eChapters

Mutation: Natural genetic variation has exhausted. Genetic variation can be induced by mutations or changes in the DNA sequences of the plants.

Additional Tools for Plant Improvement

Increase in yield with no additional lands available for cultivation depends on development of high yielding varieties suitable for marginal cultivation.

• Food security

• Nutritional security

Need for additional tools to increase efficiency of breeding methods for genetic enhancement and propagation.

• Genomics

Genomics – Definition

Genomics - Study of an organism's entire genome / full genetic complement of an organism.

Introduction

pH is a quantitative measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. Lower pH indicates acidity, while higher pH indicated alkalinity. Pure water at 25°C has a pH of 7.0 as the concentrations of H3 O+ and OH-. pH is defined as potential of hydrogen and is a measure of how acidic or basic a substance or solution is. The concentration of Hydrogen (H+) in a solution determines its pH. Higher concentrations of H+ ions correspond to lower pH values (more acidic), and lower concentrations of H+ ions correspond to higher pH values (More alkaline/basic). pH is an important measurement concept in many fields, including chemistry, biology, and environmental science. pH of blood and other fluids of the body, secretions etc?, determine the health status of an individual. Likewise, pH determines the quality of soil for plant growth. In medical sciences, pH plays a crucial role in maintaining a healthy internal environment for various bodily functions. Internal environment of an animal or human is tightly regulated more so the pH of different body fluids like blood, saliva and stomach acid.

pH balance is a very prime aspect to maintain homeostasis inside a biological system. Speaking of which the first thing that comes to mind is the enzyme function. Many enzymes have a specific pH range for optimal activity. Any deviation from this specific pH range not only significantly disrupt their function but also hinder biochemical processes involved. Most vital operations of a cell are nutrition transport and waste disposal i?e?, excretion. pH of the fluids surrounding cells impacts these activities; hence, maintaining a proper pH is vital for healthy cell function. Different organs of the body need to maintain different pH ranges for functioning accordingly. Stomach operates at acidic pH to digest the food material ingested whereas, blood need alkaline pH for optimal oxygen transport by RBC.

pH is important as a measure of active acidity which influences the flavour and palatability of the product and affects the processing requirements. This is an indicator of the acidity or alkalinity of the solution. It is also taken as the measure of the sourness or tartness of the given sample. The pH of a solution varies from 0 to 14. Solutions having a value of pH ranging from 0 to 7 on the pH scale are termed as acidic and the value of pH ranging from 7 to 14 on the pH scale are known as basic solutions. While, solutions with a pH value equal to 7 on the pH scale are known as neutral solutions. Samples with a pH value equal to 0 are known to be strongly acidic. Further, the acidity decreases as the value of pH increases from 0 to 7 whereas, solutions with the value of pH equal to 14 are termed as strongly basic solutions.
Most fruits have a pH value ranging between 3-4, with citrus fruits exhibiting a pH of up to 2.0. Vegetables may exhibit a pH of up to 6.0, as such they are classified as non-acid or low-acid foods. Based on pH value, most fruits, vegetables, and their products are classified into four arbitrary groups such as low acid (5.3 and higher); medium acid (5.3-4.5), acidic (4.5-3.7), and high acid (3.7 and lower). pH value of some fruits, vegetables, and their products is given as under:

pH is defined as the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration. The amount of the acidic gas CO2 significantly affects the pH of natural water body. Fish have usually blood pH levels of 7.4, but little deviation has been observed, perhaps 7.0 to 8.5pH range is more suitable for the growth and reproduction of the fish. However, pH range 4.0 to 6.5 and 9.0 to 11.0 cause fish death in water pH less than 4.0known as acidic death point or even more than 11.0 known as alkaline death point. The pH of fresh water more fluctuating as compare to sea water due to release and consumption of CO2 and O2 respectively by bacterial oxidation and respiration. However, the pH of marine water often constant at 7.8-8.3 due to presence of buffer like HCO3-, CO2 -, CO3-2 etc.
Principle
The estimation of hydrogen (H+) ion activity through sensing electrode. Electrode composed of a narrow glass bulb with fixed concentration of HCI solution inside it. A wire made of an Ag-AgCI placed in to the bulb which work as electrode to fix voltage. Potential difference forms between the solution in the glass bulb and the sample solution when the electrode immersed into solution.

Phalsa (Grewia subinaequalis syn. G asiatica) is a minor fruit crop. It is the most hardy fruit, drought resistant and requires little care. This fruit crop is mentioned in vedic literature having medicinal properties. It can be grown almost in all parts of north India except at higher elevations. It cannot be grown in temperate climates with severe winters.  Phalsa being very vigorous in growth can be an ideal plant for plugging gullies and ravines and for contours to protect bunds. It can also be grown as a hedge along the field boundary. It is also grown as filler tree(Chundawat,1990).  It is capable of growing under marginal, waste lands and water scarcity conditions. The tiny fruits have to be picked from bush several times during the fruiting season. Fruits are used for fresh eaten and having short shelf life is suitable for disposal in local market.

Phalsa belongs to the family Tiliaceae where only one genus, Grewia, yields edible fruit. The only species of any importance is G. subinaequalis DC. (syns. G. asiatica Mast), long referred to in literature as Grewia asiatica L. Phalsa is the most used vernacular name in India, where there are a number of local names. The plant is called falsa in Pakistan. Phalsa is commercially cultivated in India in states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.

Cultivars/Varieties: Two distinct types, viz. Tall and Dwarf were recognized in Hisar and dwarf type was found to be more productive. Some call them as ‘Local’ and ‘Sharbati’.

Uses

The fruits are eaten fresh as dessert, are made into syrup, and extensively employed in the manufacture of soft drinks. The fruit is used in making juice and squash. The bark is used as a soap substitute in Burma. A mucilaginous extract of the bark is useful in clarifying sugar. Fiber extracted from the bark is made into rope. The wood is yellow-white, fine-grained, strong and flexible. It is used for archers’ bows, spear handles, shingles and poles for carrying loads on the shoulders. Stems that are pruned off serve as garden poles and for basket-making.

Genus : Grewia
Species : subinequalis DC., asiatica L.
Family : Tiliaceae 
Chromosome No. : 2n = 36

Phalsa (Grewia asiatica) belongs  to the family Tilaceae and some members  are native of India too and is  mentioned in Vedic writings and various plant parts are employed to cure number of ailments. The family comprises  of 18 genera and some 400 species distributed mostly in the tropical and subtropical areas of the world. Of the prevailing 140 species,  40 are indigenous to India of which Grewia asiatica is of significance horticulturally. Phalsa is commercially  cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and on limited scale in Bihar, West Bengal, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.

Phalsa is an important minor fruit crop of India. It is a sub tropical fruits, which is also known as star apple. It is known by different vernacular names in different parts of country for example Dhamini in Bengali, Phalsa in Punjabi and Shurkhi in Hindi.

Phalsa is a shrub or small tree of Indian origin. Phalsa has been mentioned in Vedic literature as having certain medicinal qualities. Phalsa is a bushy plant of arid and semi- arid region. It is also cultivated in subtropical region. It is very hardy, tolerant to drought and suitable to grow on wastelands. Phalsa is best suited for small area as it is manageable by pruning. Its cultivation is favoured around big cities where fruits find a ready and quick sale. It has a poor keeping quality. It is also grown as an intercrop with mango, aonla, bael and ber. It is capable of growing under neglected and water scarcity conditions where only a few other crops would survive.

• Ripe phalsa fruits are sub-acidic and a good source of Vitamin A & C.
• Kernel contains 2.0 %and 23.7% oil respectively which is rich in linoleum acid.
• Colour phalsa fruit is anthocyanin pigment.
• The phalsa seed contains 7.17 per cent crude fat with a typical.
• The plants can tolerate temperatures as high as 44°C since high temperature favours ripening of the fruits.
• It is a subtropical crop.
• It is commercially propagated by seed.
• The viability of seeds can be retained for 6 months under cool storage.
• Seed germination of 15-20 day get ready for planting in the field.
• Seed germination per cent 76%.
• Shortest germination period shortest of only 16 days.
• It completes flowering and fruiting within 4-5 month.
• Planting is usually done 2.5-3.0m, 1100-1500 plant/ha.
• Phalsa plant is normally pruned at 0.9 to 1.2m above the ground level; time of pruning is during December—January when they are dormant annually.
• Application of N, P and K at 100, 40 and 25kg/ha.

The parasitic flowering plants are also important pathogens. There are few seed plants, which are parasitic on living plants and are called parasitic higher plants or Phanerogamic parasites. These parasitic higher plants attack some valuable crops and trees causing considerable losses. They produce flowers and seeds and belongs to several widely separated botanical families they differ to each other on their dependency on host plants. These parasites have haustoria as absorbing organ, which sent deep into the vascular bundle of the host to draw water and nutrients. More than 2500 species of higher plants are known to live parasitically on other plants.

Summary

One of the most seductive lures of the genomic revolution is the promise of personalized medicine. The rapid identification of tens of thousands of human genes and hundreds of thousands of DNA variations that might influence disease susceptibility has spawned a new field Pharmacogenetics and Pharmacogenomics deal with the genetic basis underlying variable drug response in individual patients. The traditional pharmacogenetic approach relies on studying sequence variations in candidate genes suspected of affecting drug response i.e. single or few genes. On the other hand, pharmacogenomic studies encompass the sum of all genes, i.e., the genome. Numerous genes may play a role in drug response and toxicity, introducing a daunting level of complexity into the search for candidate genes. The high speed and specificity associated with newly emerging genomic technologies enable the search for relevant genes and their variants to include the entire genome.

Genetics forms the basis of human life. All individuals have a physical and physiological self, determined by the interactions of genes and environment. Pharmacogenetics is the connotation used to study how heritability affects an individual’s response to drugs.494 The term ‘Pharmacogenomics’ represents systematic identification of all human genes, their products, interindividual variation and intraindividual variation in expression and function over time. It focuses on candidate genes and may include transcriptome and proteome information that affect drug metabolism, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics. It helps in predicting the patient’s response to a drug and to design new drugs495. Pharmacogenetics is study of single genes and the effects on drug response while pharmacogenomics is related to overall variation in genome. A gene is considered polymorphic when a mutation appears in more than 1% population, which may be present in the form of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), simple sequence length polymorphism (SSLP) and nucleotide addition or deletion. After the Human Genome Project, study in this field is accelerated dramatically. It was found that out of 1.4 million SNPs identified in the human genome, over 60,000 are present in the coding region496. These SNPs lead to miscoding of the various proteins that plays crucial role in the biological processes. If a point mutation is present in the gene coding region for various drug-metabolizing enzymes, drug target and drug transporters, it can lead to many non-therapeutic and unpredictable drug responses. In United States, over two million people suffer from severe adverse drug reactions per year and about 100,000 cases are life threatening497.

1. Introduction

Pyrus malus Linn. commonly called as ‘apple’ in English and ‘seb’ in Hindi locally, is a well known tree belonging to family Rosaceae. It is indigenous to Europe and West Asia and grow wild in N.W. Himalayas and also cultivated. The leaves and young aerial parts are useful medicinally1. Leaves contain phloretin which is a natural antibiotic. Crushed leaves are used as temporary treatment for wounds. In Homoeopathy, its use is mentioned for labyrinthine vertigo by Dr. Cooper, in Boericke3.  The plant is a tree growing up to 20 to 40 feet, with spreading branches. The leaves are ovate or oblong ovate, serrate, 2-3’’ long; Petioles ½ to 1’’ in length. The flowers are large, fragrant, pale rose in colour and borne in sub umbellate corymbs. Fruit is a pome and edible.

Chemically the plant is  reported to contain patulin, campesterol, stigmasterol, b- sitosterol, nicotinic acid, phloretin 2- O-glucoside, phlorizin, Gibberellin A 62, melibiose, ostreasterol, 1,28-octacosanediol, pomonic acid and 1,24-tetracosanediol.

1. Introduction

The therapeutic efficacy of many indigenous plants for various diseases has been described by traditional herbal medicine practitioners (Bharat and Parabia, 2010). Natural products are the source of synthetic and traditional herbal medicine. They are still the primary health care system in some parts of the world (Mahmud et al., 2010). In India, local empirical knowledge about medicinal properties of plants is the basis for their uses as a home remedies. It is generally accepted by many Indians and elsewhere in the world that beneficial medicinal effects can be obtained by ingesting plant products. Plants bear the basis of many traditional medicines throughout the world for thousands of years and continue to provide new remedies to mankind (Patel, 2009). The World Health Organization (WHO) also encourages, recommends and promotes the use of traditional and herbal remedies in the National Health Care Program because these medicines are easily available at low cost, comparatively safe and people have faith in such remedies (Wani, 2007). Herbal medicines are promising choice over modern synthetic drugs. Due to the serious obsession with the modern medicinal system, people have started looking at the ancient healing systems like Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani (Shankar and Ved, 2003).

Introduction
Liposomal formulations have emerged as a revolutionary platform in drug delivery systems, significantly enhancing the therapeutic efficacy and safety profile of numerous pharmaceutical agents (Crommelin et al., 2015). Liposomes are spherical vesicles composed of lipid bilayers, providing a versatile and biocompatible method for encapsulating both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs (Nsairat et al., 2022) (Liu et al., 2022). This encapsulation protects drugs from degradation, reduces systemic toxicity, and enhances their bioavailability (Gubernator, 2011). Beyond their protective capabilities, liposomes serve as an effective platform capable of delivering a diverse array of therapeutic agents, including conventional drugs, proteins, genes, and oligonucleotides (Gupta et al., 2023) (Salave et al., 2022 a) (Juliano et al., 2009). Their attractive biological properties, such as biocompatibility, enhanced solubility of hydrophobic compounds, stability of large molecules, and improved efficacy, position them as ideal candidates for advanced drug delivery systems. These properties enable precise targeting and controlled release strategies, thereby optimizing therapeutic outcomes across various medical applications (Polaka et al., 2021). The pharmacokinetic (PK) and pharmacodynamic (PD) properties of liposomal formulations are crucial determinants of their clinical success. Pharmacokinetics involves the study of the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) of drugs, while pharmacodynamics focuses on the biochemical and physiological effects of drugs and their mechanisms of action (Li et al., 2019) (Negus et al., 2018). Understanding these parameters in the context of liposomal delivery is essential to optimize therapeutic outcomes and minimize adverse effects.
Liposomal encapsulation can significantly alter the PK profile of a drug. By modifying drug release kinetics, liposomes can extend the half-life of encapsulated agents, ensuring sustained therapeutic effects and reducing dosing frequency (Rana et al., 2022). Moreover, the ability of liposomes to target specific tissues or cells through passive and active targeting mechanisms enhances drug distribution to the site of action, increasing efficacy and minimizing off-target effects (Salave et al., 2021)(Salave et al., 2022 b). For instance, the liposome surface can be covalently decorated with targeting ligands, enhancing binding and internalization by cancer cells that express receptors for these ligands (Riaz et al., 2018). These ligands can include immunoglobulins or their subunits, such as immunoglobulin fragment antigen binding (Fab’) and single-chain variable fragments (scFv), or nutrient molecules with affinity for cell surface receptors, such as transferrin and folate (Sapra et al., 2003) (Kang et al., 2011) (Cheng et al., 2010). Liposomes’ unique structural properties facilitate the incorporation of targeting ligands, pHsensitive components, and other modifications to refine the drug’s therapeutic profile (Salave et al., 2022 c)(Salave et al., 2023)(Zangabad et al., 2018). They can also be engineered to release encapsulated drugs at specific sites by sensitizing the bilayer membrane to stimuli such as light exposure, oxidation, enzymatic degradation, heat, or radiation (Lee et al., 2017) (Antoniou et al., 2021). The

Herbal medicines have become popular these days as complementary therapies for various disorders. These are available as single compounds, enriched extracts, or polyherbal preparations. The polyherbal formulations behave very differently as compared to the single compounds due to the interaction of different chemical constituents, present therein, with multiple receptors/targets in the biological system. The presence of the multiple chemical constituents is also likely to exhibit pharmacokinetic and metabolic interactions. Thus, it becomes difficult to monitor and predict the exact pharmacokinetic profile of all the chemical constituentspresent in a polyherbal formulation (He et al. 2011; Xie et al. 2012). As a result, pharmacokinetic studies of polyherbal formulations have been a long-standing hurdlein phytotherapy research. Conventional scientific approach for studying thepharmacological behaviour of a multicomponent therapy is to isolate the individualcompound and study the effect of these compounds on various targets and enzymes, independently. To rationalize the use of herbal medicines,a clear understanding of their pharmacokinetics and metabolism in the physiologicalsystem is required. A fundamental knowledge of pharmacokinetics of phytopharmaceuticals will be helpful inauthenticating their use.

Introduction

The epidemiological risk and hazards to global health security posed by AMR has been reiterating in several World Health Assembly (WHA) declarations and has been prioritized under the Global Health Security Agenda (GHSA). The Indian Ministry of Health & Family Welfare (MoHFW) has also identified AMR as one of the top priorities for collaborative work with WHO and the first National Action Plan on AMR has been implemented (2017-2022). India ranked fifth in antibiotic consumption in food producing animals (ruminants, pigs, and poultry) in 2010. Even though there has been a gradual reduction of 3.6% in antibiotic consumption during 2011-2019 (Koya et al., 2022), with mounting incomes and shifting in dietary patterns in favour of the consumption of animal protein, especially for poultry, the veterinary antibiotic utilization is projected to further rise by 312%, elevating India to the fourth rank by 2030 (Van Boeckel et al., 2015). FAO has already reported some of the peak resistance rates among common commensal and environmental bacteria against antibiotics like penicillin, cephalosporins, erythromycin and co-trimazoles in India (INFAAR). Resistance to the broad spectrum fluoroquinolones and third generation cephalosporin antibiotics is already more than 70% in Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and, Acinetobacter baumannii and more than 50% in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Even the microbial resistance to carbapenems, the last-resort antibiotics, is extremely high among gram-negative microorganisms (Sumanth et al., 2016). To overcome these incidences, it is impulsive to understand the microbe and drug interaction in host system.

Abstract

Asteraceae is one of the largest family of flowering plants and have been used by mankind for a variety of purposes including food, medicine, cooking oils, sweeteners and tea infusions. In India, Asteraceae is 4^th largest family of angiosperms and ranked third among dominant families of angiosperms in Arunachal Pradesh. The indigenous communities of Arunachal Pradesh possess a rich knowledge on utilization of the plant resources around them for food, fodder, medicine and other purposes. Due to the remoteness and inaccessibility, the indigenous communities are mostly depended on their traditional medicines using plant resources around them for treating minor and major ailments. The effectiveness of these plants in traditional medicine has also been confirmed after isolation and characterization of the bioactive compounds responsible for their pharmacological activities. The present study is a review on ethnomedicinal plants belonging to Asteraceae family that are being used by different tribes of the state. The tribal communities have been using 36 medicinal plant species from this family as recorded from published literature and field study. Maximum number of species have been found to exhibit antimicrobial, antioxidant, antihelminthic, analgesic and anti-malarial properties. Among the recorded species, Ageratum conyzoides, Spilanthes acmella, Artemisia nilagirica, A. maritima, Blumea balsamifera, B. lacera, Eclipta prostrata, Vernonia cinerea and Chrysanthemum indicum were already being used in Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, Homeopathy, Folk and Sowa-Rigpa systems of Indian Medicine. Therefore, the study highlighted the pharmacological potential of ethnomedicinal plantsfrom Asteraceae family which would provide opportunities for future drugdiscovery.

Pharmacovigilance
Definition
Pharmacovigilance (PV) is defined as the science and activities related to the detection, assessment, understanding, and prevention of adverse effects or any other drug-related problems. The term combines the Greek word «pharmakon,» meaning drug, and the Latin «vigilare,» meaning to keep watch. Thus, pharmacovigilance focuses on monitoring the safety of medications after they have been authorized for use to ensure that their benefits outweigh any potential risks.
Aim of Pharmacovigilance
The primary aim of pharmacovigilance is to enhance patient safety and ensure the safe use of medicines by:
• Identifying Adverse Drug Reactions (ADRs): Collecting data on adverse effects associated with medications to understand their frequency, severity, and risk factors.
• Assessing Risks: Evaluating the risk-benefit profile of drugs in real-world settings beyond clinical trials.
• Preventing Harm: Implementing strategies to minimize risks associated with drug use, thereby protecting public health. • Improving Drug Safety: Continuously monitoring and analyzing data to improve the safety profiles of existing medications and inform regulatory actions.
Scope of Pharmacovigilance
The scope of pharmacovigilance encompasses a wide range of activities and responsibilities:
1. Data Collection
• Gathering information on ADRs from various sources, including healthcare professionals, patients, clinical trials, and post-marketing studies.
• Utilizing spontaneous reporting systems where healthcare providers report suspected ADRs.

Introduction

Agricultural produce are being sun dried since ages as the first step to preserve the product for future consumption. It is still practised being most inexpensive over mechanical and other advanced drying systems. The most prevailing disadvantage of open sun drying is the quality losses due to insect infestation, enzymatic reactions, microorganism growth, and mycotoxin development. On the other side, sun drying is also a highly labor intensive and time consuming process prone to theft and damage by birds. It also suffers with the lack of process control and treatment uniformity (Bansal and Garg 1987, Bansal, 1987).

To overcome these disadvantages several types of solar dryers have been developed over the years (Ekechukwu and Norton 1999). These dryer may be identified into three group namely active, passive and hybrid. As regards their structural arrangement three generic subclasses were also identified: direct-modes (the solar-energy collection unit is an integral part of the entire drying system), indirect-modes (the solar collector and the drying chamber are separate units) and mixed-modes solar dryers. Natural convection solar dryers have become more suitable for rural sector and remote areas, as they work on single energy option and do not require any other external energy source (Pangavhane et al. 2002).

Introduction

As the most of the conventional resources are depleting and can last only for about a few 30 to 50 years. Scientists worldwide are looking for alternative energy resources and they have come to an agreement that solar energy can provide much of our energy needs in the future. The major challenge before them is to store this energy. The radiation falling on the earth surface can be tapped and stored in no of ways. However, the most efficient way is done through the latent heat storage through PCM. The PCM has many added advantages i.e. high energy density, isothermal behavior, non-polluting and low cost. Nowadays, it gaining popularity worldwide and now seen as the most efficient way of thermal energy storage. There is a large number of PCM at use i.e. organic, inorganic, eutectic and salt hydrates. Their utilization depends on the user’s requirement technological constraints. They also serve the purpose of energy availability at night beside the uninterrupted supply during the day. They are seen as the materials for ensuring the environmental sustainability

4.1 Phases of technology transfer
To translate laboratory research into market ready product, it is important to understand steps or phases involved in this technology transfer process. The process typically includes six main phases, each with a different role (figure 9).
4.1.1 Research
Technology transfer begins with research, the critical stage of exploring and discovering novel knowledge, technologies, or innovations that may have potential commercial applications. The research phase can occur in academic institutions, research organizations, or private sector companies, often funded by public or private sources. Thorough research ensures that the technologies being transitioned are scientifically and technically robust, thereby increasing their potential for market success. Therefore, the research phase involves creating and evaluating new ideas, confirming their feasibility, and identifying IP prospects, all of which are key components of TT success.
4.1.2 Innovation disclosure
Innovation disclosure is the first formal step where the innovation is reported to the appropriate TTO or IP management team. This process ensures that the institution or organization recognizes the innovation and evaluates its potential for protection and commercialization. It includes following information:

1. Introduction

The agricultural sector plays a pivotal role in driving economic development in India, a nation with a population of 1.39 billion, making it the world’s second most populous country according to the United Nations’ World Population Prospects 2019. With 54.6 percent of the workforce engaged in agriculture as per the 2011 Census, and contributing 18.6 percent to the Gross Value Added (GVA) in 2021-22, its significance cannot be overstated. Notably, women play a substantial role in this sector, with rural females exhibiting a higher workforce participation rate of 41.8 percent compared to 35.31 percent for urban women (MoSPI, 2017). In rural communities, agriculture and allied sector is the primary source of livelihood that includes 80 percent of all economically active women, out of which 33 percent constitute agricultural labour force and 48 percent are self-employed farmers. Rural women are engaged at all levels of the agricultural value chain; i.e., production- pre-harvest, post-harvest, processing, packaging, marketing to increase productivity in agriculture (Nilam Patel etal, 2022). As per Pingali et al. (2019), the ratio of women to men working in the agricultural sector has increased over the time and made a greater amount of contribution to GDP per capita. They are the momentous demographic group for a sustainable food system (FAO, 2011). Empowering women in agriculture through reforms aimed at ensuring equal access to resources, skill development, and opportunities is projected to increase agricultural output in developing countries by 2.5 to 4 percent (FAO, 2011).

Phenol is normally a benzene ring containing an –OH group, and hence an aromatic alcohol. The term “phenolic” refers to similar aromatic compounds with one or more -OH groups. Phenolics constitute one of the most widespread classes of secondary metabolites. Commonly talked about class of compounds like anthocyanins, flavonoids, lignins, tannins, coumarins and chalcones are all phenolic substances. Phenolics are water insoluble substances. However, the water solubility increases with the increase in the number of -OH groups. Phenolics absorb electromagnetic radiation strongly. Many of the phenolics absorb in the visible part of the spectrum (Ex. anthocyanins) and are coloured. Phenolics are produced in plants by 1. Shikimate pathway through phenylalanine (C₆-C3) and 2. Acetate/malonate pathway.

Phenolics are broadly distributed in the plant kingdom and are the most abundant secondary metabolites of plants. Plant polyphenols have drawn increasing attention due to their potent antioxidant properties and their marked effects in the prevention of various oxidative stress associated diseases such as cancer. Polyphenols are a structural class of mainly natural, but also synthetic, and semisynthetic, organic chemicals characterized by the presence of large multiples of phenol structural units. The number and characteristics of these phenol structural underlie the unique physical, chemical, and biological (metabolic, toxic, therapeutic, etc.) properties of particular members of the class. The term polyphenol derives from poly-, from the ancient Greek word (polus, meaning “many, much”) and the word phenol which refers to a chemical structure/substructure formed by attaching to an aromatic phenyl or benzenoid ring an alcohol-type hydroxyl (-OH) group (giving rise to the “-ol” suffix). The term “polyphenol” has been in use since 1894.

Phenol is normally a benzene ring containing an –OH group, and hence an aromatic alcohol. The term phenolic refers to similar aromatic compounds with one or more -OH groups. Phenolics constitute one of the most widespread classes of secondary metabolites. Commonly talked about class of compounds like anthocyanins, flavonoids, lignins, tannins, coumarins and chalcones are all phenolic substances. Phenolics are water insoluble substances. However, the water solubility increases with the increase in the number of -OH groups. Phenolics absorb electromagnetic radiation strongly. Many of the phenolics absorb in the visible part of the spectrum (Ex. anthocyanins) and are coloured. Phenolics are produced in plants by 1. Shikimate pathway through phenylalanine (C6.C3)  and 2. Acetate/ malonate pathway.

Plant growth is resultant of all the environmental factors – climatic, physiographic, edaphic and biotic factors.

For a particular field – it is primarily a function of climate with temperature and light – being the most important factors. – Close relationship exists between plant phenology and both latitude and altitude.

In organic chemistry, phenols, sometimes called phenolics, are a class of chemical compounds consisting of a hydroxyl group (—OH) bonded directly to an aromatic hydrocarbon group. The simplest of the class is phenol, which is also called carbolic acid C₆H₅OH. Phenolic compounds are classified as simple phenols or polyphenols based on the number of phenol units in the molecule.

Phenols constitute a class of aromatic organic compounds having at least one hydroxyl group attached directly to the benzene ring.

Introduction Solid–liquid extraction process, has been extensively used for extraction of bioactive compounds from plant food matrices by using appropriate solvent, which can be used as functional ingredients and additives in food processing, pharmaceutical sectors, and others industries. Usually this extraction/recovery process is based on unsteady diffusion of compounds targeted for extraction, through the matrices followed by the dissolution of the extractable compounds in the bulk of the used solvent (Milic, Rajkovic, Stamenkovic, & Veljkovic, 2013). The concentrations of bioactive compounds in food matrices as well as in the extracts are generally low in percent, so extra energies are required to improve the yield of the extraction process while minimizing the overall cost. From the technological approach, extraction process is mainly associated with the operating variables such as solvent used, extraction technique, operating temperature, concentration of solid in solvent, and extraction time, and by optimizing these parameters extraction yield could be enhanced (Milic et al., 2013; Orphanides, Goulas, & Gekas, 2014).

Introduction

Mosquito-borne diseases such as malaria, filariasis, Japaneseencephalitis, chikungunya and dengue hemorrhagic fever cause extensive morbidity and take heavy toll of life in the developing nations particularly in the tropics. Every year about 300-500 million people are estimated to be affected by malaria alone (WHO report, 2000). In India around two million cases of malaria are being reported annually although real burden is many fold higher (Kumar et al. 2007). Similarly, lymphatic filariasis caused by Wuchereria bancrofti affects about 120 million people worldwide. India contributes about 40%  to  the total global burden of filariasis and accounts for about 50% of the people at risk of infection (ICMR bulletin, 2002). Anopheles stephensi is recognized as a major vector for urban malaria in India (Kumar 1997).

Introduction

Plasticity is a unique attribute by which the otherwise sessile plant species are capable of adjusting to environmental vagaries by changing their phenotypic and morphological characters. Any plant population will be able to survive only if it can respond to an extremely variable environment by becoming more plastic and more genetically variable. To achieve this, plants should be able to suitably change their morphology anatomy and physiology or any one of these parameters based on environmental changes so as to improve their adaptability and survival in the altered environment. When such changes are genetically heritable, then they lead to species evolution.

Plasticity helps plants to adapt to new environmental conditions, after migration to new geographical areas, by genetic assimilation of traits that can help to improve their performance under a new set of conditions. Understanding plasticity is important for predicting and managing the effect of climate change on native species as well as crop plants. Response of plants to modified environmental conditions is critical for their persistence.

Phenotypic plasticity has been defined as the ability of an individual genotype to produce different phenotypes when exposed to different environmental conditions (Pigliucci et al., 2006). This includes the ability of a plant to modify its development in response to environmental cues and also its ability to bring about changes in its metabolism which increases the chances of survival of an organism under a specific condition.

Pheromones are neuronal signaling molecules synthesized by various organisms and then excreted into the environment, where they typically stimulate individuals of the same species to react to environmental changes (e.g., temperature shifts, biological stimuli, or nutritional changes) (Jun Young Park et al., 2019). It is thought that most organisms, from prokaryotes to higher animals such as humans, can produce and use pheromones for communication between nonspecific individuals. In most cases, pheromones trigger neuronal events that are linked to various behavioral responses. The outcome of such neuronal stimulation includes the modulation of developmental and/or physiological programs that can support adaptation to new environments. 

Semiochemicals are chemical substances that mediate communication between organisms.

Classified into pheromones (intra specific semiochemicals) and allelochemicals (inter specific semiochemicals).

1. Basic Information

Philippines  is located between 4o23’N and 21o25’N latitude, and between 116oE and 127oE longitude. It is an archipelago of 7,107 islands with three major groups of islands: Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. It is bounded by the Bashi Channel up north, Sulu and Celebes Seas in the south, the Pacific Ocean to its east, and the South China Sea to its west. The Philippines has a tropical climate with an average temperature range of 23° to 32°C. Populated by 88 million people, the country has a total land area of 3,00,000 square kilometers  (30 million hectares); where about one third is agricultural land (NSO, 2007).

Of the agricultural land, 31 per cent is used for cereals such as corn and rice, 52 per cent for food crops and 17 per cent for non-food crops (ITC, 2007). Majority of these are cultivated on small farms averaging about two hectares and are managed by single families ranging from subsistence to commercial production (NSCB, 2007).

Phlox is a perennial and annual flowering plant belongs to family Polemoniaceae. “Phlox” is a Greek word meaning “flame” and was most likely named thusly due to its bright and vivid colours. Phlox originally came from North America and was available in England by the early 1800s. It quickly grew in popularity and today it is still found growing wild in gardens across the world. Among perennials, Phlox paniculata, Phlox divariecata, Phlox glaberrima are earliest species to be cultivated and reached to England and France from Virginia (USA) in the early 18th century. Among annuals, Phlox drummondii is commonly grown in India. Annual phlox is propagated by seeds, whereas, cutting is used as propagating material for perennial species. Phlox is grown in the garden as bedding and border plant for its dramatic, fragrant, showy and long blooming flowers. The colour range includes white, rose, pink, purple, lavender, violet, pale blue, bright red and magenta. Some flowers are bicoloured.

Phlox is a perennial and annual flowering plant belongs to family Polemoniaceae. “Phlox” is a Greek word meaning “flame” and was most likely named thusly due to its bright and vivid colours. Phlox originally came from North America and was available in England by the early 1800s. It quickly grew in popularity and today it is still found growing wild in gardens across the world. Among perennials, Phlox paniculata, Phlox divariecata, Phlox glaberrima are earliest species to be cultivated and reached to England and France from Virginia (USA) in the early 18^th century. Among annuals, Phlox drummondii is commonly grown in India. Annual phlox is propagated by seeds, whereas, cutting is used as propagating material for perennial species. Phlox is grown in the garden as bedding and border plant for its dramatic, fragrant, showy and long blooming flowers. The colour range includes white, rose, pink, purple, lavender, violet, pale blue, bright red and magenta. Some flowers are bicoloured.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Phlox is native to North America except one species i.e. Phlox sibirica which originated from Siberia (Meyer, 1944). They are found mostly in North America in diverse habitats from alpine Tundra to open woodland and prairie. Some flower in spring, others in summer and fall. Many are fragrant.

The diversity of species and genera is particularly high in California, USA, where 17 genera and over 170 species occur. Significant diversity also exists elsewhere in the world. A principle lineage consisting of Cantua, Cobaea, and Bonplandia is distributed natively only in Mexico, central America and northwestern South America. In Eastern North America, the genus Phlox is unusually diverse compared to the rest of the family. Other than members of Phlox, only a few species occur natively east of the Mississippi river in the United States, such as Ipomopsis rubra, Collomia linearis and a few Polemonium. A few Phlox and Polemonium species are also found natively in Eurasia. Central and South America, particularly the western regions of South America, are also home to some members of the phlox family. A small number of species from several genera that are most abundant in North America, such as Collomia, Gilia, Navarretia and Leptosiphon are found only in western South America, indicating multiple instances of long distance dispersal (Grant, 1959 and Morrell et al., 2000). Occasional species, such as skunkweed (Navarretia squarrosa) and Collomia grandiflora, have become weedy in parts of Europe and Australia and some cultivated species, such as members of Cobaea, have become naturalized outside their native range (Grant, 1959, Hussey et al., 1997, Pysek et al., 2002 and Anon., 2003).

Abstract: Phlox, garden annual, is used as an ideal crop for cytogenetical study. The modern cultivars are grown for ground cover in beds, borders, rock gardens or as edging in landscaping. Phlox taxa serve as a model for speciation through hybridization and contribute to domestication of wild species through interspecific hybridization which revitalized the crop. Limited fertility, reproductive barriers, germination challenges, low seed set often pose significant challenges to breeders. The increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits and molecular genetic techniques are valuable tools aiding modern phlox breeders. Breeding objectives with high priority include dwarf stature, novel forms, winter hardiness and disease resistance.

1.0. Objectives

• To impart knowledge of Phonetic and phonology and the significance of its taching and learning
• To make understand how sounds of the alphabets are made and perceived
• To demonstrate the use of the phonetics material

2.0 Introduction to Phonetics

Phonetics is a branch of Linguistics. It is a word derived from the Greek word, phone= sound/ voice. It is the study of sounds and the human voice.

Phonology is the study of sound patterns of a particular language.