eChapters

Effective feeding strategies and feed management are vital for enhancing fish growth, achieving optimal feed conversion ratios (FCR), and reducing both feed wastage and environmental impact. As feed expenses account for around 60–70% of total aquaculture costs, efficient feeding is key to economic and environmental sustainability. A well-designed feeding approach includes selecting appropriate feed types, setting correct feeding rates, timing feedings properly, and observing fish feeding behavior closely. Feed characteristics—such as floating or sinking nature, pellet size, and nutritional composition—should align with the species, age, and health of the fish. Insufficient feeding can result in poor growth and higher disease risk, whereas excessive feeding not only escalates costs but also compromises water quality due to decomposing leftover feed. Feeding rates are usually based on a percentage of body weight, modified according to factors like water temperature, oxygen levels, fish condition, and seasonal changes. For example, warmer weather increases metabolism and appetite, requiring more frequent feedings,

In modern aquaculture, specialized feeds and functional additives play a crucial role in addressing species-specific nutritional needs, enhancing immunity, improving growth rates, and ensuring efficient feed utilization—especially under intensive farming or environmentally challenging conditions. These feeds go beyond meeting basic dietary requirements and are formulated to offer specific benefits such as stress mitigation, disease resistance, enhanced coloration, reproductive performance, and superior product quality. Specialized feeds include larval and fry diets, broodstock feeds, pigmentenriched diets for ornamental and salmonid fish, and probiotic or prebioticinfused formulations. They are often used in systems like recirculating aquaculture (RAS) or high-density setups. For instance, larval feeds typically contain easily digestible ingredients like microalgae, fish protein hydrolysates

The economics surrounding fish feed production are crucial in determining the profitability and sustainability of aquaculture operations. With feed expenses making up 60 to 70 percent of total fish farming costs, optimizing feed manufacturing and management is essential for improving financial returns. The feed production cost structure encompasses raw material sourcing, processing, labor, equipment upkeep, quality control, packaging, and logistics. Among these, protein-rich ingredients such as fishmeal and soybean meal represent the highest expenditure, and fluctuations in their prices significantly affect overall feed costs. To address this, producers often explore affordable alternatives and substitute ingredients that maintain nutritional standards. Additionally, large-scale feed mills benefit from economies of scale, achieving lower production costs through bulk buying, mechanization, and efficient processes, whereas smaller units often struggle with higher expenses and limited market access. Feed formulation is designed for both nutritional efficiency and costeffectiveness. The use of advanced software allows for precise ingredient balancing to meet dietary needs while minimizing expenses, thereby improving feed conversion ratios (FCR) and reducing waste. Investments in processing innovations like extrusion and automated packaging enhance feed durability and quality, supporting premium pricing and minimizing spoilage. Effective branding, marketing, and customer service also contribute to the economic strength of feed businesses.

The Anthropocene epoch underscores an era of interconnected crises, where climate change, biodiversity collapse, and socioeconomic inequities amplify systemic vulnerabilities. Traditional siloed approaches—scientific research detached from policymaking, and policies divorced from community engagement—have proven inadequate in addressing these complex challenges. This chapter posits that systemic resilience necessitates the integration of science, policy, and community efforts through adaptive governance frameworks. By synthesizing transdisciplinary research, participatory policymaking, and grassroots innovation, the analysis highlights how evidence-based strategies, grounded in local realities, can bridge institutional and societal divides. Case studies, such as Costa Rica’s Payment for Ecosystem Services and Bangladesh’s Cyclone Preparedness Program, demonstrate the efficacy of co-produced solutions that align scientific rigor with equitable implementation. Challenges, including communication disparities, power imbalances, and funding misalignments, are critically examined to identify barriers to integration. The chapter concludes that dismantling sectoral silos, prioritizing marginalized voices, and fostering iterative collaboration are imperative for navigating Anthropocene uncertainties. These insights advocate for institutional innovations that embed inclusivity and adaptability into global sustainability agendas, offering a roadmap for transformative action across science, policy, and community domains.

The skin is the largest organ of the body that plays an important role in defending the body against minor physical injuries, providing some defense against microbial invasion, maintenance of homeostasis, water conservation, temperature conservation, supporting hair growth and heat loss. Changes in the secretion of sebaceous glands lead to compromised defence. Abnormalities of the skin may arise from specific skin disease or by the poor general health status. Therefore, a detailed clinical examination of the animal as a whole and of its skin in particular, is an essential part of the process of diagnosis. The skin has three main layers starting from outside as the epidermis, the dermis and the subcutis. The epidermis consists largely of epithelial cells and pigment. The dermis is a connective tissue layer containing blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, sebaceous and sweat glands. The inner most subcutis contains fibrous and fatty tissues that provides insulation and support. In healthy animals, the skin has considerable elasticity. It reduces in dehydration and inflammation / injury to skin. General clinical examination should be carried out first as a routine followed by special examination

Large Animals The collection and evaluation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in farm animals with signs of diseases of nervous system provides very valuable diagnostic and prognostic information. Routinely, CSF is evaluated for total protein level, erythrocyte and leukocyte counts, and a differential cell count. Additional tests are available for specific neurologic conditions. CSF is primarily produced by the choroid plexuses in the lateral, third, and fourth ventricles through plasma ultra filtration and active transport across the blood-brain barrier. Smaller amounts of CSF are generated by the ependymal lining, pia arachnoid, meningeal blood vessels, and spinal cord’s central canal. The turnover rate is about 1% per minute, meaning systemic electrolyte or acid-base changes take several minutes to affect CSF

Ultrasonography, popularly known as sonography, is a non-invasive, radiation free and safe medical procedure being increasingly used for the imaging different body organs/ structures for the diagnosis of various diseases not only in humans but also in farm, companion and exotic pets. The technique involves ultrasound unit, patient and doctor/veterinarian (trained in sonography). Ultrasound Unit Ultrasound unit has processor (central processing unit commonly known as CPU), transducers, key board, data storage and printer (Fig. 187). •     The CPU (central processing unit) is basically a computer having microprocessor, memory, amplifiers and power supplies for the microprocessor and transducer. The CPU transmits electrical currents to the transducer to emit sound waves, and receives the returning echoes. Returning echoes are processed to form the image on the monitor. The processed data and/or image are

Management of metabolic diseases depends on an early diagnosis. For an early diagnosis, metabolic profile test (MPT) is a diagnostic tool being commonly used in veterinary practice, particularly for dairy herds, to assess the metabolic health of the animals. It helps in an early detection by measuring various blood parameters that indicate the nutritional and health status of the cows for their effective timely management. MPT is based on the principle that the imbalance between input (feed) and output (production) is reflected in the abnormalities of key metabolites in the blood. Key components of the metabolic profile test 1. Energy balance indicators •     Glucose- Reflects energy status and carbohydrate metabolism. Low levels can indicate negative

Diseases of livestock cause massive economic losses in terms of reduced productivity and production and some of them have zoonotic potential posing a serious risk to public health. Vaccination is the most efficient and cost-effective method of controlling infectious diseases both in humans and animals. The eradication of smallpox and rinderpest from the globe; the elimination of hog cholera and brucellosis from many countries; and the control of diseases such as foot-and-mouth disease, canine distemper, rabies, influenza, and pseudorabies would not have been possible without the use of effective vaccines. Vaccination not only protects the vaccinated animals but also reduces disease among non-vaccinated animals through herd immunity. They also reduce antimicrobial usage and minimize the risk of antimicrobial resistance. Vaccines Vaccines are prepared antigens to be used to prevent diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, mycoplasma, protozoa, and parasites.

Poultry manure provides an ideal habitat for fly breeding due to high manure moisture leading to increased fly populationand fly menace in poultry farm. The moisture, temperature and humid condition play important role in fly breeding. The flies on poultry farms are unacceptable as they act as a reservoir of many diseases and spread diseases to birds and human beings. In addition to spread of diseases, fly are nuisance to birds as they distract the birds as well as poultry farm employees, nearby farms and residence (Berry, 2003). High fly population contribute tapeworm infestation in flock and disseminate bacterial (like salmonella, fowl cholera, etc.) and viral diseases (Bird flu, New Castle disease, etc. in flocks. Fly population also causes public health issue leading to pressure on poultry farmers to control fly population on poultry farms to acceptable level. The flies on poultry farm includes House fly (Muscadomestica), little house fly (Fanniacanicularis), Black Garbage fly (Hydrotaeaaenescens), Dump flies (H? aenescens, H? ignava, H? capensis), Drosophila flies (Drosophila repleta), Soldier fly (Hermetiaillucens), Stable flies (Stomoxyscalcitrans), Drosophila flies (Drosophila repleta) and Blow flies (Lucilia, Phormia, and Calliphora) and black flies. The Lucilia species include L? cuprina and L? sericata(Axtell, 1999). Among these, the most common

1. Agroecology & System of Rice Intensification (SRI) — Lao PDR, Nepal Agroecology emphasizes sustainable farming that works in harmony with ecosystems, reducing reliance on chemical inputs and improving biodiversity. The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) is a flagship agroecological method that optimizes plant spacing, soil aeration, water management, and timing of inputs to boost rice yields sustainably. • Impact on Yields and Resource Use: In Lao PDR and Nepal, adoption of SRI has led to rice yield increases between 15% and 25%, outperforming conventional transplanting methods without increasing input costs significantly (FAO, 2021). This yield boost directly translates to higher food availability and incomes for smallholder farmers. Importantly, SRI reduces water use by about 30%, addressing water scarcity challenges faced in rainfed and drought-prone areas (IRRI, 2020). This efficiency stems from alternate wetting and drying practices rather than continuous flooding, improving

The Asia-Pacific region, home to a large proportion of the world’s agricultural producers and consumers, faces complex challenges: climate change, infrastructure gaps, market fragmentation, and inefficient supply chains that result in high post-harvest losses and limited farmer incomes. However, the region is witnessing rapid innovation across multiple fronts that promise to transform agri-food supply chains into more climate-resilient, transparent, inclusive, and efficient systems. These emerging opportunities align with regional sustainability goals and create pathways for economic growth and rural development. 7.1 Climate-Smart Infrastructure: Financing Low-Carbon and Resilient Agri Supply Chains Green Bonds for Solar Cold Rooms Vietnam’s Mekong Delta — a critical rice-producing region — is pioneering the issuance of green bonds to finance solar-powered cold rooms under the “One Million Hectares” low-carbon rice initiative

This chapter examines the principles, preparation and application of vaccines and biological products. It compares live attenuated, inactivated, toxoid, subunit, recombinant, vector, DNA and mRNA vaccines. Vaccine development phases, immunogenicity, safety, efficacy and post-marketing surveillance are introduced. The chapter discusses adjuvants, including alum, Freund’s adjuvants, liposomes, ISCOMs and delivery systems. Important veterinary vaccines for brucellosis, foot-and-mouth disease, anthrax, Newcastle disease, infectious bronchitis, goat pox, sheep pox and peste des petits ruminants are covered. Questions also address bacterins, toxoids, attenuation, booster requirements and reversion to virulence, providing practical knowledge of immunoprophylaxis in animal-health management.

Parasitoids are important natural enemies that regulate insect-pest populations and reduce dependence on chemical pesticides. They lay eggs in or on host insects, and their developing offspring eventually kill the hosts. Rising temperatures, altered rainfall, elevated carbon dioxide and extreme weather can affect parasitoid survival, development, reproduction, host-searching ability, distribution and seasonal activity. Climate change may also disturb synchronization between parasitoids and their hosts, thereby reducing the effectiveness of natural biological control. This chapter examines how changing climatic conditions influence parasitoid diversity, abundance and pest-suppression services. It also highlights management approaches for conserving and strengthening parasitoid populations in agricultural ecosystems.

Guidance and counselling help individuals understand themselves, address difficulties and make informed educational, vocational and personal decisions. This chapter introduces the meaning, principles, objectives, types and processes of guidance and counselling. It examines the qualities and responsibilities of counsellors, counselling relationships, communication skills and techniques used to assist children, adolescents, adults and families. The questions consider individual and group counselling, educational and career guidance, behavioural concerns, adjustment problems, mental well-being, confidentiality and ethical practice. They also assess learners’ understanding of assessment, referral and intervention. The chapter provides a concise revision resource for applying counselling principles within educational, family and community settings.

This chapter connects human-centred ergonomic design with environmental sustainability. Traditional ergonomics seeks to improve safety, comfort and performance, while sustainable ergonomics also considers resource depletion, pollution, waste and climate change. The chapter explains how products, workplaces and systems can support human well-being while minimizing environmental harm. Its principal concerns include efficient use of materials and energy, durable and recyclable products, responsible manufacturing and reduced environmental footprints throughout the product lifecycle. The approach seeks a balance among people, planet and economic performance. By incorporating environmental consequences into ergonomic decisions, designers and policymakers can create workplaces that are simultaneously comfortable, productive, resource-conscious and beneficial to future generations.

Soil organic matter is a key component of soil fertility, biological activity, aggregation and carbon storage. This chapter examines the origin, transformation and management of organic matter in agricultural soils, with particular attention to irrigated agroecosystems. It discusses the decomposition of organic matter under aerobic and anaerobic conditions and explains the major factors influencing decomposition rates. Microbial activity plays an important role in transforming organic materials and regulating nutrient cycling within the soil. The chapter introduces humus, humic substances and non-humic substances and explains interactions between clay and humus that influence soil properties. The relationship between soil organic matter and plant growth is also considered, highlighting its contribution to nutrient availability, soil structure and biological processes. Methods for maintaining soil organic matter and conserving soil carbon in agroecosystems are discussed along with factors controlling soil carbon levels. The chapter therefore establishes the importance of organic matter management for improving soil health, carbon conservation and the long-term sustainability of irrigated agricultural systems.

Phosphorus is essential for plant growth and is involved in important physiological processes, but its availability in soil is strongly influenced by soil chemical conditions. This chapter provides a systematic treatment of phosphorus management in irrigated soils. It begins with the functions of phosphorus and the classification of soil phosphorus into organic and inorganic forms. The behaviour of phosphorus in alkali soils is discussed along with phosphate fixation, which can substantially influence phosphorus availability to crops. The chapter examines the sources of soil phosphorus used by plants and the major types of phosphatic fertilizers used in agricultural production. Available and total phosphorus are distinguished, providing a basis for assessing soil phosphorus status. The behaviour of phosphate fertilizers after application is considered in relation to their efficiency and crop uptake. The residual value of phosphatic fertilizers is also discussed, highlighting the continuing contribution of applied phosphorus to subsequent crops. Overall, the chapter emphasizes efficient phosphorus management to improve nutrient availability, fertilizer-use efficiency and sustainable crop production in irrigated soils.

Potassium is an important plant nutrient that influences water relations, carbohydrate and nitrogen metabolism, crop quality and resistance to environmental stresses. This chapter examines potassium behaviour and management in irrigated soils. It begins with the functions of potassium and explains the different forms in which potassium occurs in soil, including relatively unavailable, slowly available and readily available forms. Potassium fixation and release are discussed in relation to soil colloids, temperature, drying, soil pH and aeration. These processes determine the amount of potassium available for plant uptake and are particularly important in intensively cultivated irrigated soils. The chapter also considers luxury consumption and interactions between potassium and other elements. Potassium management is discussed through appropriate rates and methods of application and selection of suitable potassic fertilizers. The effects of potassium nutrition on plant behaviour, water utilization, carbohydrate and nitrogen metabolism, crop quality, disease resistance and low-temperature injury are highlighted. The chapter therefore provides a framework for maintaining potassium availability and preventing nutrient depletion in productive irrigated

The integration of Large Language Models into software development has created powerful capabilities for automated code generation, debugging, testing and application development. However, AI-generated code can introduce security vulnerabilities when models produce incorrect, unsafe or poorly validated programming solutions. This chapter examines the need for security-aware frameworks that combine LLM-based code generation with verification, rule-based evaluation and risk management. It considers the limitations of conventional rule-based systems, including rule explosion, inflexibility, maintenance overhead and limited personalization, and explores how AI-driven approaches can improve adaptability while maintaining safeguards. Particular attention is given to secure integration in sensitive domains such as healthcare, where generated code and automated analytical systems may influence clinical information and decision-making. The chapter considers data-driven evaluation, machine learning, genomic information and risk detection as components of secure AI systems. It emphasizes the importance of validating generated code rather than treating model output as automatically reliable. Secure deployment requires testing, human oversight, access controls, verification mechanisms and continuous monitoring. The chapter therefore presents safe LLM integration as a multidisciplinary challenge combining AI capability, software engineering, cybersecurity and responsible governance.

Cut flowers have become an important segment of modern commercial floriculture because of their high economic value, domestic demand, export potential and employment-generating capacity. This chapter introduces the importance and scope of cut flower production in India and internationally. It examines the economic, social, employment and export significance of flowers and discusses major commercially cultivated crops such as rose, chrysanthemum, gerbera, gladiolus, carnation, lily, orchid, anthurium and tuberose. The chapter also identifies production constraints including labour, infrastructure, cold-chain limitations and market fluctuations, while highlighting opportunities arising from protected cultivation, precision farming, technology, exports and increasing consumer demand.

Examination of peritoneal fluid provides valuable information about abdominal and systemic disease. This chapter describes the practical collection and evaluation of peritoneal fluid, including appropriate sampling techniques and clinical considerations. Fluid examination helps differentiate transudates, modified transudates and exudates and can provide evidence of inflammation, infection, haemorrhage or other abdominal abnormalities. Physical, biochemical and cytological characteristics contribute to interpretation. Proper collection and handling of samples are essential for reliable diagnostic results. The chapter emphasizes integration of peritoneal fluid findings with history, physical examination and other diagnostic procedures to support identification of abdominal disease processes.

Cerebrospinal fluid examination is an important diagnostic procedure for evaluating diseases affecting the central nervous system. This chapter describes techniques for CSF collection, including appropriate sampling approaches and precautions. Collected fluid may be submitted for physical, chemical, cytological and microbial examination. Important parameters include colour, turbidity, protein concentration, glucose, chloride, enzymes and nucleated cell counts. Cytological evaluation and culture may assist in identifying inflammatory or infectious processes. Proper sample handling and timely processing are emphasized because cellular and biochemical characteristics can change after collection. CSF findings should be interpreted alongside neurological examination and other diagnostic investigations.

Ultrasonography is an important non-invasive diagnostic imaging technique in veterinary medicine. This chapter introduces practical principles, patient preparation and imaging approaches for ruminants, horses and dogs. Abdominal ultrasonography can evaluate organs including the liver, gall bladder, spleen, gastrointestinal tract, kidneys, urinary bladder and reproductive structures. Transabdominal, transthoracic, transrectal, transvaginal and other approaches are described according to anatomical and diagnostic requirements. Proper preparation, including fasting and acoustic gel application, improves image quality. Ultrasonography supports diagnosis of gastrointestinal, urinary, hepatic, reproductive and other disorders and provides valuable real-time information without ionizing radiation.

Metabolic diseases are closely associated with nutritional imbalance, production demands and physiological changes surrounding calving. This chapter focuses on practical management of metabolic disorders in dairy herds through appropriate nutrition, monitoring and preventive strategies. Attention is given to metabolic disturbances associated with the transition period and high milk production. Evaluation of feeding practices, body condition, production performance and clinical or subclinical indicators helps identify animals at risk. Herd-level management can reduce disease occurrence and production losses. The chapter emphasizes balanced nutrition, monitoring and preventive intervention as essential components of effective dairy herd health and metabolic disease management.

Vaccination is an important component of preventive veterinary medicine and herd health. This chapter explains the practical role of vaccines in stimulating protective immunity and preventing important infectious diseases. Successful vaccination depends on appropriate vaccine selection, quality, handling, administration, timing and maintenance of the cold chain. Vaccination should form part of an integrated disease-control programme involving biosecurity, sanitation and disease monitoring. Species-specific vaccination schedules are presented for dogs, cats, cattle, buffaloes, small ruminants, swine and equines. The chapter provides practical guidance for implementing vaccination programmes and emphasizes appropriate scheduling and management to improve disease prevention and animal health.

Source: A Colour Handbook on Practicals in Veterinary Medicine, J. P. Varshney, Sujata Turkar and Sarita Devi. The chapter sequence is taken from the book's Contents, while the introductions are concise summaries grounded in the corresponding chapter material.

Balsam (Impatiens balsamina) is an annual herbaceous flowering plant valued for its attractive flowers and use as a loose flower crop. It performs well under warm, humid conditions and is suitable for rainy-season cultivation. The chapter presents its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics, varieties and climatic and soil requirements. Detailed production practices include seed propagation, stem cuttings, micropropagation, land preparation, nutrient management, planting, irrigation, weed control, mulching, staking and pinching. Plant growth regulators, insect pests and diseases are also discussed. Particular attention is given to harvesting, postharvest handling and yield, making the chapter useful for commercial cultivation and practical floriculture education.

Celosia is an attractive flowering crop valued for its distinctive inflorescences, bright colours and use as loose and ornamental flowers. The crop includes forms such as Cristata, Plumosa and Spicata, with the characteristic brain-like appearance of cockscomb resulting from fasciation. This chapter deals with the origin, distribution, genetics, botanical features and important varieties of Celosia. It explains climatic and soil requirements, propagation, land preparation, nutrient management, planting, irrigation and cultural practices for commercial production. The chapter also covers plant growth regulation, insect pests and diseases, harvesting, postharvest management and yield. Its practical approach makes it relevant to students, growers and floriculture entrepreneurs.

Chrysanthemum is one of the important commercial loose flower crops in India, valued for its wide range of flower forms, colours, sizes and long-lasting florets. It is extensively used for religious offerings, garlands, Veni, bouquets and ornamental purposes. The chapter describes its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics and important annual and perennial types. It provides information on suitable varieties, climate, soil, propagation and field establishment. Production practices including nutrient management, irrigation, pinching and other cultural operations are explained systematically. The chapter also discusses important pests and diseases, harvesting, postharvest management and yield, providing a practical foundation for commercial chrysanthemum cultivation and floriculture teaching.

Crossandra is an important tropical flowering crop valued for its attractive flowers and continuous production of loose blooms. It has particular importance in southern India, where flowers are widely used for garlands, hair decoration and religious purposes. This chapter covers the crop’s botanical characteristics, origin, distribution, genetics and commercially important varieties. It explains propagation, nursery management, climate and soil requirements, land preparation, planting, irrigation and nutrient management. Important cultural practices and plant growth management are discussed for obtaining regular flowering and good-quality blooms. The chapter also addresses insect pests, diseases, harvesting and postharvest management, including the correct method of flower collection. It provides a comprehensive production package for growers and students.

Gaillardia is a hardy flowering crop appreciated for its colourful blooms and suitability for loose flower production, landscaping and ornamental purposes. The chapter introduces important Gaillardia species and hybrids and discusses their origin, genetics, botanical characteristics and commercially useful varieties. Production aspects include suitable temperature, sunlight, soil, propagation, seed sowing, nursery raising, transplanting, nutrient management and irrigation. Cultural practices such as weeding and regular removal of spent flowers are included to maintain continuous flowering. The chapter further describes important pests and diseases, including aphids, thrips, powdery mildew, smut and aster yellows. Harvesting during the early morning, cold-chain requirements and yield are also explained

Gardenia (Gardenia jasminoides), commonly known as Gandharaj or Cape jasmine, is an evergreen ornamental shrub distinguished by its attractive, creamy-white and highly fragrant flowers. The flowers are important for garlands, floral arrangements, religious offerings and decorative uses. This chapter discusses its origin, distribution, genetics and botanical characteristics, including important cultivated forms. It explains climate and soil requirements, propagation, land preparation, nutrient management, planting and irrigation practices. Cultural operations necessary for maintaining healthy growth and flowering are also presented. The chapter covers major insect pests and diseases, harvesting, postharvest handling and yield. Its emphasis on fragrance, ornamental value and commercial flower production makes it valuable for floriculture students and growers

Gomphrena (Gomphrena globosa), commonly called globe amaranth, globe flower or bachelor’s button, is an important loose and dry flower crop. Its spherical, long-lasting flower heads make it particularly valuable in the dry flower industry. The chapter describes its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics and important cultivars. Gomphrena is also notable for betalain pigments and its C4 photosynthetic pathway, which contributes to heat tolerance and moderate drought resistance. Production practices covered include climate and soil requirements, propagation, nursery management, land preparation, nutrient management, irrigation and intercultural operations. The chapter also addresses pest and disease management, harvesting for fresh and dried flowers, postharvest handling and yield.

Ixora is an evergreen flowering shrub valued for its attractive clusters of brightly coloured flowers and its suitability for loose flower production, religious offerings, garlands and landscaping. The crop performs well under tropical and subtropical conditions and is appreciated for its extended flowering period. This chapter presents the botanical characteristics, origin, distribution, genetics and important varieties of Ixora. It discusses suitable climate and soil conditions, propagation, land preparation, planting, nutrient management, irrigation and cultural practices. Special attention is given to pruning and canopy management for improving flowering. The chapter also covers important insect pests and diseases, harvesting, postharvest handling and yield, providing practical guidance for commercial Ixora production.

Magnolia champaca, formerly known as Michelia champaca, is a highly fragrant flowering tree valued for loose flowers, religious offerings, garlands, landscaping and perfumery. Its strongly scented cream to yellow-orange flowers are an important source of fragrance and essential oil. This chapter discusses the origin, distribution, genetics and botanical characteristics of the crop, including important varieties. It explains climatic and soil requirements, propagation, land preparation, planting, nutrient management and irrigation. Cultural practices for maintaining growth and flowering are also described. The chapter further covers major insect pests and diseases, harvesting, postharvest handling and yield, highlighting the importance of Champak as both a traditional flower crop and a valuable raw material for perfumery.

Nerium (Nerium oleander), commonly known as oleander or Kaner, is an evergreen flowering shrub cultivated for loose flowers, landscaping and religious uses. Its flowers are widely used for garlands and temple offerings, while the plant is valued in landscaping because of its drought tolerance and adaptability to poor soils. The chapter presents its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical description and important varieties. It explains climate and soil requirements, propagation, planting, nutrient management, irrigation, pruning and other cultural operations. Pest and disease management is also covered. Special attention is given to harvesting fully open flowers, postharvest handling and shelf-life improvement. The chapter also discusses yield and the plant’s toxic nature.

Nyctanthes, commonly known as Harsingar or Parijata, is an important flowering shrub valued for its fragrant white flowers with orange centres. The flowers have long-standing cultural and religious significance and are traditionally collected for worship and other uses. This chapter presents the botanical identity, origin, distribution, genetics and characteristics of Harsingar. It discusses suitable climate and soil conditions, propagation, planting, nutrient management, irrigation and cultural practices. The chapter also covers pests and diseases affecting the crop and provides information on flower harvesting, particularly the importance of morning collection. Postharvest management, yield and traditional and modern uses of Harsingar flowers are included to support commercial and practical understanding

Need of Bioinformatics

Bioinformatics, an emerging area offering a fundamental tool to the scientific community, to speed up the research, application and commercialization of biotechnology. In fact the best thing, which has happened towards the end of the 20^th century and in the 21^st century, is the marriage between biotechnologists and information technologists leading to the growth and development of this field. India took a lead as early as in the 1980s but more precisely from 1986 onwards by establishing a strong base of Bioinformatics with the necessary infrastructure. As a result one has seen major breakthroughs in biology and the growth of biotechnology has been phenomenal in the last decade, especially with the most outstanding technological breakthrough of the 20^th century wherein the draft human genome sequence was completed in 2000 and now the genetic code is completely sequenced. This has provided the worlds scientific community information on the vast sequence and structure of the Genomes, the crystal structures and there is an increasing dependence on computational approaches. Biotechnology has emerged as a front-line area with vital significance in unraveling secrets of life, particularly in the studies of new biology and biotechnology. The genomic revolution has underscored the central role of Bioinformatics in understanding the very basic of life processes.

Introduction

Castor (Ricinnus communis L.) is an important non-edible oilseed crop and occupies an important place in the country’s vegetable oil economy. The crop is mostly confined to Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan. Although other states like Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Orissa, Maharashtra, parts of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Chhattisgarh cultivate castor, their contribution to either area or production is limited. Presently, castor is grown over an area of 8.7 lakh hectares with a production of 11.7 lakh tonnes and productivity of 1352 kg/ha in the country (2008-09). Castor oil finds application in manufacture of a wide range of ever expanding industrial products such as nylon fibres, jet-engine lubricants, hydraulic fluids, soaps, varnishes, paints, medicines and a host of similar other products. Castor cake is used as manure and also as nematicide. Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh put together contribute to 68.5% of the total castor area and 80% of the total castor production in the country. The crop has been cultivated under resource-rich irrigated conditions in Gujarat with very high productivity (1963 kg/ha), while in Andhra Pradesh, the crop has been cultivated under rainfed and poor resource management conditions, with very low productivity (509kg/ha).

Walking machine: A machine designed to carry its operator over various types of terrain; the operator sits on a platform carried on four mechanical legs, and movement of his arms control the front leg of the machine while movement of his legs control the rear legs of the machine.

Wane: Wane is a defect in a timber or plank.

Washer: A small, flat, perforated disk, used to secure the tightness of a joint, screw, etc.

Washer cutter: A device having a fixed center and either one or two adjustable cutting points for cutting washers from leather, rubber, etc.

Waste heat: Energy, that must be dissipated to the atmosphere from a process such as the heat transferred from condensing steam in the condenser of a steam power plant.

Waste spark system: An ignition system, that energizes the spark each time the piston is at top dead center whether or not the piston is on the compression stroke or on its exhaust stroke. For hydrogen engines, the waste sparks are a source of pre-ignition.

Water (H₂O): 1. A colorless, transparent, odorless, tasteless liquid byproduct of the combining of hydrogen and oxygen, 2. The liquid form of steam and ice. Fresh water at atmospheric pressure is used as a standard for describing the relative density of liquids, the standard for liquid capacity, and the standard for fluid flow. 3. The melting and boiling points of water are the basis for the Celsius temperature system. 4. Water is the only substance that expands on freezing as well as by heating, and has a maximum density at 4°C.

A. Write True or False
    1.    Bulk density is the true density of the soil.
    2.    Igneous rocks are acidic in nature.
    3.    Adhesion is the attraction of like molecules.
    4.    pH is the negative logarithm of Hydrogen ion concentration.
    5.    Limestone is a sedimentary rocks.
    6.    Size of the gravel is more than 2mm.
    7.    Black and dark colour of soil is due to organic matter and iron.
    8.    Soil moisture tension at Permanent wilting point corresponds to 15 atm. 
    9.    Micropores are the large pores present in the soil.
    10.    Oxidation is the removal of oxygen from the minerals.
    11.    Straight fertilizer contains only one nutrient.

22.1 Introduction

Nanotechnology has proved to have infinite potential in increasing the quality of life of the human population. There is however, a growing realization regarding the potential health and safety risks of associated with development, production and application of these nanoparticles. Nanoscale particles are produced from a variety of different processes. Nanoparticles are the end product of a wide variety of physical, chemical and biological processes, some of which are novel and radically different, others of which are quite commonplace. Nanometer sized particles are also found in the atmosphere where they originate from combustion sources (traffic, forest fires), volcanic activity, and from atmospheric gas to particle conversion processes such as photochemically driven nucleation. A large quantity of nanoscale particles are also produced during the various human activities, Welding can generate large quantities of nanoparticles usually in the form of a well defined plume of aggregated nanoparticles.

Wafer : A thin crisp cake, candy, cracker or chips is known as wafer.
 
Waffle : A crisp cake of batter baked in a waffle iron is called waffle

Warner-Bartzler Shear : It is one of the oldest but commonly used devices used to measure the tenderness of meat. It is used to test the quality in the cooked meat.

N₂O: Nitrous Oxide.
Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA): Is represented which is a synthesised auxin.
Naphthalene ring/molecule: Two benzene rings condense to give the naphthalene molecule/ring.
Natality (birth-rate): i) It refers to the production of new individuals by birth or hatching. The natality rate is the number of young ones produced per female. ii) Refers to number of young individuals born or hatched per unit of time. iii) Refers to an organism or population of organisms that occurs naturally (i.e., independent of human activity) in an area.
Natural forest: A forest composed of indigenous trees and not classified as forest plantation. 

Trace minerals have long been identified as essential components in the diets of domestic livestock species. Trace minerals exist in cells and tissues of the animal body in a variety of chemical combinations, and in characteristic concentrations, depending on the trace mineral consumed and the tissue in which it is metabolized. Concentrations of trace minerals must be maintained within narrow limits if the functional and structural integrity of the tissue is to be maintained and the growth, health, and productivity of the animal are to remain unimpaired. Minerals are as vital to cattle as grass, water or air.

Certain casualties which are encountered in clinical practice are viz. acute peritonitis, anaphylactic shock, respiratory distress, cardiac arrest, ingestion of foreign bodies, hypomagnesemic tetany, diabetic ketoacidosis, toxic mastitis and poisoning. These patients required critical care, the critical patients are those patients whose conditions are capable of changing on a minute to minute or hourly basis or patients who could rapidly deteriorate in short notice. Proper treatment of emergency disease can help in the diagnosis of specific poisoning or disease on the basis of treatment response.

Principle

The nitrogen of protein and other compounds is transformed into ammonium sulphate by acid digestion with boiling sulphuric acid. the acid digest is cooled, dilute with water, and made strongly basic with sodium hydroxide. The released ammonia is distilled into a boric acid solution or standard sulphuric acid solution. When boric acid is used to collect ammonia then is the titrated with standard sulphuric acid or standard hydrochloric acid. When standard sulphuric acid is used to collect ammonia then it is titrated with standard sodium hydroxide solution.

(Method of Froesch and Renold, 1956; Froesch et al., 1957)
Enzymatic with Glucose-oxidase / Peroxidase

Introduction

Glucose oxidase enzyme specific for the oxidation of glucose, was discovered in a fungus preparation by Müller in 1928. This enzyme is present in bacteria and in moulds such as (Pencillium notatum), which promotes the oxidation of glucose (b-ring form) to gluconic acid with the production of an equivalent amount of hydrogen peroxide. Normal values for whole blood glucose oxidase are 60 to 90 mg/100 ml. Results by the enzyme methods are lower than by the best “true  sugar” reduction methods largely because of their specificity, but inhibition of glucose oxidase by uric acid may be a contributory factor. In suspected cases of diabetes, values below 120 mg per 100 ml call for further investigation, for example, by glucose tolerance test. Due to the presence of glycolytic enzymes in red cells, blood must be collected into an antiglycolytic/anti-coagulant preservative, if there is to be a delay of more than 1 to 2 h. in processing or estimation. A fluoride/oxalate mixture, containing 2 mg of fluoride per ml of blood, is suitable and the glucose content will then remain unchanged for upto 3 days at 4ºC.

For the first time, isotope dilution analysis was introduced by Hevesy and Hafer in 1934, but it was not until 1940, the usefulness of isotope dilution technique was revived by Rittenberg and Foster (1940). There are three general types of isotope dilution methods. These are (a) direct (b) inverse and (c) double isotope dilution. In general isotope dilution methods may be used for the following type of studies.

    (a)    In isolation purification and identification of unknown intermediate in a chain of metabolic reactions.

    (b)     To obtain evidence of synthesis (incorporation), and precursor-product relationships between known compounds.

    (c)    As an analytical tool in the assay of known compounds. In isotope dilution techniques, the labelled intermediate, which is being diluted by unlabelled carrier, is a known compound.

(Method of Bryant et al., 1959)

Strontium and barium are adsorbed on a cation-resin column, and  after a suitable gowth period, yttrium-90, the daughter of strontium-90, is selectively eluted. The yttrium-90 is then adsorbed on and eluted from a second cation-resin column and counted. The radiochemical yield is greater than 97% gravimetric measurement of the recovery of strontium and yttrium carriers is not required. The method, with modifications, is applicable to samples that contain 100 mg of iron or uranium.