eChapters

23.1 Introduction

Eggs are nutrient dense superfoods, naturally occurring vitamin pills. They contain a complete source of protein with all essential aminoacids and naturally occurring vitamin D. The adverse publicity of high cholesterol content in the egg limit their intake. Nowadays consumers need the products free from drugs/ pesticides and contain special health promoting substances. To reap the growing demand of health conscious consumers and to make available of their requirements, designer eggs are made. Designer eggs are those eggs their composition differ from the standard eggs by changing the feed of the hen.

24.1 Introduction

Egg Products have gained great acceptance all over the world to-day as they offer advantage in labour saving and time in preparations, space saving and consistency in quality. There is also an an increase in consumer demand for a variety of preparations to suit their taste and purse. Today’s commercial bakeries, food processing plants and institutions use tremendous quantities of liquid bulk eggs, egg solids (dried egg) and frozen egg products for preparation of several convenient foods.

25.1 Introduction

There has been a recent increase in the consumption of organic food, particularly in developed countries. Consumer awareness is growing in terms of organic food products in recent years as almost all the food ingredients are grown under intense production systems which utilize lot of chemicals and pesticides to control the pests and diseases. Organic farming can be defined as an approach to agriculture where the aim is to create integrated, humane, environmentally and economically sustainable agricultural production systems producing acceptable levels of crop, livestock and human nutrition, protection from pests and diseases, and an appropriate return to the human and other resources employed.

26.1 Introduction

The egg’s primary non-food purpose is to help the species reproduce. The quantity of eggs required for the hatching of chicks has increased significantly due to the substantial rise in meat consumption. The USDA has made a list of a few other non-food use for eggs.

Inedible eggs are often used as animal feed and plant fertilizers. Eggs are also fed to show animals, such as dogs and horses, to improve the glossy sheen of the fur coat. Industrial egg albumen is used in finishing several types of leather, notably coloured stock, and glazed. production of vaccines in chick embryos is one of the key uses of eggs, as per various researchers.

27.1 Introduction

Eggs containing nutrients that play fundamental roles beyond basic nutrition in consumers and their promotion as functional foods should be considered. Eggs rich in protein and offer a moderate calorie source (about 150 kcal/100 g), rich in vitamins and minerals and also great culinary versatility and low economic cost, which make eggs within reach to most of the population. Eggs are also relatively rich in fat-soluble compounds and can, therefore, be a nutritious inclusion in the diet for people of all ages and at different stages of life. In particular, eggs may play a particularly useful role in the diets of those at risk of low-nutrient intakes such as the elderly, pregnant women and children.

28.1 Introduction

The majority of eggs produced in the world are sold in-shell for consumers to utilize in the home in traditional ways or for baking. Traditionally, surplus eggs not required for the shell egg market (normally the smaller sizes) and downgraded eggs were turned into egg products. Today, farmers have specific contracts to produce eggs for further processing, and any egg that is damaged cannot be used for this purpose. There are essentially three types of egg products, liquid, dried, and frozen, with small markets for peeled, hard-boiled, and hard-boiled pickled eggs.

Introduction Plant disease detection is a crucial aspect of modern agriculture, as it allows early identification and management of diseases, minimizing crop losses and maximizing yields. In recent years, advancements in technology have led to the development of more sophisticated techniques for plant disease detection. Point-of-care (POC) diagnostic assay for plant disease detection is a rapid, advanced, and on-site testing method designed to identify the presence of pathogens or diseases in plants. This type of diagnostic tool is particularly valuable for farmers, agronomists, and researchers who need immediate results to make timely decisions about disease management and crop protection strategies.

Introduction There are multiple methods or trapping technologies available for pest management in agriculture. Some of the method discussed in literature are described here. Insect pests in an agricultural field can cause damage to the crops by infecting the crops with diseases and thus may affect adverse impact on its quality. Nowadays, farmers set up insect traps like sticky papers that comes in different colours such as yellow, green and blue to monitor the number of pests. Different insects are specifically/ particularly attracted to the colours of the sticky paper commonly such as yellow or blue (Espinoza et al?, 2016).

Introduction Worldwide, 40% of a crop is lost to insect damage, particularly in developing countries. Some of the major insect pests belong to the Lepidoptera and Coleoptera, and their larval or grub stages cause major damage to economically important crops including tobacco, cotton, corn, sorghum, tomato, sunflower, pulses, wheat, and lucerne. Recently, some insecticides have been primarily used for agricultural pests. Over the years, most pesticides have led to insecticide resistance in major lepidopterans, a reduction in natural enemy populations, and harm to mammals and the environment.

Introduction

Millions of dollars are lost each year due to insect crop devastation, and the use of chemical pesticides has unwanted side effects such as resistance and unintentional impacts on species that are beneficial (Kumar et al. 2019). For farmers, authorities, and academics, finding additional target-selective pest management techniques is of utmost importance. Enhancing performance, cost-effectiveness, and increasing the markets for bio pesticides are all made possible by biotechnology. Molecular methods are used to detect and track the emergence and spread of particular types that are natural enemies (Tipvadee, 2002). It offers chances for the growth of beneficial insect natural enemies with features including pesticide resistance, cold tolerance, and sex ratio change.

Introduction

Biopesticides are biological substances or plant-based products that are used for decreasing the number of pests in an ecosystem. These substances, which include natural enemies, microbial products, phytochemicals, and semiochemicals, are derived from plants and animals. Biopesticides use non toxic approaches to keep pests under control. They are widely recognised as low-risk items that are secure for both humans and the environment. It makes use of natural pest such as parasitoids, predators, nematodes, and semiochemicals as well as botanicals, microbiological pathogens like fungi, bacteria, and viruses.

Introduction

The term “biological control” was first used by Smith in 1919 to signify the use of natural enemies (whether introduced or otherwise manipulated) to control insect pests. DeBach (1964) defined biological control as the action of parasites, predators, or pathogens that maintain another organism's population density at a lower average than would occur in their absence (Dhaliwal and Arora, 2016). According to a recent definition by Eilenberg et al. (2001) biological control or biocontrol is “The use of living organisms to suppress the population density or impact of a specific pest organism, making it less abundant or less damaging than it would otherwise be.

Introduction

The paper summarises recent findings on nematodes, viruses, bacteria, and other entomopathogenic microorganisms (EM) and their potential application in biological pest control. It's important to carefully research the ecological characteristics of EM and their function in nature in order to utilise various biological control tactics against insect hosts efficiently. Since it identifies frequent patterns in the interactions between insect pests and EM that have just lately been uncovered through research, this chapter aids readers in understanding the significant advancements in this sector.

Introduction

Providing sufficient habitat and other food supplies to already-existing or naturally-occurring beneficial species is one of the most successful and long-lasting ways for reducing economic harm from pests. In contrast to monocultures or pesticide-treated fields, beneficial species such as predators, parasites, and pest-sicking "pathogens" are significantly more numerous in varied farms where pesticides are used less frequently.

Introduction

In the relentless battle against crop weeds, farmers have traditionally relied on chemical herbicides and labour-intensive mechanical methods. However, concerns about environmental impact and herbicide resistance have driven the search for more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. One such solution is biological control, harnessing the power of predatory insects to manage weed populations naturally. This chapter delves into the fascinating world of biological control, exploring the key concepts, benefits, and implementation strategies of using predatory insects to combat crop weeds.

Introduction

Insect pests cause a loss of 18-26% of global yearly agricultural yields. A wide range of the losses 13-16% occur in the field prior to harvest. Furthermore, post-harvest pests are responsible for a significant portion of agricultural product storage losses. Poor management practises might result in the loss of 50-60% of stored grains over the storage period of time.Farmers have used chemical pesticides to control insect pests for many years but the effects on non-target organisms, groundwater contamination, residues on food crops and the emergence of insect pests resistant to chemical pesticides have forced scientists to concentrate on the development of alternative eco-friendly measures.

Introduction

Chemical communication between plants and insects is an essential part of mutual relationships, in which both partners benefit from the communication. The role of volatiles in pollination systems provides an excellent model for understanding the ecology and evolution of chemical communication between plants and insects. Infochemical:- A chemical that conveys information in an interaction between two individuals evoking in the receiver a behaviour or physiological response. Chemicals involved in interspecific communications were given the name of Allelochemicals by R. H. Whittaker in 1970. Allelochemicals affect the survival, growth & development of herbivorous insects as well as their natural enemies.

Introduction

In most developing nations, the primary method of managing insect pests on various crops is by synthetic insecticides. One of the fastest and most efficient ways to reduce insect populations is by chemical control where a farmer quickly achieves extraordinary results.

However, overusing pesticides indiscriminately and without proper research for longer periods of time led to a number of issues, including the risk of environmental contamination, loss of biodiversity, development of insecticide resistant pest populations, resurgence, outbreaks of secondary pests, increase in chemical inputs, toxicological hazards due to accumulation of pesticide residues in the food chain, etc.

Introduction

Trichoderma spp. are free living, filamentous fungi that multiply rapidly on many substrates such as soil, decaying wood materials and as root colonizers. Trichoderma spp. have a high potential for reproduction and sporulation, as well as competitive ability and saprophytic survival. The escalating need for eco-friendly and sustainable agriculture has driven extensive research on biological control agents like Trichoderma. These beneficial fungi exhibit potent antagonistic activity against plant pathogens, offering a promising alternative to conventional chemical pesticides.

Introduction

Semiochemicals, which can refer to both intraspecies and interspecies communication chemicals, was first coined by Law and Regnier in 1971 (simeon-marker or signal). Semiochemicals are chemical signals that cause different behavioral reactions in organisms. In most groups of animals, chemical communication seems to be the main means of information transfer. Since 1971, the term "semiochemical" has been in use. It is derived from the Greek word "semeon," which meaning "sign" or "signal. Semiochemicals are communication agents that alter the behaviour of living things by carrying information between them (Dicke M and Sabelis M W, 1988).

Introduction

The challenge for all disciplines of agriculture is to increases production and improves quality of agricultural produce. This is applicable to the discipline of plant protection and manage risk. In the past many pathogens are responsible for food scarcities including famines. In addition to endemic problems there are many crop pests which are entered India from other foreign countries because in India did not have an effective control measure (plant quarantine) system to stop the introduction of exotic pests, diseases and weeds. Cottony cushion scale, woolly aphid, San Jose scale, golden cyst nematode of potatoes are some exotic pests introduced into our country and cause extensive damage.

Introduction

An agrochemical is a chemical product used in industrial agriculture. In most of the cases, agrochemicals refer to pesticides (insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, algaecides, rodenticides, molluscicides and nematicides), fertilizers, soil conditioners, liming and acidifying agents and plant growth regulators that provide benefits and manage agricultural ecosystem. Agrochemicals were introduced to enhance crop yields and minimized the crop losses due to pests and categories as fertilizers and pesticides. In the past sixty years with the wake of the green revolution (1960s), use of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium based inorganic fertilizers and pesticides has greatly increased food production by improving efficient and economical crop production in order to fulfil the food needs of the rapidly expanding world population (Pal et al?, 2006).

Introduction

The toxicant must be able to be applied effectively in order to come into touch with the pest or leaf and to leave a uniform and permanent deposit on the plant surface. Pesticide in chemically pure form is known as technical grade pesticides. These cannot be applied as such due to high toxicity and complex physical properties. They are converted into a ready to-use form known as formulation. Formulation converts the technical grade pesticide into a product which can be suitably diluted & applied by practical methods. Which have homogeneous distribution over large area, convenient to handle and more attractive to the pest.

History

 • The fossil evidence also indicates the presence of plant diseases 250million years ago.

 • The diseases caused by fungi and nematodes were discovered by Monocernin 1735.

 • Johan Needham (1743) identified wheat gall caused by a nematode.

 • Adolf Mayer (1886), demonstrated the transmission of Tobacco mosaicvirus (TMV).

 • EF Smith (1890) described bacterial wilt in cucurbits.

• The thrips (Thysanoptera) as vectors of plant viruses were identified thescientific studies made by Samuel and his team.

 • Karl Maramorosch (1952) demonstrated the multiplication of Asteryellows virus (AYV) in leafhopper vector.

 • The mite Aceriatulipae has been identified as a vector of Wheat streakmosaic virus by JT Slykhuis in 1955.

 • The term “viroid” (viruses without protein coat) was coined by TO Dienerduring 1971.

History

 • The fossil evidence also indicates the presence of plant diseases 250million years ago.

 • The diseases caused by fungi and nematodes were discovered by Monocernin 1735.

 • Johan Needham (1743) identified wheat gall caused by a nematode.

 • Adolf Mayer (1886), demonstrated the transmission of Tobacco mosaicvirus (TMV).

 • EF Smith (1890) described bacterial wilt in cucurbits.

• The thrips (Thysanoptera) as vectors of plant viruses were identified thescientific studies made by Samuel and his team.

 • Karl Maramorosch (1952) demonstrated the multiplication of Asteryellows virus (AYV) in leafhopper vector.

 • The mite Aceriatulipae has been identified as a vector of Wheat streakmosaic virus by JT Slykhuis in 1955.

 • The term “vir

Introduction

In agricultural and horticultural ecosystems greater extent of losses caused by pests includes insect-pests, plant diseases, and weeds and have directly affected the production. Out of these, a group of animals other than the insects also causes the considerable yield losses to agricultural and horticultural crops and commonly known as vertebrate pests such as birds, rodents and mammals. In recent times mammals such as blue bull (Nilgai), wild boars, rodents, porcupine and monkeys has gaining the status of pests and in certain cases a huge damage is being encountered (Rao, et al?, 2015). Among mammals, blue bull and wild boar both has become a serious problem in most of the Indian states for farmers in major agricultural and horticultural crops and resulting into immeasurable damage.

Introduction

Entomophagy, the consumption of insects, is rooted in human evolutionary history (Fontaneto, 2011). Throughout Africa, Europe, Asia, and Latin America, insects have held a vital position in the timeline of human nutrition. There exist more than 1900 documented species of insects that serve as human diets at globally, with notable groups encompassing grasshoppers (Orthoptera), caterpillars (Lepidoptera), grubs (Coleoptera), wringed termites (Isoptera), some hymenopteran insects, cicadas (Hemiptera), and a diverse array of aquatic insects. It is intriguing to observe that insects are regularly consumed by over two billion people, and in specific regions, they make up a substantial portion of the animal proteins consumed.

Introduction

Bees belonging to the Apis genus can be found in a wide range of climates worldwide. Among them, the Apis mellifera Linnaeus species is distributed across diverse environments such as sub-Saharan Africa, northern Europe, and Central Asia. This species exhibits remarkable adaptability, thriving in various habitats like the oases of the African desert, the Alps, the edges of the tundra, and the misty regions of the United Kingdom. Additionally, other honey bee species within the Apis genus are predominantly distributed in Asia, specifically in tropical Southeast Asia.Honeybees are good biological indicators.

Introduction

The Greek term "Sericos" is the source of the English word "sericulture". The words "Seri" and "Cos" in this word both refer to culture. Sericulture is the art of rearing the silkworms for the purpose of producing silk. An elastic protein of insect origin, silk is synthesized by the silk gland of the silkworm. Fibrion and sericin, two various types of proteins, constitute the fiber known as silk. Silk is most frequently produced by chins. Following China, India is the second-largest producer of silk. Furthermore, it is the world's largest consumers of silk. The major silk producing state in India is Karnataka. Tasar, Muga, Mulberry, Oak tasar, and Eri silk are all produced in India. One other commercial fabric of animal origin outside wool is silk, which is a gift from nature to humans.

Introduction

Lac, a resinous exudation from female scale insects, has been utilized in India since the Vedic period. Its earliest mention can be traced back to the Atharva Veda, where the insect is referred to as 'Laksha,' and its characteristics and behavior are described. In the renowned Indian epic 'Mahabharata,' there is also a mention of a 'Laksha Griha,' a house made of lac, skillfully constructed by the 'Kauravas' with the help of their architect 'Purocha,' with the malicious intent of setting the 'Pandavas,' their formidable enemies, on fire. The use of lac was well-known to the Greeks and Romans since ancient times. The use of lac was well-known to the Greeks and Romans since ancient times. In Asia, the cultivation of lac insects has a rich history, with indications that it dates back as far as 4000 years in China, where its cultivation coincided with the growth of the silk industry

Cytology is the study of cells from fluid or tissue samples prepared directly on glass slides and stained for microscopic evaluation. It is also described as examination of cells without regard to the tissue's architectural details.

It is less invasive than tissue biopsies and, in some cases, it can provide a rapid diagnosis that would otherwise take several days if done by histopathology.

When is the cytology needed?

The diagnostic methods of clinical examination, radiographic evaluation, and laboratory data suggested that a diagnosis that cannot be confirmed by these methods. In that situation, cytology is very much helpful to confirm the disease processes or conditions.

A judicious use of cytology will be beneficial to the practicing veterinarians as diagnosis is available within a shortest period of time and can decide on proper treatment e.g. TVT can be successfully treated medically without surgical intervention.

Diagnostic Approach in Clinical Set Up

• Clinical investigation
• Clinical pathology
• Necropsy
• Biopsy
• Cytology
• Histopathology
• Electron microscopy
• Fluorescent antibody techniques
• Immunohistochemistry
• Genomic techniques
• Microarray
• Proteomics
• Metabolomics etc.

Fixation can be done by either wet fixation or dry fixation. If staining is to be delayed for a few days, cell preservation enhanced by fixation. Fix the slide within 30-60 seconds.

Wet Fixation

Different types of Romanowsky type of stains are used for staining the cytological smears. It will give excellent cytoplasmic and nuclear details and it also stains bacteria. The following stains are commonly used. e.g., Wrights, Giemsa, Leishman, Wright-Giemsa, May-Grunwald-Giemsa, Leishman-Giemsa, Haematoxylin and Eosin, Diffquik stains, Trichrome stains, Papanicolaou or Sano modification.

Staining Methods

Leishman-Giemsa

• Cover the smear with LG stain for a minute
• Dilute with tap water/Distilled water/ phosphate buffered saline pH 6.87.2
• Allow to stain for about 20 min
• Wash in water

Location is important

Since, one should recognize whether cells belong to that area and / or not

Basic aim

• To establish an aetiological and/or morphological diagnosis in order to obtain a more accurate prognosis

Salient Points in Cytological Examination

• Cytology is a joint effort between the clinician and cytologist
• Adequate history, clinical signs and methods of collection should be intimated
• Interpretation suffers if done in a vacuum of information
• Cytology is an rapid, inexpensive technique in tumour diagnosis

Check the Following

Good smear is well spread and tongue shaped. If forced during discharge of materials from the syringe, it is sprayed on to slide.

The ideal smears will yield intact and well stained cells (Figure) should have a clear demarcation between the nucleus and cytoplasm

Poor smear will show no cellularity or damaged cells.

Answer Inflammatory or Not

• If yes it is non-neoplastic or inflammatory
• If no, consider neoplastic conditions
• Certain non-neoplastic conditions may not show inflammatory cells (Haematoma, cystic fluid, epidermal/dermal cysts)
• Inflammation or non-neoplastic condition is characterized by a mixed population of cells including neutrophils, lymphocytes, plasma cells, eosinophils, macrophages, epithelioid cells and giant cells.
• Inflammatory reactions often result in hyperplasia of surrounding tissues.
• If not inflammatory, it may be neoplastic.

Discrete Cell Tumours

(Round / discrete / distinctive / unique cell tumours)

General Features

• Exfoliate many cells
• Cells often quite small to medium sized
• Discrete cells
• Do not stick together
• If the smear is very cellular, cells are packed close together in sheets
• However, these cells are not adherent to one another
• There are sharp, crisp cytoplasmic margins between cells

Points to Ponder

Collect cytological samples (FNAB) only from enlarged lymph nodes

Do not make attempt to collect samples from normal lymph nodes unless to study normal picture (Academic interest).

Care to be taken to hold the lymph node while collecting FNAB

Otherwise needle may go into perinodal fat yielding fat tissue so also in obesity

Submandibular salivary gland enlargement mimic submandibular lymph node enlargement

Salivary tissue will show epithelial cells, acinar formation and no lymphocytes

Cytological diagnosis of lymphadenopathies can be comfortably and confidently made.

Peripheral Lymph Nodes

Non-Neoplastic Conditions

Haematoma

Collection of blood in outside of the blood vessels It is more common in external ear

• Presence of erythrocytes, blood filled leococytes (non-degenerative neutrophils and macrophages) and platelets
  • Haemosiderin or haematoidin crystals will be seen

Epidermoid cyst/Epidermal cyst/Epidermal inclusion cysts/Follicular cyst

Cytologically cannot distinguish epidermoid cyst from dermoid cyst

• Constitutes ????V3 to V2 of non-neoplastic/non-inflammatory lesion
• Smear is thick
• Keratin bars, squames and other keratinocytes

Mesenchymal Tumours

General Features

• Do not exfoliate many cells - hypocellular; Low cellularity
• Embedded in extracellular matrix-osteoid, chondroid or collagen
• Single, discrete cells and a few are also seen in dense clumps i.e. Individual or unorganized cluster of spindle cells
• Cells-Elongated, fusiform/spindle shaped
• Cytoplasmic extensions/tails seen on both ends of nucleus; borders ill-defined
• Nucleus elongated/fusiform to oval
• As the malignancy potential increases cells become plumpy with a larger, rounder nucleus and shorter cytoplasmic tails
• Nuclei may be fusiform or oval.
• These tumors cannot be differentiated cytologically.
• Tentative diagnosis made.
• Well-differentiated malignant mesenchymal tumors may resemble actively proliferating granulation and requires histologic confirmation.

Testicular Tumours

Seminoma

• Cells were round exhibiting anisocytosis
• Round to oval nuclei
• Single distinct eosinophilic to basophilic nucleoli
• Cytoplasm scanty

Sertoli Cell Tumours

• Cellularity - High, anisocytosis
• Nucleus round to oval, megakaryosis, 1-3 basophilic nucleoli
• Chromatin coarse and granular
• Cytoplasm vacuolated

Canine Thyroid Tumours

• Occurs as carcinoma
• Blood contamination also seen
• Cluster of cells
• Free nuclei seen in the pale-blue cytoplasm
• Dark blue to black pigment present in the cytoplasm
• Amorphous pink materials represents colloid
• Colloid and pigmented granuls indicates the thyroid origin
• Round to oval nuclei

Adrenal Tumours

• Adrenal cortical adenoma had normal secretory cells
• Most cells had naked nuclei in the abundant cytoplasm
• Basophilic cytoplasm with abundant clear lipid vacuoles
• Round uniform nuclei

Hepatocellular Carcinoma

• The presence of normal appearing hepatocytes of atypical hepatocytes with malignant characters
• Single to clusters of polyhedral or polygonal shaped or pleomorphic cells
• Large round, spherical or oval nuclei
• Higher nuclear cytoplasmic ratio
• Large nucleoli
• Dark blue cytoplasm

Mesothelioma

• Arising from the mesothelial lining of serous cavities
• It is very difficult to differentiate from carcinoma, reactive mesothelial hyperplasia
• Round to polygonal cells
• Arranged mostly in clusters
• Centrally located hyperchromatic nuclei

The word journalism is derived from the word “Journal” which means a daily register or a diary.

• Journalism is the written, spoken, or visual dissemination of information about a day’s events.

• A journalist is someone who works as a writer or editor for a newspaper or magazine.

• Father of journalism: Joseph Pulitzer

• Father of journalism in India: James Augustus Hicky

Definition

Agricultural journalism is a specialized branch of journalism that deals with the techniques of receiving, writing, editing and reporting from information through the media like newspapers, periodicals, radio, TV, advertising etc. and the management processes connected with such production. It is the timely reporting and editing with words and photography of agricultural news and information for newspaper, magazine, radio and television.

It is otherwise known as Farm journalism

Farm journalism is very important for communicating with farm people. More and more of the extension staff’s writing is being read or listened to in newspapers, magazines, brochures, pamphlets, bulletins, circular letters, wall newspapers, and radio scripts. The written work makes working as a consultant with farmers more fascinating.

Principles of Farm/Agricultural journalism

The term “communication media” describes the channels through which data or information is sent and received. These tools or channels for data storage and transmission are known as transmission and storage means in telecommunication.

It is the effective weapon in today’s environment that eliminates societal ills and anomalies.

Popular types of communication media

Television: Transmits and receives moving images that can be monochrome (black-and-white) or coloured, with or without accompanying sound. Audiovisual medium of communication

Radio: Uses electromagnetic waves with frequencies lower than visible light to modulate and transmit signals. Modulation in electronics is the process of changing one or more characteristics of the carrier signal, a high frequency periodic waveform, in relation to a modulating signal.