eChapters

Marketing of Poultry and Poultry Products

Marketing involves the exchange of produce for an agreed sum of money and is a critical commercial process that encompasses promoting, selling, and distributing products. At its core, marketing is about understanding customer needs and providing products that meet these needs profitably. It is an essential business function that focuses on customer satisfaction and business growth.

Objectives of Marketing

1. Employment Generation: Marketing creates gainful employment opportunities for millions, thereby increasing income levels.

2. Demand Enhancement: It aims to boost the demand for poultry products, which in turn generates more employment opportunities in rural areas.

3. Improved Standards of Living: By providing essential nutrients like amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals through poultry products, marketing contributes to the better health and standard of living of poultry farmers. 4. Efficient Supply: Ensures that poultry products are available at the right time, place, quantity, and price.

The agriculture sector faces significant challenges in mitigating the detrimental impacts of pests and diseases on crop yield and quality. Traditional methods of pest and disease management often fall short in providing timely and precise interventions, leading to substantial economic losses and environmental consequences. In recent years, the integration of geo-spatial technology has emerged as a promising approach to address these challenges by enabling more accurate monitoring, prediction, and management of pests and diseases.

The integration of geo-spatial technology in pest and disease management within agricultural practices represents a significant stride towards precision agriculture. This chapter delves into the innovative application of geospatial tools in identifying, monitoring, and mitigating pests and diseases, thereby optimizing crop yield and quality while minimizing environmental impact. Beginning with an overview of the challenges posed by pests and diseases in agriculture, the chapter highlights the limitations of traditional methods in effectively addressing these issues. It then explores how geo- spatial technology, encompassing Geographic Information Systems (GIS), remote sensing, and global positioning systems (GPS), revolutionizes pest and disease management by providing real-time, spatially explicit data. The discussion extends to the utilization of satellite imagery and aerial drones for early detection and monitoring of pest infestations and disease outbreaks. Through case studies and examples, the efficacy of geo-spatial technology in mapping pest distribution patterns, predicting outbreaks, and implementing targeted interventions is elucidated.

Soil health management plays a pivotal role in sustainable agriculture and directly influencing plant growth, crop productivity and environmental quality. Healthy soils are essential for nutrient cycling, water retention and supporting a diverse array of microorganisms that contribute to plant resilience. However, modern agricultural practices, including the excessive use of chemical fertilizers, monoculture cropping and improper irrigation, have degraded soil health, leading to nutrient imbalances, reduced organic matter and soil erosion. This has sparked a growing awareness of the need for effective soil health management strategies that not only maintain but enhance soil quality. Innovative tools for soil health management are reshaping plant protection strategies by promoting holistic approaches that focus on maintaining and improving the biological, chemical and physical properties of the soil. These tools range from organic amendments and biofertilizers to advanced diagnostic technologies such as soil microbial profiling, remote sensing, and precision agriculture techniques. Together, they offer a comprehensive framework for addressing soil-related constraints and enhancing plant resistance to pests and diseases.

India has a very wealthy tradition of herbal medicines for the treatment of many health discomforts.The tradional healing practicese are common and popular among all the tribes and communities.It is evident that many communities have so much belief in their ethnobotanical knowledge that they often prefer a traditional medicineal practicener over any certified medical personality. Among all the plant species which have been already reported by many researchers for their ethno medicinal properties are getting very rare in their original habitat.These plants are obviously of great medicinal importance and immediate need of conservation.Some medicinal plants which are exclusively found in forest are getting lost due to habitat fragmentation and enormous deforestation.

Collection trips were organized in a planned manner so as to cover every locality in all three seasons. Rural and remote areas which were thus far practically unexplored were surveyed more intensively. Frequency of collection trips was twice a week during first year; once a fortnight in third and once a month in the last and forth years. During the field work, observations on the habit and habitat; flower colour; fragrance; fruiting, colour of the bark and blaze in case of trees and shrubs; dominance and sociability of the collected plants were entered into rough field book. In the mean time information regarding medicinal or other uses, if any, were gathered from local inhabitants, vaidyas and haquims. Plants of small size were uprooted carefully and pressed as such. In case of larger plants, care was taken so that specimens should have flowers, fruits, leaves and stems of young and old stages. At least four specimens, for making herbarium sheets, were pressed at spot after tagging; and a tagged bundle of a few plants was taken in a polythene bag for study in laboratory.

Plantation Crops

Plantation crops occupy an area of around 4 million hectares which is about 2.8 per cent of the total cropped area. However, the export potential of these crops is high and they account for 27 per cent of total agricultural export. The common plantation crops include coconut, oil palm, areca nut, tea, coffee, cocoa, cashewnut and rubber etc. Various pests infest these crops at different stages and cause economic damage. The crop wise details are as under:

Coconut Coconut,

Cocos nucifera also known as ‘Kalpa Vriksha’, as all the parts of the tree are utilized in one or other way. India is the largest producer of coconut in the world. Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh accounts for 90 per cent production of coconut. The other states namely West Bengal, Odisha ,Gujarat, Assam and Bihar contribute around 10 per cent of the total coconut producción. Pests at different stages of crop growth infest coconut tres, resulting in significant economic damage.

For the accurate identification and diagnosis of plant disease and plant problems a foundational knowledge of terms and definitions is vital for developing concepts, doing research, discussing and communicating issues and providing clarity to your work. The following terms and definitions are basic to the study of plant pathology. They are, however, just a brief introduction to the vocabulary of the science. If you have limited or no background in the subject and you are just getting started, the concepts and terminology of plant problems can seem somewhat daunting. However, your vocabulary and skill will develop through exposure to diagnostics, experience and correct use of the appropriate terms.
Plant pathology (gr., path -“suffering”- “logy”, the science of) is the study of plant diseases and the abnormal conditions that constitute plant disorders. Etiology is the determination and study of the cause of disease. A pathogen can be living or non-living, but usually refers to a live agent. A pathogen is an organism which causes a disease. Pathological is a condition of being diseased. Pathogenic is having the characteristics of a pathogen and pathogenicity is the capability of a pathogen to cause a disease.

Principles
The principles involved in thermotherapy is that the pathogens present in seed material are inactivated or eliminated at temperatures nonlethal for the host tissues.The exact mechanism by which heat inactivates the pathogen is not fully understood. However, it is universally accepted that heat causes inactivation and not immobilization of the pathogen by heat. Th rate at which the pathogen is inactivated is determined by temperature, the higher the temperature, the faster is the inactivation. At constant temperature, the drop in the density of pathogenic inoculum.
Methods
Following physical methods are employed for reduction or elimination of primary inoculums that may be present in seed, soil, or planting material.
i. Hot water treatment (HWT)
Hot water treatment is widely used for the control of seed borne pathogens, especially bacteria and viruses. A list of various important diseases claimed to have been controlled by hot water treatment is given in Table-1.

Oat bran: Outer layer found under the hull of the oat grain which forms the milling fraction.
Oat fibre: Indigestible material derived from oat grains, consumption of which is reported to reduce serum cholesterol.
Oat flour: Flour ground from oats which their outer layers have been removed. It does not contain much gluten and must be combined with wheat flour to make a bread which rises. It is used as an ingredient in bakery products and snack foods.
Oat germ: The germ of the oat grain separated during the process of making oat flour. It is usually mixed with oat bran to a brown powder which can be used to make a thin porridge or added to other flours for use in bread making.
Oat oils: Oils extracted from oats which is highly unsaturated and containing high levels of linoleic acid.
Oatmeal: Coarsely ground or cracked dehusked oats separated by sieving into various particle sizes, usually fine, medium and coarse, but superfine and pinhead can be found
Oatrim: Fibre-rich fat substitute made from oat flour and oat bran which is used in bakery products, salad dressings, confectionery and dairy products.
Obesity: It is a condition in which the body’s weight is beyond the limit of skeletal and physical requirements due to excessive accumulation of fat. Possible causes include overeating, an inappropriate diet, genetic factors and metabolic disorders. Obesity is associated with an increased risk of developing a range of diseases, including adult onset diabetes, cardiovas cular diseases and certain types of cancer. In some cases, obesity can be reversed through measures such as adoption of a low-calorie diet, making changes to lifestyle or consuming functional foods designed for this purpose.

Vacuum cooling: It is a technique based on liquid evaporation which produces a rapid cooling effect in products containing free water. Suitable only where removal of the free water will not cause structural damage and where there is no barrier, e.g. a thick wax cuticle, to water loss. Subjecting suitable products to vacuum pressure allows part of the water contained in them to boil out at relatively low temperatures. Used successfully in reducing postharvest deterioration in fruits and vegetables, thus prolonging shelf life, during processing of some products, including liquid foods and bakery products, and rapid cooling of cooked meat, fish products and ready meals.
Vacuum drying: Removal of liquid from a solid mate rial while in a vacuum system, to lower the temperature at which evaporation takes place and thus prevent heat damage to the material. It may be used with frozen food.
Vacuum evaporation: Concentration technique in which the use of high temperatures is avoided by subjecting the substance to a vacuum, causing it to boil at a lower temperature. The process is performed in a chamber surrounded by a water jacket through which water is circulated to control temperature. Particularly useful for products where heat-induced protein de- naturation should be avoided, e.g. liquid egg whites and skim milk.
Vacuum flask thermostat: An electrically or mechanically operated instrument which monitors the temperature in an enclosure and if it deviates from a preset value increases or reduces the energy input to or abstracts more or less energy from the space to maintain the preset temperature. Commonly used in gas or electric ovens, refrigerators and freezers, deep fat fryers, slow cookers and the like.

Wafer: A thin, crisp, unsweetened biscuit with a papery texture made by cooking a batter between hot plates, served with ice cream and sometimes sandwiched together in several layers with a sweet or savoury cream filling to form a wafer biscuit
Waffles: Light, crisp, golden brown, indented raised cakes leavened with baking powders or yeasts and typically baked in a special waffle iron, which cooks both sides simultaneously. It is often consumed as a breakfast food, acompanied by butter or maple syrups or cold with whipped cream or ice cream.
Walnut oils: Relatively expensive oils extracted from walnuts. The distinctive nutty flavour and aroma make them popular for use in salad dressings, drizzling on to cooked foods and in cooking. Sometimes used as an alternative to olive oils. To prevent development of rancidity, walnut oils are best stored in a cool, dry location, out of direct sunlight.
Walnuts: Nuts produced by trees of the genus Juglans, the most economically important species being J. regia (common or Persian walnuts), J. nigra (black walnuts) and J. cinerea (butternuts or white walnuts). Ripe nuts are rich in vitamin E and B group vitamins, while younger fruits also contain vitamin C. Used as dessert nuts, and as ingredients in confectionery, bakery products and ice cream. Oils extracted from the nuts contain a high proportion of unsaturated fatty acids and have a range of food uses.
Warehouses: Large buildings in which raw materials or manufactured goods are stored.
Warmed over flavor: It is a characteristic off flavour primarily associated with cooked meat and poultry meat in chilled ready meals and other cook chill foods. In cooked meat and poultry held at chilled storage temperatures, this stale, oxidized flavour becomes apparent within a short time (48 hours), particularly if the product is stored under air. Modified atmosphere packaging under low oxygen levels helps to delay the onset of oxidative warmed over flavour.

Supply chain logistics involves overseeing the flow of goods and services across the entire supply chain, from start to finish. It encompasses the sourcing, transportation, storage, and distribution of raw materials, manufacturing processes, and final products.
The scope of logistics covers the planning and execution of storing and moving goods between different points in the supply chain. It involves coordinating facilities, personnel, equipment, and other resources to ensure that products are transported as planned and have sufficient space at each point in the supply chain.
Key processes such as demand planning, transportation (including fleet management), inventory control, material handling, and order fulfillment all fall Munder the logistics umbrella. Supply chain logistics is the backbone of global trade, encompassing a wide-reaching network that includes transportation, warehousing, and inventory management systems. This vital aspect of business operations guarantees the efficient movement of products and services from manufacturers to end consumers, passing through various intermediaries along the way.
In today’s fast-paced and constantly changing business environment, understanding and optimizing supply chain logistics has become even more critical. Companies are under greater pressure to deliver products faster, more affordably, and with increased transparency.

Abstract
Non-tariff barrier (NTBs), particularly Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) measures and Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), have increasingly shaped the contours of international trade. While originally instituted to safeguard human, animal, and plant health and ensure product standards, these regulatory mechanisms are often criticized for functioning as covert instruments of protectionism. This chapter undertakes a comprehensive analysis of the dual nature of SPS and TBT measures, acknowledging their public policy rationale while critically examining their role in distorting trade flows, increasing compliance burdens, and eroding competitiveness, especially for exporters in developing economies. It highlights the economic ramifications, operational challenges, and policy complexities inherent in their implementation. Drawing from global best practices and multilateral frameworks, the study advocates for targeted strategies such as regulatory harmonization, improved transparency, enhanced capacity-building and robust dispute resolution mechanisms. These approaches are essential not only to prevent the misuse of SPS and TBT provisions but also to facilitate equitable market access and support rules based international trading system. The chapter emphasizes that achieving this balance is critical for fostering inclusive economic growth, promoting global competitiveness, and strengthening cooperation among nations in an increasingly interconnected world.
Keywords: Non-Tariff Barriers (NTBs), Sanitary and Photosanitary Measures (SPS), Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), Regulatory Harmonization and Disguised Protectionism

1. Downy Mildew (Green Ear)
Sclerospora graminicola
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Characteristic symptoms of the disease are pale, chlorotic, broad streaks extending from base to tip of leaves.
• At the advancement of disease, the leaf streaks turn brown and the leaves become shredded longitudinally.
• In severe infection, the downy fungal growth can be seen on the upper as well as lower surface of the leaves.
• Infected plants fail to form ear but if formed, they are malformed to green leafy structures.
• Complete ear can be transformed into leafy structure.
• Pathogen transformed all floral parts such as glumes, palea, stamens and pistils into green linear leafy structures of variable lengths and no grains are produced.
• Partial infection of ear head is observed in which some grains are produced and rest of the ear head is converted in to a green ear(Fig-1).

1. Blast
Pyricularia grisea
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Crop is susceptible to the disease during all stages of its growth, from seedling to grain formation stage.
• In young seedlings, lesions are generally of spindle shaped, however lesions of different sizes may also be observed.
• In the beginning the spots have yellowish margin and grayish centre. Later, the centres become whitish grey and disintegrate.
• Lesions are isolated in the beginning and afterwards they may soon coalesce. The distal portion of the leaves beyond the lesions may hang and drop off.
• In older plants, the disease appears on leaf blades with typical spindle shaped spots.
• Under congenial conditions, such spots enlarge, coalesce and form bigger lesions.
• Lesions are like those on the seedlings and are about 0.3-0.5 cm in breadth and 1-2 cm in length. Apices of the infected leaves beyond the lesions hang down and sometimes break.
• Stem infection causes blackening of the nodal region, penetrating into the tissues.

1. Stem rot / Foot rot/Collar rot
Diagnostic Symptoms
• The appearance of water-soaked spots on the stem close to ground level is what characterizes it.
• The tissues degrade as a result of the fast enlargement of these patches, girdling the stem and turning it dark brown or black.
• Strong winds cause these afflicted plants to topple over and eventually die.
• If the disease attack is not too severe, the plants will still be stunted and only one side of the stem will decay.
• If fruit develops, it is deformed and withered.
• The plant eventually dies (Fig.1).
Etiology
• Pathogen: Pythium aphanidermatum.
• Mycelium is colorless, slender, coenocytic, profusely branching and rapidly growing mostly intracellularly.
• Sporangia terminal or intercalary produce a vesicle at the end of hyphal branch.
• Zoospores biflagellate and reniform.

1) Bud Rot
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Severe on young palms.
• Yellowish green discoloration of the heart leaf or crown leaf.
• The basal tissues of the leaf rot quickly and can be easily separated from the crown.
• Spindle withers and droop down.
• Older leaves develop irregular, water soaked spots which are sunken in nature.
• The leaves and sheath in the central spindle fall off leaving an outer whorl of green leaves.
• The withered central shoot can be pulled out very easily from the crown.
• The central crown may rot and in few months the tree may wilt.
• Young nuts fail to mature and fall (Fig.1).

1) Anthracnose
Diagnostic Symptoms
• All the above ground parts are affected. However, the characteristic symptoms appear on pods.
• On cotyledons, spots are sunken dark brown or black with pink spore mass.
• Seedling infection results in collapse of seedling.
• Spots on leaves appear on lower side and are black. Later these may also appear on upper surface. When the infection is severe, the affected plants wither off.
• Black, sunken, circular spots of varying sizes appear on pods with bright red, yellow or orange margins. The centre of these spots later turns grey or pink due to sporulation of the pathogen. The border of these spots appear raised (Fig.1).

1) Leaf Spot
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Initially oblong brown spots having about 4-5 cm in length and 2-3 cm in width with grey centres surrounded with yellow hallo are found on the leaves.
• Large number of spots may be found on a single leaf and as the disease advances, spots enlarge and cover a major portion of leaf blade.
• Severly affected plants dry and wilt.
• Black dots acervuli formed in concentric rings on spot.The grey centres become thin and get teared(Fig-1).
Etiology
Scientific Classification
Kingdom : Fungi
Division : Eumycota
Sub- division : Deuteromycotina

English name : Clove
Botanical name : Syzygium aromaticum Merr &Perry
Family : Myrtaceae
Chromosome number : 2n = 22
Centre of origin : Indonesia
Clove of commerce is the fully grown but unopened dried flower bud of tree Syzygium aromaticum Merrill and Perry, belonging to the family Myrtaceae. The English name “clove” is derived from the Spanish word clavo or the Latin clavus, both meaning “nail,” referring to the shape of the dried clove bud commonly found in the market. Clove is among the orient’s oldest and most valued spices, known as early as the 1st century BC. It is prized both as a spice and for its essential oil. The chemical composition of clove varies based on agroclimatic conditions and post-harvest processes.
The dried clove bud contains approximately 5.4% moisture, 6.3% protein, 13.2% volatile oil, 15.5% non-volatile ether extract (fat), 11.1% crude fibre, 57.7% carbohydrates, 5.0% mineral matter, and 0.24% ash insoluble in HCl. Additionally, it has 0.7% calcium, 0.11% phosphorus, 0.01% iron, 0.25% sodium, and 1.2% potassium. Its vitamin content includes 0.11 mg of B1, 0.04 mg of B2, 80.9 mg of vitamin C, 175 I.U. of vitamin A, and 1.5 mg of niacin per 100 g, providing a calorific value of 430 calories per 100 g. The volatile oil extracted from clove buds consists of eugenol (80-90%) and caryophyllene (4-8%).

English name : Nutmeg
Botanical name : Myristica fragrans Hout.
Family : Myristicaceae
Chromosome number : 2n = 44
Centre of origin : Indonesia
Nutmeg of commerce is the dried kernel inside the brown and a thin brittle shell. A scarlet aril or mace surrounds the nutmeg. The Word Myristica is derived from the Greek term Myron, which means a sweet liquid distilled from the plant. The composition of dried nutmeg includes volatile oil (6-16%), starch (14-25%), furfural (1.15%), and pectin (0.5-0.6%), while mace contains volatile oil (4-15%) and amylodextrin (25%). Both the seeds and mace are rich in essential oils. The essential oil from nutmeg seeds consists of approximately 80% pinene and camphane, 4% myristicin (which has hallucinogenic properties), as well as p-cymene, d-linalool, terpineol, geraniol, safrole, eugenol, and isoeugenol. Mace oil shares similarities with nutmeg oil but is fresher in aroma. Mace is primarily used as a culinary spice and flavouring agent.

English name : Cinnamon
Botanical name : Cinnamomum verum
Family : Lauraceae
Chromosome number : 2n = 24
Centre of origin : Sri Lanka
Cinnamon of the commerce is the dried inner bark of Cinnamomum verum Presl. (Syn. C. zeylanicum Bheme), It is also referred to as sweet wood, true cinnamon, or Ceylon cinnamon. It has been valued for centuries in the orient and is one of India’s oldest known tree spices. Cinnamon is renowned for its aromatic bark and leaves. The bark has a sweet, pleasant taste. It contains moisture (9.9%), protein (4.6%), fat (2.2%), fibre (20.3%), carbohydrates (59.5%), total ash (2.5%), calcium (1.6%), phosphorus (0.05%), iron (0.004%), sodium (0.01%), potassium (0.4%), and vitamins (B1 0.14 mg, B2 0.21 mg, C 39.8 mg, A 175 IU, niacin 1.9 mg), with a caloric value of 355/100g. The oil extracted from the bark is light yellow when freshly distilled, turning reddish upon storage, and is primarily composed of cinnamic aldehyde (60-75%) and eugenol (10%). The leaf oil has a slight camphor scent similar to clove oil, owing to the presence of 70-95% eugenol. Cinnamon is widely used as a spice or condiment in small pieces or as powder.

English name : Cumin
Botanical name : Cuminum cyminum L.
Family : Apiaceae
Chromosome number : 2n = 14
Centre of origin : Egypt, Syria and Turkey
Cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.), also known as Safaid jeera, is one of the oldest spices in history. It is derived from the mature fruit of a slender herb. Cumin seeds range from yellowish to greyish brown and emit an aromatic scent due to cuminol and aromatic alcohol, contributing to their distinct spicy and slightly bitter taste. These seeds are widely used as a condiment. The essential oil of cumin seeds contains various compounds, including a-pinene (14.3-19.7%), p-cymene (2.7-6.0%), terpinene (11.5-16.2%), cuminaldehyde (20-22.4%), p-menth-1,3-dien-7-al (11.1-13.5%), p-menth-1,4-dien-7-al (23.6-24.3%), cuminyl alcohol (2.7-72.2%), sabinene (3.38%), benzyl cinnamate (4.47%), and farnesol (2.98%). Cumin is an essential component of many spice blends and curry powders and is used to flavour soups, pastries, stews, sausages, pickles, cheese, and bakery products like bread and cakes. Cumin oil finds its place in soap making, perfumery, and flavouring alcoholic beverages such as liquors and cordials, with absolute oil being preferred for flavouring purposes. Cumin aldehyde is also utilized in perfumery.

English name : Dill
Botanical name : Anethum graveolens L.
Family : Apiaceae
Chromosome number : 2n = 22
Centre of origin : Mediterranean region
The genus Anethum includes two cultivated species: the European dill (A. graveolens L.) and the Indian dill (A. sowa Roxb.). The seed compositions of these two dill types are as follows:
Indian dill composition
• Moisture: 4.5-7.5%
• Volatile oil: 1.5-4.0%
• Mineral matter: 5.89-11.54%
• Acid-insoluble ash: 0.55-2.71%
• Extraneous matter: 3.16-12.93%

English name : Bishop’s weed, Ajowan
Botanical name : Trachyspermumammi (L.) Sprague
Family : Apiaceae
Chromosome number : 2n = 18
Centre of origin : Egypt
Ajowan is an annual herbaceous plant grown for its herb and greyish brown fruits (seeds) which constitute the spice. The trade name ajowan or ajwain
is based on the Indian name which is derived for adarjawan. It is known as ‘Bishop’s weed’ in English. Ajowan is grown for its seeds (fruits) the composition of which is as follows; moisture 8.9%, protein 15.4%, fat (ether extract) 18.1%, crude fibre 11.9%, carbohydrates 38.6%, mineral matter (total ash) 7.1%, calcium 1.42%, phosphorus 0.30%, iron 14.6 mg/100 g, vitamins (per 100 g) thiamine 0.21 mg, riboflavin 0.28 mg, nicotinic acid 2.1 mg, carotene 71 mg. Its calorific value is 379.

English name : Saffron
Botanical name : Crocus sativus L.
Family : Iridaceae
Chromosome number : 2n =3x= 24
Centre of origin : Southern Europe
Saffron (Kesar) comprises the dried, tri-lobed stigmas of Crocus sativus L., a bulbous perennial of the Iridaceae family. Saffron, one of the oldest and costliest spices in the world, is often confused with meadow saffron (Colchicum automnale L., family Liliaceae) or safflower, also called bastard saffron (Carthamus tinctorius L., family Compositae), which are sometimes used as adulterants. Producing one pound of saffron requires harvesting 75,000 flowers by hand to obtain 2,25,000 to 5,00,000 dried stigmas. Saffron is characterized by its vibrant yellow-red colour, a distinct, intense aroma, and a slightly bitter, exotic taste.

Introduction
India, renowned for its rich biodiversity and ancient tradition of Ayurveda, is home to an astonishing array of medicinal and aromatic plants. These plants, harboring bioactive compounds such as alkaloids, glycosides, terpenes, and flavonoids, have been harnessed for centuries to prevent, diagnose, and treat various health ailments. Medicinal plants, utilizing parts like leaves, roots, stems, or seeds, offer natural remedies for wellness. Meanwhile, aromatic plants, rich in fragrant volatile oils, are the cornerstone of essential oils, aromatherapy, and perfumery. A Legacy of Healing: History of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Cultivation in India

Ancient India (3000 BCE - 500 CE)
Ayurveda's origins: Ayurveda, the traditional Indian system of medicine,
emerged around 3000 BCE, emphasizing the use of medicinal plants.
Vedic period (1500 BCE - 500 BCE)
• Ayurvedic texts like the Rigveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda documented medicinal plant uses.
• Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita (400 BCE - 200 CE): These seminal texts systematically described medicinal plant properties and uses.

Scientific name: Pelargonium graveolens L. Herit
Family: Geraniaceae
Geranium, scientifically known as Pelargonium graveolens L. Herit, belongs to the Geraniaceae family. This aromatic plant is highly valued for its essential oil, which boasts an intense rose-like fragrance. Geraniol and citronellol are the primary constituents of this oil. There are approximately 600 species within the genus Pelargonium, many of which possess a pleasant odor, although only a few have attained commercial significance.
Types of Geranium
There are two primary types of geranium: Algerian or Tunisian Type: Characterized by slender, erect plants with dark pink flowers. This variety contains 0.3% oil, with 57% 1-citronellol. It is commonly grown in the Nilgiris and is unsuitable for wet conditions. Reunion or Bourbon Type: Produces more bushy growth with light-pink flowers. The oil has a higher 1-citronellol content (59.4%). This variety is grown in the Nilgiris and Anamalais and is more suitable for wet conditions.

Scientific name: Pogostemon cablin Benth.
Family: Lamiaceae
Patchouli (Pogostemon cablin) is a perennial herb native to Southeast Asia, commonly found in India, China, and Indonesia. This fragrant herb has been used for centuries in traditional medicine, perfumery, and spiritual practices. Patchouli leaves are ovate-shaped, with a rough texture and a powerful, earthy fragrance. The leaves are steam-distilled to produce a rich, dark green essential oil with a distinctive scent. Patchouli is known for its anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, and antifungal properties, making it a popular ingredient in aromatherapy, skincare, and insect repellents. In India, patchouli is considered a sacred herb and is often used in traditional Indian medicine, Ayurveda, and Hindu rituals and ceremonies.
Origin and distribution
Patchouli, a native plant of the Philippines and Indonesia, has been extensively cultivated in various regions. In Indonesia, patchouli cultivation began in Aceh, Sumatra, and later expanded to Java. In India, it is primarily grown in the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Assam, and West Bengal.

Scientific name: Vetiveria zizanioides L.
Family: Poaceae
Vetiver, scientifically known as Vetiveria zizanioides L., is a tropical grass species belonging to the Poaceae family. Native to India and Southeast Asia, Vetiver is a perennial grass that grows up to 2 meters in height, with long, thin leaves and a deep, fibrous root system. Vetiver is highly valued for its essential oil, which is extracted from its roots and used in perfumery, aromatherapy, and traditional medicine. The plant is also known for its soil-stabilizing properties, making it an effective tool for erosion control and land conservation.
Origin and distribution
Vetiver is native to the tropical regions of Asia, specifically India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Malaysia. It is cultivated and produced in many parts of the world, including Tropical Asia, Africa, Australia, Haiti, Indonesia, Guatemala, India, China, and Brazil. Vetiver is also grown in several other countries, such as the Philippines, Japan, Angola, Dominican Republic, Argentina, and Jamaica. The global production of Vetiver is estimated to be around 250 tons per annum. In India, Vetiver grows wild in various states, including Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and Assam.

Value addition refers to the process of increasing the economic value of a product, service, or commodity through various means, such as: Processing: Transforming raw materials into a more refined or finished product.
Enhancement: Improving the quality, appearance, or functionality of a product.
Differentiation: Creating unique features, branding, or packaging to distinguish a product from others.
Innovation: Introducing new or improved products, services, or processes. Value addition in medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) is essential to enhance their economic value, quality, and marketability. Here are key reasons why value addition is necessary:
Enhanced economic value
Value addition increases the economic value of MAPs, benefiting farmers and stakeholders. Primary processing and value addition are crucial in this regard. For instance, drying, cleaning, grading, and packaging are essential steps in adding value to MAPs.
Improved quality and shelf life Value addition helps preserve the bioactive compounds and aroma of MAPs, extending their shelf life. Techniques such as drying, extraction, and storage in airtight containers are vital in maintaining the quality of MAPs.

In history, some developments were possible through belief and scientific study with evidence to support their claims. Our ancestors made ways of surviving on earth by varying the raw materials and tools. Science had absolutely no place, and all discoveries were derived through the trial-and-error method. The same was for agriculture, tracing back to our roots, the farming system was highly
dependent on the on-farm inputs. However, with the timeline of evolution, the exponential growth of the population demanded speedy growth in agricultural production giving rise to Green Revolution technologies (GRTs) in the mid- 1960s, which introduced high-yielding varieties of crops that were responsive to higher dosages of chemical fertilizers and irrigation and persuaded farmers to resort to intensive monocropping. Since the onset of GRTs in the mid-1960s, food production in India has risen five to ten-fold (Dasgupta, 1977).
However, while the past few decades have seen substantial ‘green revolution’ advances, I admit, the hazards have kept themselves hidden and well concealed--of these are significant adverse impacts on the natural resources, agriculture and its produce and indeed extend to human health (Koner & Laha, 2021). There is further proof that increasing dosages of chemical fertilizers led to an emergence of pest resurgence; pesticides residues considerably exceeding permissible limits contaminated drinking water and/or air often, a drop in biodiversity, nitrogen leaching and groundwater pollution, and soil heavy-metals build-up are very common in intensive agriculture regions (John & Babu, 2021). While such issues contributed to suicides in rural India, their unwarranted use also diminished pollinator populations (Baron et al.,  2017). There are many measures to ease the overwhelming cost burden upon farmers on account of farming and rising costs of cultivation. It pertains to the increased input subsidies made by various state and central governmentsthe fertilizer subsidy, the free supply of electricity for irrigation, the interest subvention on agricultural credit, and the premium subsidy for crop insurance. On the contrary, the recent trends show that 75% constitutes a higher number of electricity subsidies, reserved for agriculture consumers, from 2016-2019.

When a plant is unable to perform its functions normally, then it is diseased. The two major causes of disease in crops and trees are pathogens and environmental conditions. There are many kinds of disease pathogens: viruses, bacteria, fungi, nematodes, mycoplasma-like organisms, and parasitic higher plants. Fungal pathogens are the most common type. They cause seed rots, seedling damping-off, root rots, foliage diseases, cankers, vascular wilts, diebacks, galls and tumors, trunk rots, and decay of aging trees. Deterrents to establishment include unfavourable weather and environmental conditions such as Temperature and moisture extremes, high winds and ice may directly injure a tree and predispose the trees to pest attack.
Biodiversity plays multiple roles in development as well as ecological sustainability. It has received increased attention in agricultural ecosystems for the past few years regarding the reduction of plant diseases; however, the knowledge of using biodiversity to manage plant diseases is Still incomplete. For crop diversification, the interaction of genetic diversity per se in host populations with identifiable resistance and other functional traits of component genotypes to mitigate disease epidemics is not well understood, and neither is the best way of structuring mixed populations. The mixing of crop varieties can significantly reduce disease epidemics in the field. To achieve the best disease mitigation, growers should include as many varieties as possible in mixtures or, if only two component mixtures are possible. The many strategies, tactics, and techniques used in disease management can be grouped under very broad principles of action. The differences between these principles are often not clear. The simplest system consists of two principles, prevention (prophylaxis in some early writings) and therapy (treatment or cure). The first principle (prevention) has to do with disease management practices applied before infection-that is, the plant is protected from disease.

Abstract
India, with 70% of its population reliant on agriculture, faces a challenge in rural development due to a modest 3.64% agricultural growth rate against a target of 4%, lagging behind the 7-8% growth in manufacturing and services. This disparity leaves rural communities unable to fully benefit from national economic progress. Promoting agripreneurship is a vital strategy to harness rural resources, enhance livelihoods, and achieve balanced economic development. Opportunities abound in agricultural inputs, farming technologies, output processing, and allied sectors like dairy, poultry, horticulture, and sericulture. However, challenges such as limited awareness, weak entrepreneurial culture, poor infrastructure, and insufficient government focus hinder progress. Strategic interventions in these areas can unlock the potential for sustainable rural growth and economic inclusivity.
Keywords: Agripreneurship, Rural Development, Agriculture, Economic Growth, Farming Technologies, Agricultural Inputs, Dairy Development, Horticulture, Infrastructure Challenges, Sustainable Development
 

Abstract
Rural women in India play a pivotal role in economic development, particularly through their significant contributions to dairy farming, a key enterprise in rural economies. Despite their extensive involvement in dairy activities such as fodder collection, milking, and animal care, their labour often remains non-monetized, limiting economic empowerment. Dairy farming, bolstered by initiatives like Operation Flood, has made India the world’s largest milk producer, offering profitable opportunities for rural women. Entrepreneurship in dairy farming can economically empower women, granting them decision-making autonomy and social recognition. Government schemes, NGOs, and institutions like KVKs facilitate this through training, formation of Women Dairy Cooperatives, and Self-Help Groups. Success stories from Chittoor, Jajpur, and Valsad highlight women leveraging dairy enterprises for financial independence and community inspiration. Promoting women’s entrepreneurship in dairy farming through skill development and market access is crucial for their socio-economic upliftment.
Keywords: Rural Women, Dairy Farming, Entrepreneurship, Economic Empowerment, Women Dairy Cooperatives, Self-Help Groups, Operation Flood, Socio-Economic Development, Milk Production, Skill Development

The term food processing covers an enormous field from simple boiling to the use of irradiation to predict the consequences on the nutritional value of fruits and vegetables. Generally, the food processing methods can be categorized as in intentional processing method (milling, peeling, washing trimming etc.), inevitable processing method (blanching, sterilizing, cooking, shredding, and drying) and accidental (inept processing or system). The nutritional losses associated with fruits and vegetable processing with different processing techniques and conditions employed. For example, the heavily processed products are although safe for human consumption but allied with reduced nutritive value. In this regard access to safe and nutritious food is considered as a basic right of humans as it is one of the ways to prevent various ailments by building better health and enforcing immunity. Escalating help awareness has guided the processes to opt for minimal processing food in recent years.
Food commodities subjected to minimal processing are capturing the market Suring to widespread concept that they might help in meeting the current requirement of vital nutrients. Development of minimally processed commodities especially fruits and vegetables have augmented at both retail and consumer levels during last years. Various organisations WHO, FAO, USDA boost up the utilization of minimally processed perishable commodities including vegetables and fruits to lessen the risk of cardiovascular diseases and cancer. Changes occurring in the eating habits have been quoted due to high anxiety for on time availability of these minimally processed fruits and vegetables. Sales of fresh cut fruits and vegetables continue to burgeon and food industries are persistently expanding primary because of consumers’ trend of health realization.

Botanically fruits are ripened ovary. It is a plant part that may or may not be purely derived from ovary of the flowers may be fleshy or pulpy in character, often juicy, predominantly sweet. With somewhat acidic taste, fragrance, aromatic flavours, fruits are generally not consumed during principal part of meals. Whereas vegetable is plant part which is less sweet, generally non acidic and consumed either cooked or raw during the principal part of our main meals. Vegetables may be fruit, root, stem flower, or leaf part of a plant or their modification.
Fruits and vegetables are valued in in human diet as an important source of protective nutrients like Minerals and vitamins. Apart from their nutritive value they add variety to the diet and improve acceptability of meal due to presence of different shades of colours, flavours, and texture. However, the major role in food preservation is played by their moisture content. For the same reason they are classified as
1. Perishable: Those which deteriorate quickly after harvesting such as tomatoes, mangoes, papaya, peaches, plums, juicy fruits and vegetables. They have high degree of moisture content and are highly susceptible to spoilage.
2. Semi perishable: These have less moisture content as compared to perishable one’s example 30 carrots, peace, green beans, apple etc. These foods are containing certain natural inhibitors to spoilage.

Aromatic plants are the life line of essential oil trades all over the world. India is considered to be botanical garden on account of prevalence of rich plant biodiversity owing to varied topography and wide range of climatic conditions present in different parts of the country About 1300 plant species have been reported to be of aromatic value and 80 plant species are commercially grown and in high demand, but only 42 plant species
are being exploited by modern pharmaceutical and essential oil industries as a source of raw materials for a range of natural perfumes, flavours, cosmetics, food and flavouring and aroma–therapy.
Plant-genetic diversity is the key component of agricultural production system, and no natural evolutionary adjustment of the system to changing environment and biotic conditions would be possible without it. India is richly endowed with plant wealth, utilized either directly for cultivation or as source of useful traits for breeding improved varieties. Collection, conservation and sustainable use of available gene pool and their wild relatives require specific attention keeping in view their overall importance and significance in agriculture and food security vis-à-vis day–to-day needs.
Cultivation of aromatic plants having aroma due to presence of an essential
oil in their various parts needs to be made competitive against other seasonal crops, so that production from cultivated harvests are preferred over collections from the wild. There are possibilities of using the produce in cosmetic, perfumery and aromatherapy industries of several aromatic plants. So, the breeding strategy of aromatic crops should aim for improving the contents of therapeutic compounds, yield of grains, biomass yield, roots yield and oil quality & quantity.

The quality of essential oils is very complex. An individual oil may have hundreds of ingredients, the principle components being a group of complex substances known as terpenes and their compounds or derivatives. Due to this reason a single essence has a wide range of therapeutic actions.
The chemical constituents of plants are of two kinds: products of primary metabolism and products of secondary metabolism. The first are mainly carbohydrates, amino acids and fixed oils produced by light-absorbing (photosynthetic) processes. The latter group of chemicals arises from the primary metabolites. They include glycosides, terpenoids, alkaloid and essential oils. Essential oils lack the water soluble constituents such as tannins,
bitter compounds sugar, mucilages and pectins, playing important role in the medical action of the plant.
The essential oils have been credited with possessing almost all therapeutic properties in a concentrated form. The therapeutic properties of the whole oil are that result of synergism: an interaction of all its chemical constituents working harmoniously together so that the whole essential oil becomes more potent than the sum of its individual parts.
The essential oil lacks certain chemical compounds found in the raw plant material. It is still a highly complex substance, that it cannot be replicated in the laboratory. Even though high-tech processes such as gas liquid chromatography (GLC) can separate out main constituents of essential oils. By looking at the chromatogram, it is impossible to isolate the numerous trace elements including number of unidentified compounds which make up
the whole.

Introduction 
It is a common vegetable crop of rabi season which belongs to the family Apiaceae (Umbelliferae). Due to prevalence of protandry condition, the crop is cross pollinated in nature and self-pollination within individual flower is restricted. It comprised of three distinct cultivated varieties grown over the world for various economic purposes and classified as below depending upon usefulness of different parts.
Origin
It found is globally distributed in New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, Mediterranean basin, and South America, whereas Argentina and Chile are the richest sources. Habitat is extensively ranging from Egypt, Algeria, and Abyssinia to Sweden.

Introduction
Palmarosa/Roshagrass (Cymbopogon martinii var. motia): It is a tall perennial tuffed hedge grown naturally as well as commercially in the old world tropics and sub-tropics of India. It occurs in open scrub forests in parts of MP, Maharashtra and AP, where it is commercially collected and distilled for its oil. It is also sporadically found in Karnataka, TN and part of UP. The herb along with flowering tops and foliage, on distillation yield a colourless to pale yellow essential oil with sweet scented\ rose-like aroma, containing high geraniol; and used in cosmetics, toiletry and perfumery industry. Concerted efforts during last two decades to develop better cultural practices and development of improved varieties, the area has expanded all over the central, western and southern states of India. This crop is commercially grown in Indonesia, East African countries, Cuba and Brazil. At present, the total oil production is estimated to be around 300 tonnes annually, and two-third (200t) of it comes from cultivation.
Ginger grass (Cymbopogon martinii Stapf. var. sofia): This is another form of roshagrass. Its distribution is overlapping in forests with the ture palmarosa grass, although it has preference for more moist-substratum. Both the forms are morphologically identical in field except their odour when leaves are crushed. Ginger grass has dense tuft and more luxuriant growth, but produces shorter inflorescence and more tolerant to the stagnating water. It crosses freely with palmarosa in nature, producing many intermediary forms.

Introduction
Basil/Tulsi is a popular name given to any aromatic herb that belongs to genus Ocimum and family Lamiaceae (Labiatae). The word ‘basil’ was derived from Greek word ‘Basilica’ which means the royal plant. It comprises over 160 species spread over the tropical, sub-tropical, and warmer part of temperate regions of both the hemisphere ranging from sea level to 2000 m height with their diversity met in West Africa. Tropical Africa has maximum diversity with 59 species, followed by sub-tropical region of South Africa with 19 species and India with 9 species only.
 

Natural nutrient management in India marks a transition from synthetic fertilizers to sustainable, eco-friendly approaches that focus on improving soil fertility, crop yield, and environmental integrity. Rooted in traditional Indian agricultural wisdom, these practices are regaining importance due to their compatibility with natural farming principles, minimal reliance on external inputs, and enhancement of soil microbial activity.
A key method is the use of Jeevamrut, a fermented culture made using cow dung, cow urine, jaggery, pulse flour, and soil from field bunds. This mixture significantly boosts microbial activity in the soil, facilitating nutrient availability and decomposition of organic matter. It is applied directly to the soil or as a foliar spray and is known for improving nitrogen fixation and phosphorus release.
Ghanjeevamrut, a dry, solid variant of Jeevamrut, is used as a base application before sowing. It delivers a slow release of nutrients and is ideal for areas facing water shortages or crops requiring prolonged nourishment.
Panchagavya, another traditional bio-input, is a blend of five cow-derived products—milk, curd, ghee, urine, and dung—alongside banana, coconut water, jaggery, and water. Used mainly as a growth promoter, Panchagavya enhances germination, root development, and crop immunity, and is often applied as a foliar spray.
Green manuring using legumes such as sunhemp, dhaincha, and cowpea contributes significantly by adding organic nitrogen to the soil. These crops also improve soil aeration, structure, and moisture retention when incorporated into the soil.

Natural farming in India is witnessing growing acceptance, driven by concerns over environmental sustainability, soil health, and human well-being. To accelerate this transition away from chemical-intensive practices, both central and state governments, along with NGOs, have initiated comprehensive support systems that include policy frameworks, training, financial aid, and market facilitation.
A cornerstone of India’s natural farming policy is the Bharatiya Prakritik Krishi Paddhati (BPKP), launched under the Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY). This centrally sponsored scheme empowers states to implement natural farming by offering financial and technical assistance. States like Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra have led in adopting cluster-based natural farming models with large-scale training and demonstration programs.
Farmer training is central to adoption. Institutions such as Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), agricultural universities, and NGOs conduct extensive workshops on techniques like Jeevamrit, mulching, intercropping, and water conservation. Learning is made accessible through practical exposure, model farms, and local-language manuals, supported by digital tools like mobile advisories and community radio.
Support mechanisms include input subsidies for cow-based formulations, certification under Jaivik Bharat, and marketing linkages. Farmer Producer, Organizations (FPOs) facilitate input procurement, processing, and branding, while digital platforms improve market access and price realization.

(A) Enumeration of Microbial Growth by Turbidity Measurement
Method and Estimation of Generation Time
Introduction
Bacterial growth usually refers to reproduction-increase in population sizerather than to enlargement of mycelia cells. “Reproduction in bacteria occurs mainly through binary (binary means one cell becomes two) or transverse fission that results in the formation of two daughter cells. This is repeated at intervals by each new daughter cell in turn, or with each successive round of division. The population increases (Fig. 1). The time required for a complete fission cycle i.e. parent cell to two daughter cells is called the generation or doubling time. In bacteria, it is a doubling process in which each new fission cycle or generation increases the population by a factor of 2. So the parent stage consists of 2 cells, the second of 4, then 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256 and so on (Fig. 2). Thus the population will double, over and over again as long as the environment remains favorable for growth. The length of generation time is a measure of the growth rate of an organism. The average generation time in bacteria is 30-60 minutes under optimum conditions. Some species have very rapid growth rate and short generation time (5-10 minutes) and others have very slow growth rates and long generation times (measured in days). Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella enteritidis, both causes of food poisoning, are examples of pathogens having relatively short doubling times of 20-30 minutes, which result in a few million cells from a few cells in a few hours in the infested food. The longest generation time occurs in species of Mycobacterium, particularly Mycobacterium leprae (the cause of leprosy) of 10-30 days as long as in some animals.

Ornamental horticulture is the branch of horticulture concerned with cultivating plants of all kinds for show and to satisfy the eye rather than for food (Bailey, 1960). It includes floriculture, the culture of trees for shades, display and landscape gardening. Gill (1988) defined taxonomy as a study aimed at producing a system of classification of biological organisms, which best reflects the totality of their similarities and differences. According to
him, there are three inter-related aspects of taxonomy namely: Identification, Nomenclature and Classification. Identification deals with the determination of a taxon as being identical or similar to another and already known organisms. Nomenclature on the other hand has to do with determination of the correct name for the organisms and is governed by International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. It permits only a single valid name for each plant. Classification is the placing of plants in groups or categories according to particular plan or system.
The objectives of taxonomy are to provide: a convenient method of identifying, naming and describing plants, a classification which as far as possible express the natural relationships of organisms, detect evolution at work, discovering its processes and interpreting its results, an inventory of plant resources-local, regional and continental and to provide an integrating and unifying role in the training of biology.

Collection and conservation of genetic resources in horticultural crops is very much essential in regions where local seed sources are still used in genetic enhancement and cultivar production. Domesticated crops grow well adapted to both tropical and temperate regions. In particular, if the crop is domesticated over centuries to be grown in different latitudes, the genetic diversity estimates are essential for a breeder to develop location specific cultivars. Genetic ulnerability, erosion and extinction of some wild progenitors and species has been altered, warranting the need for ex situ conservation measures. The material is conserved in various forms, ranging from botanical gardens, clonal and seed populations, vegetative methods, in vitro active repositories, pollen cryobanks and DNA banks. The objective, in genetic resource context, is to conserve for prolonged duration with minimal loss of viability and genetic diversity. Most ex situ conservation methods are technology dependent. Seed and pollen banks are dependent in refrigeration technology and cryogenic technology.
The conservation of plant genetic resources in ornamental species is generally driven by demand, focusing on preserving a wide range of genetic diversity. This diversity can include individual genes and coadapted gene complexes at the micro level, as well as entire genotypes, elite clones, and plant populationsat the macro level. The distribution of genetic diversity (GD) in plant species  is predominantly dependent on the reproductive mechanisms they adopt and the mode of inheritance of the characters targeted for collection. The main reasons for collection and conservation genetic resources of an ornamental species gene pool in a given ecosystem are:

DUS testing is a way of determining whether a newly bred variety differs from existing varieties within the same species, or the characteristics used to establish distinctness are expressed uniformly and that these characteristics do not change over subsequent generations. Testing the distinctness, uniformity and stability (DUS) of crop varieties is a statutory requirement before varieties can be entered into the Registers of Cultivars (National Lists) and/or granted Plant Breeders’ Rights (PBR). In India, Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Right (PPV&FR) Act (2001) provides the registration of new variety of plant if it conforms to the criteria of distinctness, uniformity and stability.
Why do we need a DUS test? New (candidate) varieties should be distinct from all other varieties whose existence is a matter of common knowledge, and also sufficiently uniform and stable with respect to the characteristics used to demonstrate distinctness. ‘Common knowledge’ is broadly defined to include all known varieties, i.e. any variety entered into or subject to an application for PBR, varieties grown commercially, held in publicly accessible reference collection, or of which there is a published description (UPOV 2002).
The responsibility for DUS testing of potato varieties in India lies with the ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute (CPRI), Shimla, which is the national institute for potato research and development. Currently a set of 51 DUS characters in potato are defined by CPRI and being used for distinguishing new variety.

Fruits contribute to nutritional security and thus are an important part of food system. To meet the future demand, development of varieties with improved yield and quality is the focus of researchers involved in fruit breeding. Though conventional breeding has resulted in the development of improved commercial varieties of different fruit crops, however conventional breeding is time consuming and faces several challenges due to long juvenile phase, highly heterozygous nature of most of the fruit crops. Challenges like changing climate, consumer preference, socio-economic conditions like reduced availability of land, labour and increasing cost of inputs, require fast and efficient methods to develop the varieties to meet the demands, which is not feasible with conventional breeding. Marker assisted breeding has given impetus to breeding efforts in several fruit crops, however it’s use is limited only for the traits controlled by a few major QTLs.
During last few years, enormous genomic resources have been developed for fruit crops using next generation sequencing technology. Such advances in genomic research in many fruit crops have paved the way for precision breeding using genomic assisted breeding (GAB) tools. GAB has helped in characterisation and utilisation of genome resources and using allele variation for cultivar development (Varshney et al. 2021). Advances in sequencing technology and affordability has allowed the genome wide analysis (GWAS) on diversity panels of different fruits resulting in identification of allelic variation associated with the traits of interest. Also, identification of superior alleles of candidate genes makes them amenable to genome editing based precision breeding. Genome wide genotyping and phenotyping offers tools for developing strategy for genomic selection (GS). Genomic selection relies on the prediction of breeding values of tested genotypes based on the large number of markers spread over entire genome. These tools promise to further improve breeding efficiency in fruit crops.