eChapters

Soil conservation: it is using and managing land based on the capabilities of land itself, involving the application of the best practices to result in greatest profitable production without damaging the land Principles of soil conservation The aim of soil conservation is to obtain the maximum sustainable level of production from a given area of land whilst maintaining soil loss below a threshold level which theoretically, permits the natural rate of soil formation to keep pace with the rate of soil erosion. In addition, there may be a need to reduce erosion to control the loss of nutrients from agricultural land to prevent pollution of water bodies; to decrease rates of sedimentation in reservoirs, rivers, canals and ditches In the longer term, erosion has to be controlled to prevent land deteriorating in quality until it has to be abandoned and cannot be reclaimed, thereby limiting options for future landuse.

Introduction For sustainability hill agriculture water conservation issues are of great concern. Water is a generally limiting factor for crop production in hills and further water scarcity is arising at alarming rate due to climate change, declining soil productivity and inefficient management factors. Global warming is also putting the serious impact on the intensity, frequency and distribution of the rainfall. Further hill soils are ecologically fragile with undulated steep soils with low water retentive capacity where irrigation is not available. Moreover scope of supplying water by developing new water resources is limited thus under these conditions there is an urgent need for development of recent advanced agrotechniques to conserve and harvest natural water resources and protect the fragile environment of hills.

Farm economic efficiency of a specific area is an important factor of productivity and growth, where resources are scare and opportunities for developing and adopting better technologies have lately declining. No doubt, conventional farming is risky and farmers are reluctant to invert heavily in crop production. Modest increments in productivity are no longer sufficient to justify the investment of scarce resources as farming sector is small scale and resource poor, but integrated farming system assumes greater importance for sound management of farm resources to enhance the farm productivity, reduce the environmental degradation, improve the quality of life of resource poor farmers and to maintained sustainability. Farming system refers to the farm wherein two or more enterprises are integrated with the farm resources for achieving the fuller utilization, realize maximum profit and stabilize returns.

Introduction Agricultural extension plays a pivotal role in the advancement of agriculture in any nation. It encompasses the dissemination of knowledge, guidance, and assistance to farmers, rural communities, and various stakeholders involved in the agricultural domain. The primary objective of agricultural extension is to empower farmers to enhance their productivity, income, and overall quality of life. The concept of agricultural extension has undergone significant transformations across various countries, including India. This article will delve into the historical progression of agricultural extension both internationally and within the Indian context.

Introduction Since about 10,000 years ago, men and women have been rearing livestock and producing crops. Information about agricultural practices can be found in documents dating back over 3,000 years from ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China. Agricultural extension services have evolved and developed in many parts of the world to address agricultural systems’ unique challenges and requirements. These initiatives aimed to provide farmers with scientific knowledge, technological advancements, and improved farming practices to enhance agricultural productivity.

Introduction The world of agriculture stands at the crossroads of innovation and tradition, and at the heart of this dynamic sector lies the crucial role of farm journalism. In the backdrop of evolving technologies, shifting market dynamics, and the everpressing need for sustainability, farm journalism emerges as a vital conduit of information, education, and advocacy for farmers and rural communities. This chapter delves into the multifaceted realm of farm journalism, exploring its definition, scope, guiding principles, and its indispensable functions and roles in the sphere of rural development.

Introduction India’s vast and diverse agricultural landscape has one of the greatest agricultural sectors. With over 60% of its people working in agriculture, India’s economy and food security heavily depend on agriculture. In recent years, the world has witnessed many difficulties, including information access restrictions, dispersed property ownership, and uncertainty brought on by climate change. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has emerged as a potent tool for empoweringfarmers, boosting production, promoting sustainable practices in response to these difficulties, and bringing game-changing transformations in Indian agriculture. India ranks second among Asian countries in the advanced user category. On the one hand, profit motivation, corporate expansion, community services, and rural welfare have been the goals of ICT-based agricultural models in India (Spielman et al., 2021).

Introduction Agriculture plays a vital role in human societies and economies around the world. It is the prime food source for human populations, ensuring a reliable supply of nutritious food for the health and well-being of people everywhere. It is a major contributor to the economy of many countries, particularly in the developing world, where it provides livelihoods for millions of people and supports local and national economies. Agriculture is both impacted by and contributes to climate change. However, sustainable agriculture cultivation can also help to reduce the consequences of climate change by decreasing emissions of greenhouse gas and increasing resilience to extreme weather events.

Introduction The Indian economy depends heavily on agriculture, which is also key to its expansion and advancement. In India, agriculture and related industries support more than two thirds of the people either directly or indirectly. 85 percent of Indian agriculture’s growers are small and marginal farmers (GOI, 2010-11). It is difficult for them to access markets, knowledge, loans, and agricultural extension services. As a result of the high transaction costs, the food sectors, finds challenges to buy agricultural products directly from farmers. This renders the supplychains ineffective and raises issues with food safety, lack of transparency, and traceability. Although debt is frequently stated as the direct cause of their misery, deeper problems including low scale operations, a lack of information, inadequate communication links with the wider market, etc., are also involve in these phenomena.

Introduction The primary mission of extension services is to facilitate desirable changes in human behaviour through educational means. These changes can encompass various aspects, including knowledge, skills, attitudes, understanding, goals,actions, and confidence. Effective communication is the cornerstone of an extension worker’s role. Their responsibility extends beyond merely informing farmers about improved practices; they are tasked with ensuring that the results of research and field trials are practically applied by farmers. Nevertheless, extension workers often encounter perplexing questions in their line of work.

Introduction In modern agriculture, soft resources like knowledge and skills are sometimes even more crucial than hard resources like inputs. In the 21st century, agriculture has to overcome a number of obstacles, including feeding an expanding population while a declining rural labour force, producing more feedstocks for a huge bioenergy market, supporting the overall development of many developing countries heavily dependent on agriculture, adopting more efficient and sustainable production techniques, and adapting to climate change (Colle, 2011). In order to make efficient and effective agricultural decisions, farmers are increasingly adopting information (Cash, 2001). Compared to the current availability of roughly 0.1 million personnel, the required number of extension agent who worked in field level is anticipated in between 1.3 to 1.5 million.

Introduction Extension programmes are strategically planned and implemented by an organization, typically a government department, with the majority of their funding originating from public sources. In the dynamic and ever-changing landscape of developmental initiatives, extension programmes play a pivotal role in fostering progress and transforming societies. These initiatives, designed to extend knowledge, skills, and resources to target communities, are instrumental in addressing pressing challenges and promoting positive change across various sectors. In order to justify the allocation of public funds and to measure effectiveness and sustainability of the programmes, it is imperative to conduct thorough and comprehensive monitoring and evaluations of their administration and impact at regular intervals.

Introduction Market led extension effectively delivers sufficient and high-quality information to farmers so they can make decisions about production and marketing that willmaximize their return on investment without endangering the needs of future generations. Farmers must improve from being producers or sellers in the home market areas to producers cum sellers in a large market to best reap the benefits of their products. This necessitates the transfer of new extension strategies involving a range from local market to export markets, subsistence to commercial agriculture, productivity to profitability, commodity-oriented to farming systemsoriented, mono-cropping to varieties of crops, and so forth. The extension agents’ attention must be diverted from production in some way. Reducing production costs, increasing product value, and enhancing marketability will assist the farming community in receiving high returns for the products.

Introduction Agricultural sector is the pillar of the Indian economy. It provides employment to around half of the workforce of the country and contributes around 18 per cent to the gross value added of the country. Small and marginal landholdings, constituting less than 2 hectares, make up a significant 85 percent of India’s farming community (Joshi, 2022). These small farmers encounter various challenges, including farm-specific and household transaction costs that limit their participation in input and product markets. With changing food preferences driven by income and population growth, there’s a growing need for small-farm commercialization to meet the rising demand for diversified, higher-quality diets (Chakraborty, 2020). To address the constraints faced by small farms, aggregation models have emerged as institutional interventions.

Introduction There is an emergence of a transformative paradigm of participatory approaches in various fields such as management, health care and education, community development, etc. Participatory approaches challenge the top-down approach used frequently for decision making (Narayanasamy, 2009). Participation is a dynamic process where two individuals exchange their ideas, thoughts, and knowledge for making proper decisions and solving the problems faced by local people. It is a process of empowering individuals that helps people make proper analysis, make their own decisions, and develop their confidence. It is successfully used in increasing self-help activities of local people and for proper implementation and evaluation of large scale projects. FAO has reported that through participatory programmes it is very easy to mobilise local knowledge for self-reliant development, reducing government assistance costs.

Introduction Terms total development of rural areas with the purpose of increasing the quality of life for rural people is referred to as rural development. It is a broad anddiverse concept that encourages the expansion of agricultural and allied activities, communities, cottage industries and crafts, community services and facilities, and total human resources in rural areas. As a strategy, rural development is the result of interactions between many physical, technological, economic, and societal elements. Its purpose is to improve the economic and social well-being of a particular rural demographic group. Rural development is a multifaceted concept that covers various aspects of development in order to improve rural people’s quality of life (Ilbery, 2008). Agriculture, village industries, crafts, community services, and rural human resource development all fall under this category.

Introduction The term ‘communication’ originates from the Latin word ‘Communis’, means the act of imparting, participating, and transmitting or the notion of making something common or sharing it among individuals. Communication encompasses the multifaceted process of sharing and exchanging ideas, emotions, information, and experiences between two or more individuals. It embodies the act of transmitting thoughts or expressions, serving as a vital conduit for the flow of knowledge and understanding. Essentially, it is aligning a sender and receiver for a specific message or series of messages. Leagans (1961) states that communication is the process by which two or more people exchange ideas, facts, feelings or impressions in ways that each gains a common understanding of the meaning, intent and use of messages. Effective communication is not just about issuing orders; it is about fostering comprehension (Suresh, 2003). It beyond imparting knowledge to enabling a profound understands (TNAU, 2012).

Introduction Market-led extension is a strategic approach aimed at providing farmers with valuable and high-quality information to enhance their decision-making processes in both production and marketing. This approach acknowledges the global nature of modern markets and encourages farmers to transition from being mere producers in local markets to becoming sellers in broader, potentially international markets. To make this shift successful, it is essential to equip extension workers, those who offer agricultural guidance, with the necessary skills and knowledge about market dynamics (Ahmad and Slathia, 2011). This involves a shift in their approach, moving from solely focusing on increasing productivity to emphasizing profitability. It also involves transitioning from subsistence farming to a more commercial orientation, from single-commodity farming to diversified crop production, and from local markets to global export markets.

Millets or nutri-cereals are the ancient grains which have now regained the interest of the scientific community as the super grains. These exhibit excellent nutritional and technobiofunctional profile apart from exhibiting tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. The millets are gluten free and show high in vitro protein digestibility, resistant starch content, antioxidant and prebiotic potential providing health benefits for all age groups ranging from paediatrics to geriatrics. The presence of certain anti-nutritional factors can lower the bioavailability of proteins and minerals. Processing enhances the nutritional and functional properties by increasing the antioxidant content and lowering the antinutrients. Different value added products can be prepared by incorporating millets thereby enhancing the nutritional and functional attributes. It is necessary to bring millets into regular consumption by the food industry in the interest of nutritionally and health-conscious consumer.

1. Introduction Millets, also known as “smart crops” or “miracle grains,” are a group of small-seeded, hardy cereal crops that have been cultivated for millennia. They are used as a staple food in many of the countries particularly located in arid and semi-arid regions. Millets have been overshadowed for quite a long time by commonly consumed cereals like wheat, rice, and maize. Nevertheless, they have made a remarkable comeback in our cuisines owing to the growing awareness and recognition of the numerous benefits at individual and environmental level. These small, drought-resistant grains play a pivotal role in addressing some of the most pressing global issues like food security, malnutrition and climate change.

1. Introduction Millets are the Nutri-cereals belonging to the Poaceae family and are classified into two major categories: major and minor, depending on their size and nutritional composition. Most millet crops are indigenous to India and are referred to as “nutri-cereals” since they contain most of the nutrients needed for the body to function properly. Millets such as Sorghum (Jowar), Pearl Millet (Bajra), and Finger Millet (Ragi) are the millets that come under the category of major millets. In contrast, the minor millets category includes Foxtail Millet (Kakun), Proso Millet (Cheena), Kodo Millet, Barnyard Millet (Sanwa), Little Millet (Kutki), Brown top millet including two pseudo millet that includes Buckwheat (Kuttu) and Amaranth (Chaulai) (Saini et al., 2021).

1. Introduction Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), a cereal grain belongs to the grass family (Poaceae), within the subfamily (Panicoidea) and in the tribe (Andropogoneae) (H.J. et al., 2005). It is grown throughout the world in regions with warmer summers and with daytime temperatures often exceeding 90°F (Rai et al., 1999).After wheat, maize, rice, and barley, it is the fifth most significant and nutritious millet in terms of volume. While many varieties of millets are exclusively cultivated for human consumption, sorghum is widely farmed for – food and feed for humans and animals respectively (Awika, 2011). For millions of people in Africa and Asia, sorghum is commonly consumed as a staple.. In West Africa, sorghum is known as dawa, guinea corn, and sorgho while in Sudan, it is referred as durra; in Ethiopia,Eritrea and East Africa, mtama; in southern Africa, kaffircorn, mabele, or amabele; and in the Indian subcontinent, jowar, jonna, cholam, or jola.(Bantilan et al., 2004).

1. Introduction Millets, one of the earliest foods consumed by humans, may have been the first cereal grain utilised in domestic cookery. It belongs to the Graminae grass family. The name “millet” describes a number of little-seeded grasses (annual) that are classified into five genera: Setaria, Panicum, Pennisetum, Paspalum, and Echinocloa in the tribe Paniceae, and one genus: Eleusine in the tribe Chlorideae (Pushpavalli, 2015). India ranks first in the production of millets followed by Niger and China (FAO, 2020). Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) serves as food, fuel, and fodder on a global scale. Since, it contributes up to 75% of all grain output in East Africa and several regions of India; it plays a significant role in indigenous diets. After rice and wheat, pearl millet is the third most significant crop farmed in India. Ninety percent of the country’s land is used for cultivating pearl millet, with Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana being the main states.

1. Introduction Millets have gained popularity as staple foods worldwide, particularly in regions with hot and humid climates. These crops are often cultivated in marginal areas where major grains struggle to yield significant harvests (Thapliyal and Singh, 2015). One such millet is finger millet (Eleusine coracana), native to Ethiopia, and widely grown in Africa and India, where it is known by various names, including ragi and mandua (Table 1). In many developing countries, finger millet serves as a staple for a substantial portion of the population, especially those belonging to lower economic strata, providing essential nutrients (Chandra et al., 2016).

1. Introduction Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum (L.) belongs to the grass family Paniceae. It is a perennial cropthat grows in summer each year as late-seeded summer crop (Figure 1). Its origin can be traced back to at least 2000 B.C. when it was said to be grown in the Central European regions. Proso millet plant thrives in dry areas such as Africa, Central Russia, Manchuria, Middle East and Northern India and North America’s Great Plains. Proso millet was introduced to Canada in the 17th century and used sparingly as a feed crop in the early 1900s (Rajasekaran and Francis, 2021). This is a low-demand crop and is utilised in organic farming systems across Europe and as an intercrop in the United States. Its shallow root system and resistance to atrazine residue make it a great intercrop between two crops that need a lot of water and pesticides. The last crop’s stubbles entrap more heat into the soil which promotes faster and earlier growth of millet. Hence, it can help to evade summer drought and achieve continual crop rotation (Kalinova and Moudry, 2006). It is an erect herbaceous annual crop with a lot of tillering. Its plant can reach a height of 45-100 centimetres. The stem is thin, with prominently enlarged nodes. The roots are thin and fibrous.

1. Introduction Millets, including foxtail millet (Setaria italica), are gaining popularity as “smart foods” due to their numerous benefits for the planet, consumers, and farmers (Anitha et al., 2021). Foxtail millet, classified as a major millet, belongs to the genus Setaria in the Poaceae family. It has a rich history, with archaeological remains dating back 7400-7935 years in northern China and cultivation in Europe around 4000 years ago (Lu et al., 2009). Foxtail millet is currently cultivated in 26 countries and stands as the secondhighest cultivated millet globally. It is a relatively short plant, growing up to 2-5 feet tall, and demonstrates high resistance to various stresses, both biotic and abiotic(Sharma and Niranjan, 2018). The crop’s short generation cycle of 5-8 weeks from planting to flowering, followed by 8-15 weeks to attain seed maturity, allows for harvesting within 75-90 days after plantation. Foxtail millet produces hundreds of seeds per inflorescence (Li et al., 2020).

1. Introduction Millet is a heterogeneous group of small-seeded cereal crops classified based on their morphology as major millet and minor millet. Little millet (Panicum sumatrense) are small millets generally categorized as minor millet cereal crops. It is a self-pollinated crop that belongs to the family Poaceae and subfamily Panicoideae with a chromosome number of 2n=36 (Nandini and Bhat, 2019). It is a traditional cereal grain crop widely produced in India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Western Myanmar. Little millet is widely cultivated in the tribal belt of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu in India for food and feed (Ganapathy, 2017). Indigenously, it is commonly known as samai (Tamil), kutki (Hindi), savior same (Kannada), chama (Malayalam) (Table 1).

Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum) is a resilient and ancient cereal crop native to the Indian subcontinent. Its cultivation dates back to ancient times, with references found in historical texts such as the Brihad Sanhita. This millet species exhibits remarkable adaptability to various agroclimatic conditions, making it well-suited for cultivation across different regions. Kodo millet thrives in a range of soil types, particularly well-drained and sandy soils, which contribute to its successful growth and yield. In terms of nutritional composition, kodo millet stands out as a significant source of protein, dietary fiber, minerals, and antioxidants. Its bioactive components contribute to potential health benefits, including aiding in diabetes management, improving cardiovascular health, and providing essential nutrients. The processing of kodo millet involves various techniques such as puffing, roasting, milling, and fermentation, each influencing its nutritional profile and culinary applications.

1. Introduction Millets are the oldest crops known to mankind. They are mostly cultivated for human consumption however; some are also used as animal fodder. Barnyard millet Echinochloa frumentacea is a multi-purpose crop belonging to the kingdom plantae, order-poales, family-poaceae, subfamily-panicoideae, genus-Echinochloa & species-E. frumentacea. It was domesticated about 4,000 years ago with two main species: Echinochloa esculenta (Japanese barnyard millet) and Echinochloa frumentacea (Indian barnyard millet). The former species is mainly grown in Japan, Korea, and northeastern China, while the latter is grown in Pakistan, India, and Nepal. In India, barnyard millet is grown in the Himalayan region from the north to the Deccan plateau in the south and is popularly known as jhangora or sawan millet.

Browntop millet (Urochloaramosa) is a warm-season crop that produces seeds that are heavier than other millet varieties. This crop is cultivated in several types of soils and climates. Browntop millet is an introduced grass that originated in Southeast Asia. It is grown in Africa, western Asia, Arabia, China, and Australia. It was introduced to the United States from India in 1915. It is also useful for controlling erosion, producing hay, feeding wild animals, and producing grain for human use. In addition, it is also utilized as a crop for wild animal food. In dry and semi-arid regions, millets constitute the main food supply. Although India is the main producer of millet, output and use have fallen. Browntop millets are nutrient-dense. Browntop millet is a miracle crop for arid and rainfed areas. Nearly all of the necessary nutrients are found in browntop millets.

1. Introduction Plants have played a crucial role in fulfilling human needs for centuries, and among the vast array of plant species, Job’s Tear (Coixlacryma-jobi L), also known as adlay, coix, and Chinese pearl barley, holds significant potential as a crop in the Poaceae family. There are four main varieties of Job’s Tear, including C. lacryma-jobi var. ma-yuen, C. lacryma-jobi var. Puellarum, C. lacryma-jobi var. lacryma-jobi, and C. lacryma-jobi var. Stenocarpa. The Indo-Maynmar region serves as the primary producing area for Job’s Tear millet, with other significant production countries being China, Japan, the Philippines, Myanmar, Thailand, Sri Lanka, and India (Laxmisha et al.,2022). The versatile crop has earned the status of a staple in many regions, not only ensuring food security but also improving the livelihoods of rural farmers. Beyond its nutritional significance, Job’s Tear has garnered recognition for its potential health benefits.

1. Introduction Fonio (Digitaria exilis), also known as acha, hungry millets, and fundi in various regions, is a minor and underutilized millet with exceptionally small size (H. Sartelet et al., 1996; Bello et al., 2020). This ancient crop native to West Africa is considered one of the oldest cultivated millets for ensuring food security. Figure 1 illustrates the components and structure of fonio millets. In recent times, fonio millet has garnered increased attention due to its remarkable nutritional and functional properties (Zhu, 2020). Being gluten-free, it is rich in nutrients such as carbohydrates, fat, fiber, vitamins, and minerals (Fe, Cl, K, Mg) as well as essential sulphur-containing amino acids like methionine and cysteine, which also possess phenolic properties (Barikmo et al., 2004; Zhu, 2020).

. Introduction Millets, once considered as humble and forgotten grains, have made a remarkable comeback owing to their numerous health benefits, sustainability, and resilience in diverse agroclimatic conditions. Millet consumption is gaining momentum globally and thus it becomes imperative to establish clear and comprehensive standards for these grains. The chapter gives an insight into the reasons why millet standards are necessary, the challenges associated with implementing such standards and advocacy for a concerted effort to promote these nutritious grains as staples in our diets.

Millets have immense potential of providing nutritional security worldwide and play a pivotal role in food and nutrition economy. The nutritional aspects of millets are comparatively superior from the widely consumed cereals across the globe. With the presence of various essential macro nutrients millets are also enriched with the goodness of micro nutrients as minerals, vitamins and possess various bioactive compounds that portray several health benefits. The nutritional attributes of the millets are accompanied with several antinutritional factors such as tannins, phytates, saponins, trypsin and amylase inhibitors etc. that limit the bioavailability of the essential nutrients and minerals in these wonder grains upon consumption.

1. Introduction Ayurvedic texts like Charak Samhita and Sushruta Samhita, have described millets as the staple food useful in managing diabetes mellitus (Sachan Kumar, 2004). Based on the experience of eating these millets for time immemorial, there exists also a strong traditional knowledge about health benefits associated with them. For example, as per an adage in the state of Karnataka, India: “Those who eat rice will grow as a light weight; their body being just like that of a bird; those who eat Jowar will become as strong as a wolf but those who eat Ragi (millets) will be the strongest of them all, plus they would be free from illness (‘nirogi’ in Sanskrit)”! Certain studies from literature refer nutraceutical character of millets, especially, Kodo and Kutki, which in our opinion should help mankind in eradicating malnutrition and hunger while ensuring sustainable supply of food.

1. Introduction The chapter aims to bring out the potential benefits of radiation processing technology for value-addition of millets. How the radiation processing technology can be exploited for making millets as a popular staple food would be the central theme. The key focus is to establish if irradiation (the term generally used for radiation processing of any material) can be employed for making millets for different purposes relevant to farmers and consumers. In order to understand and prove, we would list out the challenges involved in developing the market for millets. The key points that need to be considered for this go-to-market strategy for millets are : a) Millet grains have a long shelf-life, much better than the popular grains e.g., rice and wheat, consumed worldwide, but millet flour shelf life is significantly much shorter.

1. Introduction According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, 780 million of the estimated 792.5 million malnourished people globally are in countries that are developing. Despite expanded agricultural production, “hidden hunger,” which is often caused by a shortage of vital micronutrients in daily meals, affects around 2 billion people worldwide. Majority of the population is relying on plant-based diets which are critical for sustaining nutritional security and are the primary source of nutrients required for optimal growth and development. Most of these diets are found deficit in major nutrients such as proteins, iron, calcium and Vitamin B12.However, a considerable number of Asian and African populations suffer from nutritional inadequacies as a result of consuming plant-based diets (Tripathi et al., 2019). Earlier, the main concern of farming systems was crop productivity and yield. However, there has been a shift in emphasis toward human health and well-being.

Aquaculture production is promptly increasing all over the world. To increase the demand and for best management practices, we required additional technological innovations in various fisheries and aquaculture fields such as breeding, feeds, disease management, etc. The study of epigenetics provides a new way to comprehend ecofriendly-induced epigenetic markers linked to economically relevant features, disease resistance, and other qualities, allowing for the establishment of more suitable breeding conditions in aquaculture. CH Waddington invented the term “epigenetics” in 1942 to define the “study of the interactions between genes and their products that bring the phenotype into being,” which establishes the relationship between DNA segment and phenotype (Waddingto, 1942). Epigenetics is defined as processes or events that influence gene activity inheritance without relying on variations in DNA base sequences.

Introduction According to the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, the world population increase from 7.7 to 9.7 billion by 2050; therefore, a growing demand for seafood and the production gap is anticipated due to stagnating fish supply from capture fisheries. The production gap may be curtailed by intensification of aquaculture practices rather than horizontal expansion. Intensive farming practices such as cage and pen culture in open water have gained significant attention and are related to the efficient utilization of untapped potential water bodies and of existing resources.

Introduction The impact of COVID-19 on the fisheries and food industries of vary, and the situation is rapidly evolving. Fisheries products that are highly dependent on international trade suffered quite early in the development of the pandemic from the restrictions and closures of global markets, whereas fresh fish and shellfish supply chains were severely impacted by the closure of the food service sectors (e.g. hotels, restaurants and catering facilities, including school and work canteens). Although COVID-19 does not fish, the fisheries sector is still have indirect impact in the pandemic caused changing consumer demands, market access or logistical problems related to transportation and border restrictions (Purkait et al., 2020). This will in turn have a damaging the effect on fisheries and aquaculture farmers in livelihoods, as well as on their food security of the populations that rely heavily of the fish for protein and essential micronutrients. The processing sector also faced closures due to reduced/lost consumer demand. This has had a significant impact, especially on women, who form the majority of the workforce in the post-harvest sector (Avtar et al., 2021).

Introduction Rapid increase in world population in last few decades has challenged the food producing sector (Agriculture, poultry, dairying and aquaculture) massively to meet the global food demand. The population is expected to be 9.9 billion by 2050 which means the food producing sector have to increase production by 60% further more than the current production (FAO, 2020). According to FAO (2016) approximately 17% animal protein and 7% total protein consumed by humans were provided by fish. Accordingly, per capita fish consumption was gradually increasing worldwide at 1.5% rate annually from 9.0 kg in 1961 to 20.5 kg in 2017 (FAO, 2018; Fajardo et al., 2022). Aquaculture which accounts for 47% of total fish production is expected to overtake capture fisheries by 2024 and reach 52% by 2029 (FAO, 2020).

Introduction A few decades back, no one would ever consider the potential danger posed by an ocean overrun with jellyfish? But many researchers around the world assure us that we can turn that danger into an asset with the help of scientific ideas and careful management. Gelatinous zooplankton like jellyfish are thought to have existed millions of years before the dinosaurs did. There are cases where these emotionless, mindless, bloodless organisms kill an adult human (Wilson, 1947). Despite being an annoyance, they could greatly benefit human society in many ways. The unfortunate truth is that even though they have 500 million years of history, they still appear to be an untapped opportunity. Jellyfish are not only edible, but also extremely nutritious due to their low calorie, fat, and protein/collagen content. Jellyfish are known for their refined taste, which can lean toward the salty side. The texture is more of a factor; it's not as gelatinous as one might think, falling somewhere between a summer squash and a glass noodle. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report published in 2019, human activities have had an impact on virtually all marine organisms, including corals, oysters, and other marine organisms. However, jellyfish are more resistant to the acidic effects of the world's oceans. This does not necessarily imply that these organisms are highly immune, but they are doing better than average. There are about hundred known venomous jellyfish species out of an estimated 10,000 worldwide.

Intoduction Cybertaxonomy is an abbreviation for "cyber-enabled taxonomy." It shares the traditional goals of taxonomy: to explore, discover, characterize, name, and classify species; to study their phylogenetic relationships; and to map their ecological associations and geographic distributions. To improve the speed with which we can help in providing taxonomic products and information, there is undoubtedly a requirement to move taxonomic endeavour into the digital era. Currently, the rate at which we record and maintain morphological information that enables species discovery is the primary constraint on taxonomic productivity (Lasalle, et al., 2009). Cybertaxonomy is one attempt to accomplish this complex goal. Cybertaxonomy employs a collection of electronic tools to assist and equip the science of taxonomy in accelerating species invention and the implementation of taxonomic expertise in biodiversity investigation.Cybertaxomy can yield results more quickly and efficiently than ever before thanks to adoption of digital technologies and cybertaxonomy.

Introduction The fish is an important source of protein as it constitute about 17 of the total animal protein (SOFIA, 2018) and the rising demand for fish has led to unsustainable exploitation of marine and inland water resources and fishstocks are getting overexploited, due to which the output from capture fisheries is uncertain. This has put difficulty for the management of our open water resources. It is now urgent to develop a management strategy for conservation of natural resources for future generation as our responsibility. Hilborn and Walters (1992) define stocks are arbitrary groups of fish large enough to be essentially self-reproducing, with members of each group having similar life history characteristics. Stock is defined as "a part of a fish population usually with a particular migration pattern, specific spawning grounds, and subject to a distinct fishery" by the International Council for the Exploration of the Seas. Understanding the importance of delineating the stocks and their boundaries which have become an essential part of fishery management and conservation.

Introduction The Chilika lagoon situated in the eastern coast of India within 85º05' and 85º38' east longitude and 19º54' North latitude near Bay of Bengal and one of the biggest estuarine-style brackish water lagoon in Asia and the greatest migratory waterfowl wintering area on the Indian subcontinent (Suresh et al., 2018). In the monsoon & summer time, the lagoon's size varies between 1165 and 906 sq. km. The total catchment area of the lagoon is 4,406 sq km, of which 32% is made up of the Mahanadi delta and 68% is western catchment (Bengtsson et al., 2012). The lake has a distinctive combination of freshwater, brackish, and marine ecosystems with estuary characteristics. In 1981, Chilika Lake was chosen as the India's first "Ramsar site" and it considered as one of the biodiversity hotspots of the nation (Kumar et al., 2012). The lake is very productive and has abundant fisheries resources. Over 0.15 million fishermen live around the lagoon and rely on its productive fishing grounds for their livelihood (Suresh et al., 2018). The lake area is home to certain uncommon, endangered and IUCN threatened species.

Background The Enormous diversity of our planet harbors individuals of the sexually reproducing population that are unique and non-identical in nature. This unique nature is the source of this vast diversity. Taxonomy is critical for identification and classification. The oldest of the scientific disciplines, taxonomy, isdescribed as the theory and practice of classifying organisms (Mayr, 1982; Mayr and Ashlock, 1991). Taxonomy is a branch of systematics that deals with the idea and practice of classifying and describing diversity (Nelson, 2006). According to the global estimates of species (Mora et al., 2011; Costello et al., 2013), 1.2-1.5 million species are considered to be described and valid to date (Costello et al., 2013; Mora et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2011). The enormous and intriguing variation among the species, as well as anatomical differences between species, developmental stages, and geographical ranges, make identification difficult. Rapid documenting of biodiversity should be a top priority before it is lost. This necessitates quick and accurate taxonomic expertise as well as enhanced identification methods, paving the way for the emergence of Integrative taxonomy (Dayrat, 2005), which combines all available data, whether morphological, behavioral, ecological, or molecular.

Background The Gulf of Mannar is one of the world’s richest marine biodiversity areas, as well as the first biosphere reserve in the region. The EEZ (Exclusive Economic Zone) of this region is around 15,000 square kilometres, with commercial fishing taking place in about 5,500 square kilometres (Arnold John M. 2017). Throughout the year, both mechanised trawlers and non-mechanized vessels fish in this area (Arnold John M 2001). Crustaceans are the most key members of the benthic organism strata and have a higher nutritional value for humans, and a large number of tiny species contribute to the complexity and sustainability of tropical ecosystems. (Hendrickx 1995). The Brachyuran crab is one of them, and it dominates many estuary regions where salinity and temperatures can vary substantially on a daily basis. (Ng et al. 2008). There are around seven hundred genera and five thousand to ten thousand species of brachyuran crabs in the globe.

Introduction Salmonella is a gram-negative, rod shaped bacteria, facultative anaerobe and non-spore forming. Motile by peritrichous flagella, except S. Gallinarum & S. Pullorum. Salmonella is a genus consists two species called S. enterica and S. bongori and six subspecies viz., enterica I, salamae II, arizonae IIIa, diarizonae IIIb, houtenae IV, indica VI and bongori V. the sub species were categorized into serotypes based on serological characters like somatic (O) - lipopolysaccharides (LPS) on the external surface of the bacterial outer membrane, flagellin (H) – globular protein peritrichous flagella and capsular (Vi) – polysaccharide - O acetylated α 1-4, linked N- acetyl galactosaminuronic acids occurs only in S. Typhi, S. Paratyphi and S. Dublin. Salmonella plays an important role in affecting the safety of foods as it survives in a wider range of environmental conditions (Finn et al., 2013). Seafood are often contaminated with Salmonella (Duran and Marshall, 2005) and their presence causes negative impact on seafood export. During 2020-21, India exported 1.15 MMT of seafood worth US$ 5.96 billion mainly to the USA, China and EU, which are the major importers of Indian seafood (MPEDA, 2022).

Introduction Surimi and surimi based seafoods are traditional products of Japan and occupy an important position in the dietary culture of the country. Today, the largest producers of surimi are the United States, Japan and Thailand. Surimi is also manufactured in China, Vietnam and Malaysia. The process of makingsurimi originated in Southeast Asia and was further developed in Japan in the 16th century. Surimi is a product of Japanese origin, derived from a traditional Japanese way of using and preserving fresh fish. The word ‘surimi’ comes from the Japanese words ‘suru’ meaning ‘to process’ and ‘mash/mi’ meaning ‘meat’. Technically, surimi is the stabilized myofibrillar protein which is obtained by mechanically deboned fish flesh, which is washed, mixed with cryoprotectants, and stored frozen. Washing not only removes fat and undesirable matters such as blood, pigments and odoriferous substances but also increases the concentration of myofibrillar protein. A fish-based product serving the raw material for preparation of analog of seafoods like crab, lobster, scallop & other shellfish.

Introduction PCR is an important molecular tool used widely in different applied research fields such as Infectious disease diagnosis, clinical medicine development and gene cloning etc., (Fang et al., 2008). Among different amplification methods, PCR was the first to be developed and has been the method of choice for its simplicity, easier methodology, extensively validated standard operating procedure and availability of reagents and equipment’s. However, it also has a good number of limitations such as advanced equipment, high cost, sensitivity to certain classes of contaminants and inhibitors requirement of thermal cycling etc. (Fakruddin, 2011). These limitations of PCR allowed to develop the alternative methods such as loop mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) (Notomi et al., 2000), nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA) (Compton, 1991), self?sustained sequence replication (3SR) (Guatelli et al., 1990), rolling circle amplification (RCA) (Lizardi et al., 1998) etc., most of these techniques are isothermal that don’t require thermal cycler. These methods have many advantages over PCR in terms of speed, cost, scale or portability.