eChapters

Layout plan- Main objective of layout is maximum number of plant accommodated in per unit area without affecting the efficiency of production. If more than one fruit is included in the orchard plan, each kind should be grouped into individual block. Similarly fruit ripened in particular season should be grouped to facilitate convenience in watch and ward, harvest and post harvest handling. Some kind of fruit trees need pollinators/pollinisers for improving the fruit set.

Planting System

Main objective of layout is maximum number of plant accommodated in per unit area without affecting the efficiency of production. If more than one fruit is included in the orchard plan, each kind should be grouped into individual block. Similarly fruit ripened in particular season should be grouped to facilitate convenience in watch and ward, harvest and post harvest handling. Some kind of fruit trees need pollinators/pollinisers for improving the fruit set.

The system of planting to be adopted is selected after considering the slope of land, planting density, purpose of utilizing the orchard space, convenience, etc. Traditionally, six systems of planting are recommended for fruit trees. However, with the popularity of high density planting, there are some advances inplanting, especially in fruit crops.

1. Square system: This system is considered to be the simplest of all planting systems and adopted widely. In this system, the plot is divided into number of squares as per plant spacing and trees are planted at the four corners of each square, in straight rows running at right angle. Under this system, intercultural operations, spraying, harvesting, etc. can be done conveniently and easily. Cultivation and irrigation can be done in two directions. In this system, plant to plant and row to row distance is the same. e.g. 5x5m, 4x4m, 10x10m, etc.

   While laying out the plot, a base line is first drawn parallel to the road, fence or adjacent orchard at a distance equal to half the spacing to be maintained between the trees. Wooden pegs are fixed on this line at the desired distance. At both the ends of the baseline, right angles are drawn by following the simple carpenter’s 3,4,5 meter system. After the formation of three lines, it is easy to fix all the other pages to mark the tree locations at the required spacing by using ropes connecting the pages of the lines in opposite directions.

   Area occupied per plant = row to row distance X plant to plant distance

Trees are perennial in nature and are valuable elements in a landscape. Trees provide shade, privacy and beauty but a tree in a wrong place may create problem in years to come. To avoid this, care should be taken while selecting trees for landscape. The ultimate size and shape of the mature tree, how much annual maintenance it requires, location and purpose are major considerations while selecting a tree. Matured tree height and tree diameter should fit it into the space when tree is planted. Shape of canopy, colour of flower and season of flowering are also to be considered.

ABSTRACT

In vitro culture induced genetic variation constitutes an important source of variability for the improvement in ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.). Hence attempts were made to standardize indirect method of in vitro plantlet regeneration in ginger using various explants like sprouted bud, shoot tip, leaf and pseudo stem. Explants from two cultivars of ginger viz. Maran and Rio-de-janeiro were cultured in Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with various levels of 2,4-D and in combination with different levels of BA. Cultures were incubated under two different culture conditions viz. light and dark. Callusing was observed in all the explants except mature leaf in MS medium supplemented with 2,4- D alone (1 - 2 mg l^-1) and in combination with BAP (0.5 - 3.0 mg l^-1). Shoot morphogenesis was achieved from one month old calli in MS medium supplemented with BAP (3.0 mg l^-1). Regenerated shoots were subcultured to medium of same composition for further shoot proliferation and rooting. Plantlets produced were hardened and planted out. From the present investigation, highly efficient protocol for indirect organogenesis in ginger could be developed and the response of two cultivars at various stages of morphogenesis could be studied in detail.

In this chapter, a comprehensive list of all plants and trees mentioned in epic Ramayana has been furnished with salient details in order to establish their botanical identity and references of Sholka where it had been mentioned. Some of the plants and trees had been mentioned in multiple sholokas but the plant has been taken into account as a single reference to avoid repetition and to get correct count of the trees and plants in whole of the Epic (Amirthalingam, 2013, Arun Kumar, 2019; Balapure et al., 1987; Bast, 2022; Ghimire et.al, 2021; Mao and Dash, 2010; Prasad and Mishra, 1976).

The plant species mentioned in Ramayana were of different types having various usages. Considering their morphological characteristics, usages and other importance, they have been categorized broadly into the following heads.

1. Economically important plants (Timber value, product yielding etc. having commercial importance).

2. Edible (major and minor fruits etc.).

3. Culturally important plants (Plants used for plantation for shade, greening etc.).

4. Non-Edible Plants (Ornamental importance and other usages)

5. Medicinal Plants (having therapeutic uses).

6. Sacred Plants (having religious importance).

7. Others (having multipurpose uses).

Dyes are one of the most important by products of the plants, as they are related with cultural practices, rituals, arts and crafts, fabrics and to satisfy personal embodiment. However, dye yielding plants have not received significant attention (Grover and Patni, 2011). Dye is a substance that has affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied such as textile fibers, foodstuffs and powder. They are organic coloured substances which absorb light in the visible part of the spectrum and have the property of colouring the substrate they are applied to.
 
Colourants which are obtained from plants and natural sources are known as natural dyes. Natural dyes have been traditionally used in most of the countries. These dyes were obtained from roots, leaves and bark (Akhtar et al., 2012). Natural dyes find use in the colouring of textiles, drugs, cosmetics, etc. Owing to their non-toxic effects, they are also used for colouring various food products. In India, there are more than 450 plants that can yield dyes (Siva, 2007).

Plants are most important of all elements of the garden that influence design. Therefore, selection of variety of plants is required to exhibit different forms of growth, leaf texture, flowers and flower colour. Trees, shrubs, climbers, annuals, roses, bulbous and rhizomatous plants usually find place in the gardens along with other secondary groups. Every type of garden has enough scope to accommodate various groups of plants as per design.

Plants infuse life in the gradens and make the place living. Every feature of the garden has a separate requirement of plants. The right choice, therefore, complements the design and helps to create desired effects. Every plant species selected for planting should have sufficient reasons for its inclusion. May be, it has been selected considering particular flower colour, fragrance, curious structure, colour of the leaves, attractive fruits etc. Over and above, selection should be considering requirement of individual feature and its suitability. None other than plants influence the general apperance of the gardens besides giving them three dimensional look, enabling your plan into reality.

There are several approaches for selecting plants for the gardens. Preference should be given to the plants suitable for growing in local agro-climatic conditions for better performance. However, inclusion of new and novel type for creating special effects is always desirable. Selecting perennials and seasonals are, therefore, very much justfied in order to create desirable effects round the year. While using trees, emphasis should be given for selecting both foliage and flowering type, blooming in different season. Similarly, shrubs, climbers and other plant groups are added attraction of the gardens by their diversity of growth, foliage and flowers.

Selection of plants for the gardens needs careful consideration of vegetative, floral attributes besides growth habit and flowering for best use. Keeping this in view, basic information on various plant groups is provided under different categories.

Plants have played an important role in many mythologies and religions of the world and have been known for deep and sacred meanings throughout the ages. It is the symbolic representation of the old cultural traditions in the form of a tree across the world. Christmas tree in the Christianity and Bodhi tree in Buddhism are the example of tree featured in mythology. In most of the folklore, folktales and folk religion trees are often said to be homes of tree sprits. If history is traced, we will found that Druidism and Germanic paganism appear to have involved in religious conservational practices of sacred groves. Druidism is a nature based religion that was taught by Druids about 2000 years ago. The term druid itself possibly derives from the religeous word for oak. Therefore, the Druidism reconnects us with nature, our ancesters and ourselves by working with plants or trees.

Trees are honored in Indian culture for their different beneficial characters like medicinal properties, food, fodder, maintaining hydrological cycle, moderate the climate etc. There are some trees that have attained more than a special benevolence in Hindu mythology. In Indian mythology number of plants have been given sacred value and worshipped by different cultures. Some important plants of sacred value have been discussed here.

Introduction

India is blessed with varied agro-climatic conditions. This enables India to grow almost all types of horticultural crops namely fruits, vegetables, potato, tropical tuber crops and mushroom; ornamental crops; medicinal and aromatic plants, spices and plantation crops like coconut, cashew, cocoa, tea, coffee and rubber, in one region or the other throughout the year. India has now a prominent place in world horticulture scenario. Starting from low ebb during first five year, horticulture sector got a boost in 8th plan onwards as a means of diversification to agriculture. Horticulture today, is not merely a means of diversification as envisaged during 80s, but forms an integral part of food, nutrition, economic and employment security. As a result of proper policy initiatives, India is the second largest producer of the fruits and vegetables in the world contributing about 10 per cent to world fruits and 13.8 per cent to vegetable production. Adoption of horticulture crops in production, both by small and marginal farmers, has brought nutritional security and livelihood security in many regions of the country, e.g. Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala and improved overall socioeconomic conditions of the people e.g. Jharkhand and West Bengal.

Abstract

Jasrota Wildlife Sanctuary (JWS) in Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) Union Territory is floristically less explored. Between 2018 and 2019, field surveys and exploration tours were undertaken to obtain information from local people residing around JWS through open interviews, semi-structured questionnaires and group discussion. Total 113 informants were contacted and data collected by means of ‘snowball method’. A total of 138 species of 60 medicinal plant families were documented subjected to preliminary investigation, which includes 47.10% herbs, 28.26% trees, 19.57% shrubs, 4.35% lianas, and 0.72% parasites. Most dominant families were Fabaceae (11 gen. and 12 spp.), Lamiaceae (6 gen. and 8 spp.), Asteraceae (8 gen. and 8 spp.), Moraceae (2 gen. and 6 spp.), Caesalpinaceae (4 gen. and 6 spp.), Rosaceae (5 gen. and 5 spp.), Euphorbiaceae (4 gen. and 5 spp.), Solanaceae (4 gen. and 4 spp.) and Malvaceae (4 gen. and 4 spp.). Some of the common high valued medicinal plants were Ajuga integrifolia, Aloe barbadensis, Asparagus adscendens, Boerhavia diffusa, Cassia fistula, Lantana camara, Murraya koenigii, Ocimum tenuiflorum, Tinospora cordifolia, Zingiber officinale and several other plants. Traditionally lesser used plants were Abrus precatorius, Acacia catechu, Commelinabenghalensis Cyperus rotundus, Silene vulgaris, Robinia pseudoacacia, Urtica dioica and Ziziphus mauritiana. These medicinal plants are used in treatment of obesity, anti-helminthic, liver infection, diabetes, intestinal infections, rheumatism, tumours, stomachache, insomnia, nerve troubles, skin infection, aphrodisiac, memory related disorders, dermatological problems and asthma. Species with high frequency index should be analyzed for pharmacological research and for discovering of new medicines. It has been observed that lots of medicinal plants grows in this protected area and this sanctuary need proper conservation and management planning.

1. Atropine Toxicity

? Toxicity of atropine depending upon the route of administration and the sp. of animal.

? Herbivores are more resis-tant than carnivores. Dogs, cats and birds are sensitive to its action. Rabbits are quite resistant to belladona leaves since an atropinase enzyme present in liver rapidly hydrolyses and inactivates atropine.

? Horse cattle and goats are relatively resistant to bellladona when administered orally, however poisoning on ingestion occurs more often in swine. Resistance in ruminants due to destructive maceration of atropine in rumen.

? All parts of plants are toxic as these contain atropine like alkaloids. Toxic dose of hyoscamine is 2.7 mg/kg for pigs.

The response of plants to air pollution can be understood by analyzing the physiological and biochemical parameters of plants.

Physiological Parameters

The epidermal cells are the first to interact with the air pollutants and also lack chloroplast. Epidermal cells hence cannot remove excess sulphur through the production and release of H2S. Damage to plants by air pollutants depends upon the amount of pollutants entering the cells and their reactivity with cellular constituents. Plants regulate the entry of gaseous molecules through stomatal movement thereby affecting the photosynthesis and transpiration. Response of plants to gaseous pollutants varies from species to species. This is due to differences in the stomatal conductance, aperture size and permeability of plasma membrane (Yunus et al., 1996).

The use of natural dyes lost ground together with the old traditional dye methods towards the end of 19th century soon after the synthetic dyes came to the market (Gilbert and Cooke 2001). Only artisans, craftsmen, and green–minded companies continued dyeing with natural dyes (Hartl 1997). The first recorded synthetic dye is picric acid produced in 1770’s from the interaction of indigo and nitric acid. The synthetic dye industry is considered to have started when Perkins synthesised mauveine (mauve) in 1856 in the UK (Hancock 1997). With the passage of time, it was observed that synthetic dyes used by the textile industry are a source of environmental pollution (Seker et al. 2007) and they produce allergic, carcinogenic and detrimental effects on the health of humans (Singh and Singh 2002, Mahanta and Tiwari 2005). The synthetic dyes were preferred by the industry because of their simpilicity in the use and all colors could be produced easily, but the problem was the waste deposition which is a major cause of environmental pollution. The solvents used during dying reduce the problem to some extent but the waste water purification needs extra effort and money (Shreve and Brink 1985). As against this, the natural dyes are not only harmless to the humans but also cause far less environmental pollution, and have distinctive washing and sunlight fade–resistant characteristics (Mert et al. 1992, Angelini et al. 1997, Kim and Park 2006). For this purpose, the textile industries have started rethinking about the natural dyes and are trying to find sustainable as well as non–toxic alternatives to synthetic dyes for a growing textile market.

Abstract

Herbal healthcare forms the most favored system for curing various ailments of the people residing in remote areas of Himalayan region. Gujjar and Bakerwal tribes inhabit the hilly areas of Pir Panjal region of J&K along with their livestock and rely on the surrounding bio-wealth for their healthcare needs. But, proper documentation of traditional knowledge about the medicinal plants has been poorly attempted in this part of J&K. In order to develop a data base of plants being used by Gujjar and Bakerwal tribes of district Poonch, present attempt has been made. The present compilation recorded one hundred forty five plant species belonging to 133 genera and 76 families which are used by the tribal people to cure various ailments like rheumatism, diarrhea, dysentery, skin and gastric problems, wound healing etc. These medicinal plants comprise of 25 trees, 27 shrubs, 82 herbs and 11 climbers. Of the total, 44 species are native to Himalayan region and 101 are non native.

Keywords: Indigenous knowledge, Medicinal plants, Healthcare, Gujjar, Bakerwal

Principle

The plaque assay was developed in order to enumerate and quantify the infectivity of bacteriophages. This technique has been subsequently adapted for application in animal virology and has proven to be a dependable method for quantifying the concentration of various viruses that have been adapted for growth in cell cultures. This assay is designed to quantify the capacity of a solitary infectious virus to create a visible area of cell death on a layer of cultured cells. A plaque forms during the viral infection cycle, in which the host cell dies after viral replication. Some viruses cause cell lysis during replication, while others cause minimal damage to the cells. The plaque assay is a technique used to measure the quantity of viruses that cause the destruction of their host cells, resulting in cytopathic effects (CPE). During a plaque assay, the host cells and virus are briefly co-cultured to enhance the virus's attachment and entry into the host cell. Subsequently, the concoction is introduced into a partially solidified agar medium. The thick agar is poured onto a layer of "bottom agar" which supplies ample nutrients for the host cell. After one round of virus replication, an infected cell will undergo lysis, leading to the release of multiple new viruses. Within the gelatinous substance, these newly released viruses can only infect neighbouring cells. After a subsequent round of replication, these neighbouring cells will undergo lysis. The cells that manage to avoid infection will continue to proliferate. After a period of 24 to 48 hours, plates that were not contaminated with a virus will display a consistent layer of cells. The plates infected with a multitude of viruses exhibit plaques. Quantifying viral titer is essential for assessing viral infectivity. The determination can be made either by conducting a plaque assay or by calculating the infectious dose.

Plasma Activated Water (PAW) is an emerging technology that combines the reactive properties of plasma with water to create an effective medium for food preservation and decontamination. This chapter explains the principles of PAW generation and examines different generation systems, including atmospheric pressure plasma jets, corona discharge and dielectric barrier discharge. It explores applications of PAW in reducing post-harvest losses, extending the shelf life of highly perishable foods, supporting edible-coating formation, controlling undesirable enzyme activity and improving food safety. The chapter emphasizes the potential of PAW as a sustainable processing approach while discussing treatment conditions, food-matrix interactions, technological limitations and opportunities for future development in food preservation.

Isolation of plasmid DNA from E. coli is a common routine in research laboratories. One can perform a widely-practiced procedure that involves alkaline lysis of cells. This protocol often referred to as a plasmid “mini-prep,” yields fairly clean DNA quickly and easily.

Procedure

Fill a microcentrifuge tube with saturated bacterial culture grown in LB broth + antibiotic. Spin tube in microcentrifuge for 1 minute, and make sure tubes are balanced in microcentrifuge. Dump supernatant and drain tube briefly on paper towel.

Repeat step 1 in the same tube, filling the tube again with more bacterial culture. The purpose of this step is to increase the starting volume of cells so that more plasmid DNA can be isolated per prep. Spin tube in microcentrifuge for 1 minute. Pour off supernatant and drain tube on paper towel.

Add 0.2 ml ice-cold Solution 1 to cell pellet and resuspend cells as much as possible using disposable transfer pipet.

Solution Preparation

1. Glycerol mix (1 L)

Weigh 25 grams (liquid weight) of glycerol and

Add dH₂O to 1 Liter (Autoclave).

2. Potassium mix (1 L)

170 mL of 1M KH₂PO₄ (monobasic),

720 mL of 1M K₂HPO₄ (dibasic), and

110 mL of dH₂O (Autoclave)

Principle

The principle is to extract plasmid DNA from bacterial cell suspensions and is based on the alkaline lysis procedure developed by Birnboim and Doly (Nucleic Acids Research 7:1513, 1979). It is a known fact that plasmids are much smaller super coiled DNA molecules than the much larger and less super coiled bacterial chromosomal DNA. This difference in topology enables selective precipitation of the chromosomal DNA and cellular proteins and separates them from plasmids and RNA molecules. The cells are lysed under alkaline conditions, which denature both nucleic acids and proteins, and when the solution is neutralized by the addition of Potassium Acetate, chromosomal DNA and proteins precipitate because it is impossible for them to renature correctly (they are so large). Plasmids renature correctly and stay in solution, effectively separating them from chromosomal DNA and proteins.

Principle

Apart from PCR for generating large amounts of DNA, the second method is to use bacteria to replicate the DNA and then purify the replicated DNA from the bacteria. Plasmid DNA is usually the DNA of interest for this method. A plasmid is a double stranded circular DNA molecule that will replicate in an organism. A typical plasmid contains four important features:

The plasmid must be circular, because bacteria generally will not replicate linear ? DNA.

The plasmid must contain a sequence that functions as an origin of replication (ori).

The plasmid must contain a selection mechanism that will force the bacteria to retain the DNA; the most common type of selection mechanism used in bacteria is a gene for resistance to an antibiotic such as ampicillin or tetracycline.

The plasmid must contain a region for the insertion of the experimental DNA. A generic plasmid exhibiting these features is shown at right.

An expression plasmid that allows expression of foreign DNA should have a strong promoter segment for transcription of inserted DNA.

Must have an effective ribosome binding site that will allow efficient translation of the transcribed RNA.

Must have high copy number, i.e., the host bacterium should have many copies (usually >100)

2.1. Introduction

The word ‘plastic’ is derived from the Greek word ‘plastikos’, which means easily shaped or molded. Plastics is defined as a random set of materials based on synthetic or modified natural polymers which can be formed by thermal and pressure treatment. It comprises of wide range of macromolecular organic compounds obtained either from alteration of natural macromolecules or polymerization of molecules of lower molecular weight.

Introduction

Under arid and semi-arid regions of the world, major problems are salinity, alkalinity and calcareousness, which seems to further aggravate with changing climate scenario. Besides, most of the developing countries lies in this zone with flanging population resulting from shrinking of land resource and good quality of irrigation water. Globally area under saline/sodic soils is about 953mha covering 8% of the land surface. Resent estimates indicate that 6.7 mha area in India is affected by soil salinity and alkalinity and about 25% of ground water are sodic and/or saline in the country. There are two important approaches for utilizing saline alkali or calcareous environment. The first one is to modify the environment so as to suit the plant or modifying the plant and the second one is to substitute the plant species so as to suit the environment. However, second option is cost effective and most sustainable.

1. Introduction

The word ‘PLASTIC’ is a Greek word which involves two words ‘PLASSIEN’ and ‘PLASTIKOS’. Denotation of word is to mould or shape into a soft substance which can be permanent or temporary. The use of plastics in agriculture as well as in horticulture has made substantial progress during the last decade. We all know that plastics contribute not only in planting but also in post-harvest handling and processing of many agri-horticulture crops. At every stage of horticultural crop life cycle plastics are used i.e. in seeds and fruits packaging, planting and propagation, mulching, irrigation, harvesting and preservation etc.

Introduction
In the modern age of digital transformation, platforms have become critical enablers of sustainability. These digital infrastructures, which facilitate connectivity, resource sharing, and collaboration, are pivotal in accelerating the adoption of sustainable practices across various sectors. Platforms enable the effective integration of resources, stakeholders, and technologies, offering scalable solutions that can help achieve long-term environmental, economic, and social sustainability goals. Whether through promoting circular economy models, enabling efficient resource use, fostering innovation in green technologies, or driving policy changes, platforms serve as central hubs for fostering sustainable development.

Abstract

The recent earth movements and the related seismicities in the Southern part of the Indian Peninsula has been a matter of enigma for a century and more. While one school was strongly holding the opinion that the southern Indian Peninsula is free from recent earth movements as it is a shield area, the other school has narrated the possibilities for the ongoing earth movements. Under these circumstances, the various anomalies observed from satellite data and ground based information on geomorphology, subsurface lithology, geophysics, hydrogeology, geochemistry etc. have suggested a possible Pleistocene / Holocene graben along Pondicherry in the northeast and Cumbum Valley in the southwest in the southern tip of the Indian Peninsula.

Abstract

The tectonics of the geological past from Archaeozoic to early part of Cenozoic era has been studied due to their penetrative documentation in the form of folds and faults. But the tectonic history of the latter part of the Cenozoic era (i.e Pleistocene period) has remained a matter of conjecture owing to the poor response of the rocks to Pleistocene movements. In the present study the authors presented a model for the Pleistocene earth movements of South India through the study of river migration, coast line changes and lineament fabric derived from the space borne photographs.

In the area of study, the northerly migration of Paleru and Pennar and southerly shift of Palar, Ponnaiyar and Cauvery rivers, marine regressions restricted within this segment and the closely spaced crest line fractures suggest a lineament controlled E-W trending Quaternary upwarping along Mangalore-Madras alignment. Similar E-W cymatogeny is inferred in the southern tip of the Peninsular India on the basis of once again such observations. Such E-W trending Pleistocene arching phenomenon suggests a N-S oriented regional compression which could be related to the collision of Indian plate with Tibetan plate.

1. INTRODUCTION

The basic principle of plant breeding is the utilization of existing variation and creation of new variations. Ploidy breeding is one of the tools used for improving the crop plants. The year 1937 can be considered as a landmark in the history of plant breeding. The discovery of the specific action of colchicine in inducing polyploidy has provided the breeder with a means for increasing the scope of crop improvement apart from the removal of the barrier of sterility in the sterile interspecific hybrids by the production of amphidiploids and their utilization later for the transfer of useful genes from the wild parents to cultivated plants. It was hoped that the production of autoploids in various crop plants would directly lead to the cultivation of better plants, as generally the autopolyploids are known for their gigas characters including the seed.

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It encompasses various fields such as cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, social psychology, and more. The genesis of psychology finds its roots in the pioneering work of Sigmund Freud, widely regarded as the Father of Psychology. Etymologically, the term “psychology” stems from the amalgamation of two Greek words: “psyche,” denoting soul, and “logos,” connoting science or rational discourse. Thus, linguistically dissected, psychology embodies the study or science of the soul.

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It encompasses various fields such as cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, social psychology, and more. The genesis of psychology finds its roots in the pioneering work of Sigmund Freud, widely regarded as the Father of Psychology. Etymologically, the term “psychology” stems from the amalgamation of two Greek words: “psyche,” denoting soul, and “logos,” connoting science or rational discourse. Thus, linguistically dissected, psychology embodies the study or science of the soul.

A plum or gage is a stone fruit tree in the genus Prunus. The European plum is thought to have been discovered around two thousand years ago, originating in the area near the Caspian Sea, while Japanese plums actually originated in China. However, they derived their name from the country where much of their cultivation and development have occurred. Mature plum fruit may have a dusty-white coating that gives them a glaucous appearance and is easily rubbed off. This is an epicuticular wax coating and is known as “wax bloom”. Plum fruit tastes sweet and/or tart; the skin may be particularly tart. It is juicy and can be eaten fresh or used in jam-making or other recipes. Plum juice can be fermented into plum wine; when distilled, this produces a brandy known as Slivovitz or Rakia in Eastern Europe. Dried plums (or prunes) are also sweet and juicy and contain several antioxidants. 

Plum weevil : Amblyrrhinus poricollis, Myllocerus laetivirens, M. sabulosus, M. undecimpustulatus : Curculionidae

Adult beetles feed on the epidermis of fresh and tender leaves leaving behind only the network of veins and affected leaves dry up and fall. They cause serious damage in young plantations.

Defoliating beetles
 
Adoretus duvauceli, A. versutus, Anomala dimidiata, A. flavipes, A. lineatopennis, A. rufiventris, Holotrichia longipennis, Hilyotrogus holosericeous, Lachnosterna coriacea, L. crinicollis, L. longipennis, Mimela passerine, M. pectoralis.

1. Introduction

Plum is one of the important stone fruit crops of temperate region throughout the world. The Japanese group of plum is native to China but was domesticated in Japan and subsequently was introduced to different parts of the world. In India, Japanese plums were introduced by European settlers and missionaries around 1870. Plum grows well in areas ranging from 900 m to 1600 m above mean sea level.

1.1. Uses

Among deciduous fruits, plum is widely distributed in the world, because of wider adaptability among different species and cultivars of plum to varied agro-climates and soil conditions. Plum is consumed as dessert, dried and processed products. Plum fruit is considered best to overcome the jaundice. Its fruit use for a preparation of juice and squash. It ranks next to peach in commercial production. It is widely cultivated in several countries in Europe, Asia and in the America.

Japanese plum (Prunus salicina) is widely grown in hill and to a limited scale in the plains of north-western India. Although the fruit quality of plums produced in subtropical is poor however, it fetches high process in the market because of it early availability. Its availability in market at a time when the competition from other fruits is less. It is known as Japanese plum due to its cultivation in Japan from where cultivars spread to other places. At present, plum is cultivated in all temperate climate countries of the world. Plums are a familiar part of our diets. These sweet, fleshy fruit are a common sight in super market shelves. Prunus domestica, the European plum, is an important crop that has been cultivated in Europe for over 2,000 years. When the early European settlers landed on the shores of North America, they found various kinds of native plums scattered throughout the countryside, all of which were found to be of inferior quality. Until the 19th century, most plum cultivation in the United States was confined to the European varieties that were brought overseas. Today, new plum hybrids of native and Asian species have been developed for fresh market consumption, but Prunus domestica remains the prime source for processing plums. Depending on the variety, these plums can be good for either canning, drying as prunes, for culinary uses, or, in lesser amounts, eaten fresh.

• Fast track plum breeding started with an aim to reduce the juvenile period in temperate fruits.
• Transgenic early continuous flowering (ECF) gene induces early flowering.

  Chilling requirement

• Japanese Plum - 700-1000 hrs - below – 7°C
• European plum - 1000-1200 hrs - 7°C
• Clonal rootstock for raising plum plants: Myrobalan B.
• Dwarfing rootstock – P. subcordata
• Planting time – Dec-Jan
• Training System – Open centre system – oldest
• Japanese plums are mostly adaptable to open centre system.
• Fruit thinning agents – DNOC, Ethephon, 3-CPA
• Japanese plum needs thinning upto 25 - 40%.
• European Plum: President, Victoria, Starking Delicious, Greengage.
• Japanese plum – Beauty, Santa Rosa, Mariposa. Kelsey, Frontier, Elephant Heart, Satsuma
• Subtropical – Sultlej Purple, Kala Amritsari, Titron.
• Self-fruitful – Beauty, Mariposa

6.1 Introduction

Plum is one of the important and widely cultivated fruit crops of temperate regions of the world. It occupies a unique position amongst the stone fruits in world fruit production and ranks next to peaches in economic importance. Plums are the most taxonomically diverse stone fruits which belongs to genus Prunus of sub-family Prunoideae and family Rosaceae (Potter et al., 2007). There are about 42 species of plum but the cultivated plums are derived from two species namely Prunus domestica (European plum) and Prunus salicina (Japanese plum). The Japanese plums are widely grown in the country whereas the European plums are grown only on a limited scale. The European plums are most often produced for the dried fruit market particularly in France and California, where it is called prune and dried plum, respectively. In the recent past some prunes have been introduced for fresh market in Himachal Pradesh. These prunes are sold fresh like plums and have become quite popular.

Plum belongs to the genus Prunus under family Rosaceae. The European plum are Prunus domestica and Japanese plums are Prunus salicina and hybrids. Mature plum fruit may have a dusty-white coating that gives them a glaucous appearance and is easily rubbed off. This is an epicuticular wax coating and is known as “wax bloom”. Dried plum fruits are called dried plums or prunes, although prunes are a distinct type of plum, and may have pre-dated the fruits now commonly known as plums. The major plum producing states are Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Mizoram, Punjab, Tamil Nadu (Ooty) and Uttarakhand.

Cultivars/Varieties: Damson plum, Greengage plum, Mirabelle plum, Victoria plum, Satsuma plum and Yellow plum.

Uses

Plums are mainly used consumed as fresh fruits. They are also used widely for making jam, jelly chutney and squash. Certain varieties of European plum are specially suited for drying to produce prunes. Prunes are firm fleshed fruits of P. domestica cultivars having sugar content which can be dried whole without fermentation around the pit, to make a firm tasteful product that can be stored for long period.

Genus : Prunus 
Species : domestica institia L. 
                saliciana Lindl.
Family : Rosaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n - 48

Of all the stone fruits, plums are the most varied. They belong to the genus Prunus of the subfamily Prunoideae of the family Rosaceae. All plums have a basic chromosome number of x=8. Plums and related species have been placed in the subgenus Prunophora section Euprunus and Prunocerasus. Six species have been placed in the section Euprunus. Their chromosome number range from diploid to hexploid and are native to the land extending from Europe to China. Thirteen species native to the North American continent are all diploid in nature and have been placed in the sections Prunocerasus. Separation of the plums into the two sections does not appear to have any genetical basis since the species appear to be closely related. Prunus domestica, the European plum, is believed to be the most recent crop species to have arisen within the section Prunophora. Prunus insititia.

Pneumonia was once one of the most dreaded diseases known to man. It is no longer so. But pneumonia is still a serious disease. Germs causing pneumonia re of various types, such as streptococcus, staphylococcus, and pneumococcus varieties. Certain viruses are also responsible at times.

Pneumonia may be defined as an acute infectious disease of the lung, caused by the micrococcus lanceoaltus affecting principally the parenchyma.

Etiology

The subfamily Pneumovirinae includes two genera: Pneumoviruses and metapneumovirus. The later consists of both human and avian metapneumovirus (aMPV). aMPV produces turkey rhinotracheitis (TRT) in turkey and Swollen head syndrome (SHS) in chickens. aMPV has been detected in other species of birds, but the disease in those birds are not well defined.

Occurrence Species

A new disease of turkeys (in the UK since 1985) which is suspected to cause some lesser problems in chickens.

Introduction

Podocytes are highly specialized cells with a complex structure that plays an important role in kidney physiology. The characteristic feature of these cells is that its cell body has foot processes which interdigitates with the foot processes of another podocytes leaving filtration slits in between them. These filtration slits are bridged by the slit diaphragm which is an extracellular structure. These cells are located on the outer surface of glomerular basement membrane (GBM) and thereby they check the protein loss. The cell body of these cells contain nucleus, golgi apparatus, smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum, lysosome and mitochondria. Their main function is in establishing the selective permeability of the glomerular f iltration barrier. Several molecules, including nephrin, CD2AP, FAT, ZO-1, P-cadherin, Podocin, and Neph 1-3 have all been shown to be associated with the slit diaphragm (SD) protein complex, and some of these molecules are critical for its integrity. In cases of chronic disease podocytes gets loosen and they separate from the surface of glomerular basement membrane (GBM). Podocyte injury frequently leads to reorganization of the slit diaphragm and reorganization of the foot process structure. Disturbances of podocyte architecture results in retraction of its foot processes which leads to proteinuria. This may be thelater progress into acquired glomerular diseases. The approach to regenerate podocyte and develop a mechanism of podocyte specific drug delivery system by understanding the molecular mechanism of podocyte function appears a promising area for treatment of proteinuric kidney diseases in future.

Poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima) is one of the most popular ornamental pot plants belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae. The botanical name Euphorbia pulcherrima means very beautiful. Euphorbia pulcherrima the name originally given by German botanist Karl Ludwig Wilenow was changed to “Poinsettia” in honour of “Mr. Poinsett” in 1836 by William Prescott. Poinsettia is a short-day, non-food and non-feed vegetatively propagated ornamental plant. Poinsettias are fascinating winter blooming small shrubs or trees which can grow anywhere from about 0.6 to 5 m tall. The coloured bracts of poinsettia plants are actually leaves. Colours of the bracts can be red, pink, orange, white or marbled. These coloured bracts are caused by photo-periodism. Poinsettias have also been called the lobster flower and the flame-leaf flower due to the red colour. California is the top U.S. Poinsettia-producing state.

Poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima) is one of the most popular ornamental pot plants belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae. The botanical name Euphorbia pulcherrima means very beautiful. Euphorbia pulcherrima the name originally given by German botanist Karl Ludwig Wilenow was changed to “Poinsettia” in honour of “Mr. Poinsett” in 1836 by William Prescott. Poinsettia is a short-day, non-food and non-feed vegetatively propagated ornamental plant. Poinsettias are fascinating winter blooming small shrubs or trees which can grow anywhere from about 0.6 to 5 m tall. The coloured bracts of poinsettia plants are actually leaves. Colours of the bracts can be red, pink, orange, white or marbled. These coloured bracts are caused by photo-periodism. Poinsettias have also been called the lobster flower and the flame-leaf flower due to the red colour. California is the top U.S. Poinsettia-producing state.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima) is the world’s most economically important potted plant but despite its preeminence it is not clear which wild populations are ancestral to the varieties cultivated around the world. Tradition holds that the U.S. envoy to Mexico, J. R. Poinsett collected the progenitors of the over 300 varieties in global cultivation on an 1828 excursion to northern Guerrero State, Mexico. It is unknown whether the contemporary cultivars are descended from plants from Guerrero or whether germplasm from other parts of poinsettia’s 2000 km long distribution entered into cultivation during the nearly 200 years of subsequent poinsettia horticulture.

The combination of nuclear and plastid haplotypes characterizing cultivars was found only in northern Guerrero. Whereas, distribution modeling indicated that suitable habitat conditions for wild poinsettias are present in this area consistent with their likely wild status. Finding shows that the area of northern Guerrero as the cultivated poinsettia’s probable ancestral region congruent with the traditional account attributing the original collections to Poinsett (Trejo et al., 2012). Poinsettias are originally native to the central and southern parts of Mexico where they grow as a shrub up to 5 m. The poinsettia was introduced to the United States by Mr. Poinsett in 1828. It was introduced into North America in1838 from Mexico and since that time it has achieved considerable economic importance as a pot plant in the florist trade.

1.1 Write True/False

Q.1    The process of knowing all the relevant information from the known sample to the unknown population, is known as “Statistical Inference.”
Q.2    An enquier may be completely unknown to some feature of the population but he may want to guess completely about that feature based on a random sample drawn from the population. This type of problem is known as the “Problem of Estimation.”

The pointed gourd (Trichosanthes dioica Roxb, Cucurbitaceae) is an Indian tropical vegetable crop. It’s called as parwal, palwal, or parmal in different parts of India and Bangladesh, and it’s one of the region’s most significant vegetables. Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and some hilly portions of Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu are among the states where the crop is commonly farmed. The entire cultivated area is 56 million hectares, while the total production is 798 million hectares (2018-19). Due to its well-established dioecism, perennial nature, and vegetative modes of multiplication, the pointed gourd is physically unique from other cucurbitaceous species.

Poisoning
Poisoning is defined as the harmful effect that occurs when a toxic substance is ingested, inhaled, absorbed through the skin, or injected into the body. This can involve a wide range of substances, including medications, chemicals, gases, and natural toxins from plants and animals. The severity of poisoning can vary significantly depending on the nature of the toxin, the amount of exposure, and the individual’s health status. Poisoning can occur through various means and can involve a wide range of substances. Understanding the different types of poisoning is essential for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment.
Types of Poisoning
1. Chemical Poisoning Chemical poisoning is one of the most common forms and typically involves exposure to toxic substances found in household products or industrial chemicals.
• Household Chemicals: Common items such as cleaning products (bleach, ammonia), pesticides, and solvents (paint thinners) can be harmful if ingested or inhaled.
• Industrial Chemicals: Exposure to chemicals used in manufacturing processes can lead to serious health risks.
2. Drug Poisoning Drug poisoning occurs when medications are taken in excessive amounts or when non-prescribed drugs are used.
• Prescription Medications: Drugs like beta-blockers, anticoagulants (e.g., warfarin), and certain antidepressants can be toxic in high doses.
• Over-the-Counter Medications: Common medications like acetaminophen can cause liver damage if overdosed.
• Illicit Drugs: Substances such as cocaine, heroin, and methamphetamine can lead to severe health consequences, including overdose and death.

9.1 Introduction

Many physical parameters such as pressure, temperature, electric current etc. can be measured using polarization-modulated sensors. In these sensors modulation of state of polarization of light in the sensing region by an external stimuli takes place. A variety of physical effects influence the state of polarization of light. These phenomena are Faraday effect, electro-optic effect and photo-elastic effect. Polarization modulated sensors, in some cases, offer significant advantages not only over conventional sensors but also over widely used fiber optic interferometric sensors. These sensors require control over the state of polarization of light entering the sensing region of the fiber. Thus, for these sensors, highly birefringent fibers or single mode fibers are used. In this chapter we shall first discuss magneto/electro-optic effects and then shall describe sensors for the measurement of electric current/ magnetic field, voltage, pressure, temperature etc. utilizing polarization modulation.

Compounds having one or more asymmetric carbon atoms can rotate the plane of polarized light. Such compounds are called optically active. Measurement   of this property is called polarimetry.
 
The magnitude and direction in which the plane of polarized light is rotated depend on 1.The nature  of the compound, 2. The  concentration of the solution, 3. The path length of light, 4. The solvent, 5. The wave length of light and 
6. The temperature. These variables are related and can be presented in the formula

A TTO fills the important intermediary position of linking research institution with industry so that innovations and new ideas can reach market. To be able to facilitate that effectively, the institutions must have well-defined R&D policies that include Sponsored R&D, Collaborative R&D, and Grant-in-Aid R&D. These ensure that the research remains properly managed, regulatory compliance assured and aligned with institutional priorities. This chapter has discussed about key policies that can help in successful operation of TTO while aligning institution’s mission and interests Various core policies that help in successful technology transfer include:
• Intellectual property policy
• Technology transfer policy
• Revenue sharing policy
• Startup/Spinout/Venture creation policy
• Conflict of interest/Conflict of commitment policy
Each policy has specific objectives. These policies collectively ensure a clear and consistent framework for technology commercialization.
11.1 Intellectual property policy
An IP policy is a formal document that provides guidelines for managing IP by an organisation. A strong IP policy build trust by ensuring efficiency and transparency. Other benefits of IP policy includes creation of environment to encourage innovation and commercialisation of IP. It also lays foundation to set out the rules for public-private partnerships while addressing issues among various stakeholders and ensures compliance. IP Policy is not law, but a proposed course of action.

14.1 Changes in policy and strategy

14.1.1 Policy changes

In the discussion on land use planning we suggested that the ideal pattern of development is to establish a long-term national or regional policy, which leads to medium-term strategies, and short-term tactical operations. In the real world a curious situation is arising in that the adoption of the new land husbandry approach is growing so fast that the practitioners have moved ahead of the politicians and opinion formers, with the result that the implementation of strategies by Non-Government Organisations, aid agencies, and senior field officers, is helping to shape new policies.

There is always the problem that national policies ought to be long term, but are created by politicians usually working within a short time frame to the next election. Fortunately, the land husbandry approach allows planners at all levels from farmers to governments to appreciate the long-term issues.

The new approach was mentioned in section 9.2.1 in connection with land use planning. It is summed up in the slogan From soil conservation to land husbandry, and two reviews using that title list the main points as the need for:

Natural farming in India is witnessing growing acceptance, driven by concerns over environmental sustainability, soil health, and human well-being. To accelerate this transition away from chemical-intensive practices, both central and state governments, along with NGOs, have initiated comprehensive support systems that include policy frameworks, training, financial aid, and market facilitation.
A cornerstone of India’s natural farming policy is the Bharatiya Prakritik Krishi Paddhati (BPKP), launched under the Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY). This centrally sponsored scheme empowers states to implement natural farming by offering financial and technical assistance. States like Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra have led in adopting cluster-based natural farming models with large-scale training and demonstration programs.
Farmer training is central to adoption. Institutions such as Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), agricultural universities, and NGOs conduct extensive workshops on techniques like Jeevamrit, mulching, intercropping, and water conservation. Learning is made accessible through practical exposure, model farms, and local-language manuals, supported by digital tools like mobile advisories and community radio.
Support mechanisms include input subsidies for cow-based formulations, certification under Jaivik Bharat, and marketing linkages. Farmer Producer, Organizations (FPOs) facilitate input procurement, processing, and branding, while digital platforms improve market access and price realization.