequent cell divisions. Thus, the karyotype of a domestic pig carrying Robertsonian translocation has a distinct 2n = 37 diploid chromosome number, with the noticeable addition of a novel large bi-armed chromosome.

Identification of Diseased Animals

Detection of compromised pigs necessitates awareness and fast decisions about treatment, transportation, and/or culling.

Walking the pens daily to observe the pigs will aid in the early identification of healthy and unwell pigs. Before unsettling a group of pigs, try to assess them from afar. This allows you to assess their behaviour.

Check the pens for down or lame animals, watch for increased activity around the water or feeders, and listen for coughing or sneezing. Inspect the ventilation system for improper or poorly managed air quality.

Then, enter the pen area quietly and study the pigs individually utilising B.E.S.T. Method. This acronym stands for:

• Body
• Eyes/Ears/Nose
• Skin/Hair-coat
• Temperament.

Pig Identification

Animal identification is very important aspect on any livestock farm. Some types of identity are merely temporary, dissipating after a few days. Temporary identification, such as a grease paint stick, can be used to identify certain pigs within a pen, such as when immunisation pigs.

Some forms of identification are more durable. Ear tags are commonly used. Some producers use plastic tags with numbers to help them identify individual pigs. Pigs, on the other hand, are inquisitive creatures who frequently consider a plastic tag on another pig as an intriguing toy. Plastic tags are commonly torn and misplaced as a result. Additionally, when the tag punctures the ear, pigs frequently develop an ear infection. Tiny metal tags may be used, but they are subject to the same long-term loss and infection problems.

The most lasting method of identification used by most manufacturers is ear notching. In this procedure, little notches are carved into the baby pigs’ ears right after birth using a small pair of v-shaped pliers. The notches represent numbers and will accompany the pig for the remainder of its life. Farmers may develop their own ear-notching system, but the universal ear notching system is the most widely used.

Pig Nutrition

Proper feed is necessary for development, body maintenance, and the production of meat and milk. When correctly prepared, one can use less expensive locally available feeds that are nutritionally sufficient. Pigs can be fed effectively with leftovers from a family’s kitchen. Pig nutritional needs can be divided into six sections. Examples include water, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, and minerals.

Pigs are omnivorous, which means they can consume both meat and plants. Pigs’ digestive systems can also manage roughage-rich diets. Pig must drink plenty of clean, fresh water every day. Pigs will consume practically anything. They will consume grass and other plants. They can be kept in a safe field where they will consume all vegetation and grass. The pig will burrow into the ground and consume both the roots and the green parts of plants. A pig with a nose ring cannot root plants. Pigs will develop and fatten more quickly if fed concentrate feed. Grain meal that has been thoroughly pulverised is a good feed for pig.

Pigs can also be fed leftover veggies and scraps from the kitchen. Before feeding scraps to the pig, household scraps, especially those containing meat, must be well prepared. The pig requires constant access to fresh, clean water. Each day, a sow with young requires 20 to 30 litres of water.

Introduction

Meat has become an integral part of human food to meet the essential nutrients, like proteins. For a balanced diet, a good biological availability of meat is preferred in the modern day era. The per capita consumption of meat in India is only 14g per day as against the actual requirement of 125g. Non availability of quality meat and its exorbitant prices have restricted meat consumption. Increasing the meat production through intensive rearing of various meat animals will help to meet the ever growing demand of a balanced human diet. In the modern era and educational status social taboos are also getting relegated with need of quality proteins.

The very important role of pigs in human life is control of environmental pollution by scavenging the biological waste. Pig converts biological waste material to quality proteins in the form of pork. Pigs have a rapid growth rate, high reproductive efficacy, require comparatively less space, and can be reared on small scale in backyards or as commercial units.

Successful management strategies require an understanding of the pig reproductive system. Profitability in pig production farm is primarily limited by reproductive efficiency. Increasing reproductive efficiency lowers the cost of each pig sold. Increased pig marketing per female could reduce the number of sows required or increase the overall number of pigs marketed per year. Nonetheless, improving reproductive performance requires time. There are no quick fixes for enhancing reproductive performance. To improve the reproductive parameters of swine farms, sound management approaches and a rigorous genetic selection programme are required.

Introduction

Pigeon are domesticated from 4500 B.C. Domestic pigeons are decedents from the wild pigeon, distributed in Rocky Ravines throughout the Asia and Europe. They are generally kept for ornamental purpose. The production of young meat pigeon provides alternatives income to the small farmers. Squabs are being reared as a side line in village, towns and on farms. Squab rearing can be made profitable source of income with good management and market. Squabs require little land since all breeders are kept in small pens and houses. There are fair demand of squabs in large cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Chennai and Bangalore. Squab rearing also has tremendous export potential to Dubai, Australia, Thailand and Singapore. A pigeon is a tradition part of Middle Eastern country diet. In China, pigeon meat is a popular restaurant dishes and there is a good demand from Jewish Community clubs all over the world. Rearing of pigeon using modern methods is a very profitable than traditional way.

Pigeons have been a friend of man from early times. They utilize not only for ornamentation but to get cheap food for the table. Pigeon are versatile birds and used for Sport of racing pigeon, Flyers and performers, showing of fancy pigeons and Meat production. In the earliest art, many used pigeons to symbolize love, peace and loyalty.

Pigeon pea seeds discovered in historical tombs suggest it was farmed in Egypt circa 2000 BC. Vavilov (1939) concluded that India is the primary origin of the cultivated pigeon pea due to the wide diversity of germplasm available. It’s a crucial location in rain-fed agriculture. It is grown on 4.92 million hectares worldwide, including 3.58 million hectares (72.7 percent) in India alone. Although the crop is planted in 22 nations, it is only cultivated in considerable areas in a handful of them. Its seeds have become a widespread food in Asia, Africa, and Latin America since its domestication in the Indian subcontinent at least 3,500 years ago. It is an important source of protein for the Indian subcontinent’s people and is consumed on a big scale in South Asia. India is a major producer of pigeon peas. Kenya, Malawi, Uganda, Mozambique, and Tanzania are major producers of pigeon pea on the African continent.

Introduction

The productivity of pulses in India has remained stagnant over the past several decades. In the case of pigeonpea, which a major pulse crop in India, it has been hovering around 700 kg ha-1 for the last five decades. Uttar Pradesh (UP) occupies 9.14% (2.16 million ha) of the total area under pigeonpea in the country (23.63 million ha). Poor crop management practices adopted by the farmers, non-availability of quality seed of improved varieties, damage by insect pests and diseases and drought are some of the factors responsible low productivity in pulses. In a recent review, Maruthi Shankar et al. (2004) identified shortage of quality seed as one of the major constraints for increasing pigeonpea production in India. The genetically pure seed alone can increase productivity by 10-15% (Saxena, 2006).

Despite release of several improved varieties of pigeonpea, local landraces dominate the cultivation of pigeonpea in the country. Timely availability of quality seed of improved varieties at affordable price remains one of the major concerns in pigeonpea cultivation. Most of the farmers procure their pigeonpea seed from local traders or rely on their ‘own-saved’ seed.

Pulses are seeds of leguminous plants used as food. They produce dal rich in protein. The important pulse crops are greengram, blackgram, redgram, bengal gram, soybean, cowpea, peas, lentil and lathyrus. The total area under pulses in India is 29.81 m ha with a production of 25.42 m t and the productivity is 853 kg / ha. Pulses can grow both in rainfed and irrigated conditions.

Of the total global pigeonpea production, over 90 percent of this is grown in India. The major pigeonpea growing states are Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh, contributing to 88.2% of the total pigeonpea basket and the same holds goodover the years. Over the decades, whatever little increase in production level was observed i.e. from 1.75 mt (19701975) to 2.75 mt (20052009), it is neither uniform nor steady. It is mainly through the expansion of area from 2.52 mha to a level of 3.58 mha ( 20052009 ) without significant change in productivity which ( 1970 1975) has remained almost stagnant around 700 kg/ha (Table 1) and is a matter of real concern (Srivastava, 1993).The gross geographical shifting of area ( 467 th. ha) took place mainly from traditional areas (Uttar Pradesh and Bihar) to new and less productive areas (Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa) with a netgainof area 837 th. ha in Central zoneandSouthzone includingexpandedadditional area (Table 23).

Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan, (L.) Millspaugh, 2n = 2x = 22, an often crosspollinated crop with 20 – 70% cross-pollination, family-pea family Leguminosae or Fabaceae, genome size 808 Mbp) is a short-lived perennial shrub that is traditionally cultivated as an annual crop in developing countries.. It is grown in Asia, Eastern and Southern Africa, Latin America and Caribbean countries. On an average, it is cultivated worldwide on 4.92 million hectares (M ha) with an annual production of 3.65 Mt giving a productivity of 741 kg/ ha. India is the largest producer followed by Myanmar and Eastern and Southern Africa (principally Mozambique, Malawi, Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda.

Being polytocous animal, sow give birth several (8-14) piglets in each farrowing, mother pig find several deficiencies and disorders during gestation, farrowing and postnatal conditions. Prior to birth intrauterine competition amongst the feotus piglets for nutrition and gas exchange is a big stress for abortion. Several infectious and non-infectious causes may hamper proper growth and pathological conditions resulting mortality (15-20%) in piglets than weaner and adults (Sarma, et al, 2012). Several risk factors are also responsible for piglet mortality.

Prenatal factors: Insults during pregnancy can impact a piglet’s ability to survive after birth and regulate their body temperature. Some maternal aspects that affect survability and mortality amongst piglets are prolong farrowing duration more than 4 hours, number of parity of sow, usually first and second parity show high mortality than subsequent parities and also older sow lose more piglets.