eChapters

Predatory arthropods provide valuable ecosystem services by suppressing agricultural pests and maintaining ecological balance. Important predators include ladybird beetles, lacewings, predatory bugs, spiders, mites and other groups that consume harmful insects at different developmental stages. Their small body size and ectothermic nature make them sensitive to changing temperature and moisture regimes. Global warming can affect their metabolism, development, body size, fecundity, longevity, dispersal and geographical distribution. Climate change may also disrupt temporal and spatial relationships between predators and their prey. This chapter examines the effects of climatic changes on predatory arthropods and their continuing role in natural and applied biological control.

Precipitation indices convert rainfall data into standardized measures of wetness, dryness, intensity and duration. They allow climatic conditions to be compared across locations and time scales despite differences in normal rainfall. This chapter introduces major indices such as the Standardized Precipitation Index, Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index, Percent of Normal and percentile-based measures. It discusses data requirements, calculation, interpretation, strengths and limitations. These indices support meteorological, agricultural and hydrological drought assessment, wet-spell analysis, crop planning and water-resource management. By identifying the severity and persistence of rainfall deficits or surpluses, precipitation indices strengthen early warning, drought preparedness and climate-risk management in agriculture.

Quality control comprises the operational activities and techniques used to ensure that products satisfy established quality requirements. While quality assurance concentrates on preventing problems, quality control identifies and corrects defects during manufacturing or service delivery. In textile and apparel production, it covers yarn strength, fabric weight, dyeing accuracy, seam strength, stitch density, garment measurements, fit, finishing and safety compliance. Inspection, testing and feedback mechanisms are used to compare actual performance with specifications and initiate corrective measures. The principal objectives are to ensure conformity with standards, detect problems in raw materials and finished goods, minimize waste and rework, reduce the cost of poor quality and satisfy customers.

This chapter identifies the physical, environmental and psychosocial risk factors that can compromise worker health and performance. Repetitive movements, awkward postures, excessive force, static positions, contact stress, vibration, poor lighting and unsuitable temperatures are examined as common ergonomic hazards. Their consequences include musculoskeletal disorders, fatigue, reduced concentration, stress, absenteeism and chronic disability. The chapter introduces ergonomic risk-assessment methods and tools such as REBA, RULA and the NIOSH Lifting Equation. It also presents a hierarchy of control measures covering engineering redesign, administrative controls, safer work practices and protective equipment. Workplace examples demonstrate how systematic intervention can reduce injuries while improving productivity and employee satisfaction.

This chapter translates ergonomic principles into practical strategies for improving work and everyday activities. Applications are organized around physical, cognitive and organizational ergonomics, showing how each domain contributes to human performance and system effectiveness. Examples from manufacturing, offices, healthcare, agriculture and domestic settings illustrate the adaptation of workstations, tools, work schedules and environmental conditions. Anthropometric data, task observation and work-study methods are used to identify mismatches between users and systems. The chapter emphasizes participatory assessment and appropriate interventions for reducing physical strain, mental workload and occupational risk. It demonstrates that practical ergonomics can simultaneously improve worker safety, comfort, productivity, product quality and organizational efficiency.

Herd medicine considers groups of animals as a single management and health unit rather than focusing only on individual patients. This chapter explains herd health and production medicine, emphasizing disease prevention, productivity, animal welfare and economic efficiency. Major components include nutrition, hygiene, reproduction, vaccination, record keeping, biosecurity and environmental management. Identification of risk factors and subclinical disease is important for reducing production losses. Biosecurity measures include quarantine, sanitation, disease testing, vaccination and control of visitors, vectors and wildlife contact. The chapter promotes preventive veterinary medicine through practical, economical herd-health programmes designed to improve production and reduce disease.

Prevention and control of infectious diseases require coordinated management of animals, environment, biosecurity and vaccination. This chapter discusses practical measures for reducing disease transmission within animal populations. Important strategies include isolation of sick animals, quarantine and testing of new animals, cleaning and disinfection, visitor control, wildlife and vector management, rodent control, deworming, record keeping and disease monitoring. Biosecurity begins at the farm entrance and includes fencing and appropriate sanitation procedures. Vaccination is presented as an important component of integrated disease control rather than a standalone measure. The chapter emphasizes practical prevention to reduce mortality, production losses and antimicrobial use.

Hydrological cycle involves four major steps, Viz., Evaporation, Transpiration, Condensation and Precipitation. Though the cycle has neither a beginning nor an end, the concept of cycle begins with the water of oceans, since it occur nearly ¾ of the Earth’s surface. Radiation from the Sun, evaporates water as water vapour from the oceans into the atmosphere. The water vapour rises and collects to form clouds. Under certain condition, the cloud moisture condenses and falls back to the Earth as rain, snow, hail etc. Precipitation reaching the Earth surface may be intercepted by vegetation or enter into the soil, may flow as run-off or may evaporate.

Evaporation may be from the surface of the ground or from free water surface. Transpiration may be from plants.

Condensation: The physical process by which a vapour becomes a liquid or solid – opposite of evaporation.

Season is a period in a year, comprising few months during which the prevailing climate does not vary much. Growing season for a crop is more important for its yield and other management practices, to be followed.

Indian Meteorological Department has divided the year into four seasons.

The early history of laparoscopy is unknown to many surgeons, but Hippocrates (460-375 BC) in Greece was first to describe endoscopy). He made reference to a rectal speculum. Hippocrates also advised injecting a large quantity of air into the intestines through the anus in the case of intestinal obstruction. He also advocated the insertion of suppository that was 10 digits long. These descriptions suggest that Hippocrates was well aware of ileus with intestinal obstruction and thought of several possible etiologies, including faecal impaction, intussusception, and sigmoid volvulus. Moreover, Hippocrates treated these life-threatening conditions with minimally invasive approaches.

Anaesthesia is an important criterion for doing laparoscopic procedure, which is being achieved by induction of general anaesthesia. However, in certain species, e.g. bovine, caprine etc., it can be done by preanaesthetic agent and infiltration of the local anesthetic agent at the site of the trocar placement. Selection of an anesthetic agent depends on the patient conditions, nature of procedure; time to be taken for the laparoscopic procedure and available facility. For the induction of the general anaesthesia follow the same procedure as in the conventional surgery viz. fasting, water withheld, preanaesthetic, fluid administration etc. Further, due to difference in the physiology of cardiopulmonary system of different animals, all these considerations varied from species to species and breed-to-breed. For instance cattle and buffalo are more prone to regurgitation and subsequent aspiratory pneumonia in general anaesthesia than those of dog and cat. While going for induction of general anaesthesia, an anesthetist should know about the different drug being used, their mechanism of action, effect on the different body system, their adverse effect and pure antagonist, if possible. Besides this an anesthetist should also know about the patient physiology and equipment for the administration of the anesthetic agents, because veterinary anesthetist is faced with numerous disturbances of cardiopulmonary and skeletal muscle function associated with general anaesthesia. For anaesthesia no anaesthetic agent is safe until and unless it is used by an experienced anesthetist.

Positioning of the patient/anesthesia

The patient is transported to the operating room and after general anesthesia the patient is placed in a desirable position. Some operating tables can be repositioned intraoperatively, allowing the surgeon to change the angle of the patient during the procedure. Special care should be taken to avoid nerve injury by malpositioning the patient, particularly along the popliteal fossa and brachial plexus. If any part of the patient is in contact with a metal object, patient may be at risk of electro surgical burns. General anesthesia is preferred for laparoscopy as it provides adequate muscle relaxation and assisted respiration particularly as the patient is in Trendelenburg position.

Many surgeons have made attempts to develop minimally invasive surgical techniques with minimum blood loss and fewer traumas, to treat the disease process and minimize patient morbidity. Laparoscopic surgery may provide a wide field of its extensive application particularly in surgical sterilization of different animal species. Furthermore, high demographic urban and industrial area requires an effective animal birth control programme, which can overcome the problem of hospitalization, postoperative complications, and the overall cost reduction of operation. The sterilization of (both male and female) is effective measure in controlling the stray dog’s problem. Because the sterilization of either male or female alone is not effective and also sterilization of female consume more time when compared to male sterilization. To combat stray dogs in Animal Birth Control (ABC) programme, it is effective to sterilize the male also. Castration of male dogs by conventional open method has many disadvantages and postoperative complications such as hemorrhage, wound dehiscence, infections, maggot infestations and scrotal swellings etc. In a large scale Animal Birth Control programme, the conventional methods of sterilization requires a long period between capture of dogs and their release due to the time taken for the surgical wounds to heal. In this aspect, Keyhole surgery (Laparoscopic surgery) can revolutionize the entire programme, as it needs only very small surgical wound, which usually needs no postoperative care or regular dressings. It also avoids postoperative complications such as wound dehiscence, herniation, etc. and reduces the surgical stress to animal as well as recurring cost of each surgery.

Introduction

The most common indication for laparoscopy in zoo animal clinical medicine includes evaluation of liver disorders (e.g. cirrhosis, hepatitis, hepatomegaly), staging for cancer treatment (liver and peritoneal metastases), diagnosis of various peritoneal diseases (e.g. ascites), diagnosis of pelvic soft tissue diseases (e.g. ovarian problem, endometritis, pyometra,) and diseases of spleen and pancreas. The utility of laparoscopy in zoo animal practice is wide and it has been used in almost all the species with encouraging results. Laparoscopy is now most commonly used in zoo animal medicine to examine and biopsy of liver, gall bladder, kidney, spleen, pancreas, ovaries and prostrate. It provides an excellent means for visualizing the surfaces and colour. Even subtle color and texture changes can be readily detected. The liver is generally evaluated through a right lateral mid abdominal approach in canine and feline species of zoo animals. Abnormal gross liver changes that can be readily appreciated include hepatic lipidosis, glycogen leaden liver, metastasis or multifocal neoplasm, nodular hyperplasia, cirrhosis, cholangihepatitis, extra hepatic biliary tract obstruction etc. Using grasping forceps advanced through the second puncture cannula, the biopsy can be obtained quickly and safely in zoo animals. The pancreas can usually be visualized thorough a right abdominal approach and biopsy samples can be safely obtained.

Abstract
Horticulture comprising a variety of fruits, vegetables, ornamental and medicinal crops has emerged in the recent times as a key sector of the Indian economy contributing substantially towards enhanced income, employment and welfare of the rural poor. A visible shift is seen in crop diversification across regions in favour of horticultural crops, especially vegetables over traditional cropping pattern comprising of cereals and pulses, since early 90s. Definitely higher profitability has been identified in comparison to cereals, increased urbanisation, enhanced living standards, besides the growing awareness for balanced nutrition as the main reason for such a shift. Commensurate with this trend has been a visible shift in enhanced R&D investments into horticultural R&D both from the public and private sectors. There is a growing need for the public sector research organisations like ICAR to increase their visibility and promote public private partnerships through innovative methods of research and development at this juncture.

Abstract

An experiment was conducted in two replications with seventy germplasm lines during kharif 2012 at College of Agriculture, UAS, Raichur. The germplasm included 30 local varieties from different parts of Karnataka and 40 lines collected from AICRP, Jabalpur. Each entry was sown in three lines of 4 m length with 30 cm x10 cm spacing. Out of seventy lines sixty two entries were germinated. These lines were evaluated for seed yield and other ancillary characteristics viz., days to 50% flowering, days to maturity, plant height, number of primary branches, number of capitula, number of seeds per capitulum and seed yield. Among them, six entries performed better than check variety No. 71 and 12 entries performed better than another check variety RCR 18. Among all the entries N-84 (238.89 kg/ha) and SD-33 (215.28 kg/ha) produced high yield. Hadagali local and No. 71 (51.5 days) were found earliest in flowering and maturing varieties and SP 141 was late in flowering (71 days) and late in maturing. Tavaregere local (66.5 cm) and SP134 had less plant height (67.5 cm) and BMD 127 had highest (113.5 cm) plant height. The number of primary branches was more in the genotype Humnabad local (12.5). Number of capsules per plant was more in Humnabad local and ICP 76 (53.0) and number of seeds per capsule were more in BMD 115 (77.0).

Abstract

The present investigation on “Agro bio-diversity and genetics of fibre characters, yield and its components in intra and inter specific hybrids of allo-tetraploid cottons (Gossypiumspp. Linn.)” was carried out at College Farm, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, to study the combining ability and heterosis for quality and yield characters. Further, an attempt was made to trace out best parents and crosses for future breeding programmes and also to know the gene action controlling the traits through generation mean analysis for designing appropriate breeding strategy. In this direction, seven lines and four testers were crossed in L x T design to generate 28 hybrids and evaluated with check NHH 44 to know the combining ability of parents and crosses. Since L x T design does not provide comprehensive picture on gene action governing the traits, the generation mean analysis through joint scaling test was done in four crosses for eleven characters. High PCV and GCV were recorded for number of monopodia per plant and seed cotton yield per plant and moderate estimates were observed for number of bolls per plant, boll weight. High heritability estimates coupled with high genetic advance were observed for number of bolls per plant, boll weight and seed cotton yield per plant. Estimates of components of variance and their ratios (?2 gca/?2 sca) indicated the preponderance of non-additive gene action for days to 50 % flowering, number of monopodia per plant, number of sympodia per plant, number of bolls per plant, boll weight and seed cotton yield per plant, whereas additive gene action was observed for the fiber quality traits viz., 2.5 % span length, uniformity ratio, micronaire value and bundle strength.

Abstract

Local breeds of livestock represent embodiment of evolutionary wisdom fully in tune with ecosystem and able to produce and reproduce in spite of the prevalent hardships and shortages. Indigenous breeds survive and produce where others fail. Each of the recognized 144 indigenous breeds of livestock (covering cattle, sheep, yak etc.) has its unique qualities - some known and some yet unknown - but central to all features is ‘efficiency of production’ by local breeds. A breed in its own habitat makes the most efficient production system; under the same prevalent input system, any other breed from outside would not perform as efficiently. Another valuable common feature of the local breeds is their sustainability of survival and production. Production level may be medium as the animal has to spend energy in order to gain adaptability to high ambient heat, tolerance to drought, resistance to the prevalent diseases and be able to retain capability to digest low quality feed fodder which itself is not sufficiently available. In spite of such hardships, the local breed continues to survive and successfully procreates to sustainably maintain the production system over generations and thereby providing livelihoods to marginal people leading to inclusive growth. Innate features of sustainability of the local breeds provide sustainability to local livelihoods as well. It is noted that the livestock in its entirety, but especially the indigenous breeds proper, have the multifarious capability to provide livelihoods to our rural masses, infuse sustainability to animal-agriculture, and facilitate inclusive development by targeting and supporting the marginal people in the country.

Abstract

Pollinators provide key services to both natural and agricultural ecosystems. Agricultural productivity depends, in part, on pollinator populations from adjacent semi natural habitats. Honey bees are the primary pollinators of mustard crop because it is highly attractive to bees and provides both nectar and pollen. Studies were conducted to assess the diversity and relative abundance of pollinators in mustard (Brassica juncea) of 2011-2012 at Apiary Garden, G.B Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar.A total of 19 insect visitors belonging to order Hymenoptera (15) and Diptera (4) were found to visit the mustard blossoms. Hymenopteran visitors belonged to six families namely Apidae (6), Scollidae (3), Xylocopidae (1), Halictidae (2), Magachilidae (1), Anthophoridae (1) and Sphecidae (1). Lepidopteran visitors belonged to families Pieridae (1). Besides this some Dipteran visitor belonged to families these were Syrphidae (3) and Muscidae (1) were observed on mustard flowers. From the family Apidae, honeybees (Apis mellifera, Apis dorsata, Apis cerana indica and Apis florea), Ceratina sexmaculata, Xylocopa iridipennis and stingless bee Tetragonula laeviceps family Apidae. Scolia (Discolia) binolata, Campsomeriella collaris and C. annulata of family Scollidae, the Alkali Bees (Nomiasp.) and Halictussp. of Halictidae, Leaf cutter bee (Megachile disjuncta) of Megachilidae, the digger bee (Anthophorasp.) of Anthophoridae and Sphex sp. of Sphecidae. Three species from family Syrphidae (Syrphus corollae, Episyrphus valtiatus and Eristalis tenax) and one species from Muscidae (Musca domestica) visited the mustard flowers. The abundance (percentage of insect/m2/2min.) of Hymenopterans were maximum (79.97 %) followed by the Dipterans (16.15 %) and others (3.73 %). In Hymenopterans, the honeybees (Apis bees) were observed maximum (57.55 %) followed by non Apis bees (21.06 %) and the scolid wasp (1.35 %).

Abstract

Agrobiodiversity is the back bone playing a significant role in food security and sustainable livelihoods. Agricultural systems of India are home to a great diversity of plant species and genetic varieties, but unfortunately these traditional farming systems are facing the danger of extinction today. The present study was conducted from three tribal mandals namely Araku, Paderu and Ananthagiri in Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh as it is noted as a hub of biodiversity in North coastal zone of Andhra Pradesh. Data was collected by direct interview method and the traditional storage practices for the conservation of agrobiodiversity (landraces) were described.

Abstract

High Altitude zone is comprised of 40 mandals distributed in parts of Srikakulam, Vishakhapatnam, East Godavari and Khammam districts of Andhra Pradesh covering a geographical area of 1.8 m. ha. The area of this zone lies between 50 to 1680 MSL and is characterized by high slopes, mountains, hills and hillocks as part of Eastern Ghats. Red soils are the most predominant type (94.8%). A small area is covered under alluvial soils and coastal sands. The mean annual rainfall ranges from 1245 to 1288 mm of which about 70 per cent is contributed by southwest monsoon. Large geographical area (58.9%) in the zone is under forests and the net cropped area is only 19.2% with very little irrigation sources. The tribal people of this area practice shifting cultivation locally known as “podu” cultivation for their subsistence. Rice is the most important crop in the zone occupying 36.2 per cent of the gross cropped area of 0.42 m. ha. The other principal crops grown are millets, mesta, niger and tuber crops. Tea, coffee and other plantation crops are also grown in addition to aromatic and medicinal plants. Cropping intensity is 120 per cent. Forest produce such as honey, gum, soap nuts, tamarind fetch income to the tribal people (www.angrau.net).

Introduction

The biological information that are being generated by research in modern biology worldwide is so huge that it is not possible to manage through conventional file keeping or simple computing. Secondly, analysis of these data certainly needs specific interfaces, software and management facilities. Therefore, such requirements to store, analyze and manage the biological information/data in an appropriate way has led to the origin of a new branch of science called “Bioinformatics”. Here, emphasis will be given on the disciplines of research mostly from which generation of data is made. Broadly, they can be classified as follows.

A fish is defined as the cold blooded vertebrates, which catch with the help of gills and swims with the help of fins and which are aquatic in nature. In broader sense the term fishery is used for the rearing and management of all aquatic animals which are useful to human being e.g. fishes, crustaceans and mollusks. The term fishery science is related to the rearing and management of fish on large scale by proper utilization of available water sources.

Fishes comprise of about 33100 species (FishBase 2015) differing widely from each other in shape, size, habits and habitats. Some of them are very small or more than an inch in length, while a few attain a length up to 18.50 m. they live in all free flowing rivers, lake, canals, dams and in almost every place where there is water.

Fishes usually have a stream lined body but some are elongated snake like and a few are dorso-ventrally compressed. They have paired and unpaired fins supported by soft or spiny fin rays. Dorsal, caudal and the anal fins are unpaired while the pectorals and pelvic (ventral) are paired fins. A number of species possess barbless which are excellent organs of touch.

The animals, which are aquatic cold blooded respires with the help of gills and swim with the help of fins such animals are called as fishes. Fishes have various body forms according to the environment and in changing the life of fish the body form of fish are found. The fish swim in water with the help of fins. The fins are present on all body of the fish. In swimming the body form is also important. Following are the various body forms found in fishes.

Body Forms

Following are some of the body forms in fishes:

1. Anguilliform body from:- When in fishes the body form is the anguilliform shape and size, like that of eel or anguilla type, then such body form is called as angilliform body form.

2. Depressiform body form :- When in the fishes body form is flattened from above downwards, means the body form is depressed dorso-ventrally it is called as depressiform body forms like that of angler fish, ray fish is also called dorso-ventrally depressed.

3. Disciform body form :- When in fishes the body form is flattened form sides or the fish is laterally compressed on both sides that type is called as disciform body form of laterally compressed body form like that of flat fishes.

• Structure and working of electric organs in- Electric eel, electric catfish, electric ray.

• Mechanism of electric discharge formation and control of electric organs.

Fishes possess a number of adaptive structures which have been evolved to meet special requirements faced by them. The electric organs are highly specialized structures that enable their possessors to produce store of discharge to electric current. Fishes are unique in the animal kingdom in being capable of generating an electric current.

About 250 species of both, the cartilaginous and bony fishes of fresh and marine waters are known to possess the electric organs. Most of these restrict to the tropical fresh water of Africa and South America. Many species of rays, skates, and the eels are known to possess small electric organs that give a weak discharge. These fishes can produce electric field outside the body. Electric fishes have been divided into two types-strongly electric and weakly electric, depending on the strength of the current.

• Source of colour

• Colour changes in fishes

• Regulation of colour changes

• Significance of colour changes.

The coloration is most well-marked in fishes A large number of fishes are brightly and brilliantly coloured and others are of more uniform and sober shade. On fish body characteristics markings in the form of base strips, spots and blotches etc. coloration is mainly due the skin pigments but the back-ground colour may also be due to the underlying tissues and body fluids. Coloration relates to the life style of the fishes and the patterns so produced have functional significance.

Generally the fishes are darker on their upper surfaces this is because their upper surfaces being exposed to sun light undergo pigmentation, while ventral surface with gradual shading on the sides. Some fish species like the gold fish, carassius exhibit almost uniformly bright colour all over the body. Cave fishes living in total darkness have lost the pigments and grown colourless. Several species of the genera synodontis living in the river of Africa swim in inverted position and so the pigmentation is reversed in them.

Shallow weed infected ponds, swamps, marshes, pools. Bogs infected all inland water bodies. These infected inland water bodies provides shelter food and suitable environmental condition to grow and multiply to different pathogens and microorganism and macro-organism such as mosquitoes, snails other hosts.

Mosquitoes are the vectors of several diseases and carry parasites of malaria, filarial, yellow fever and so on the breed in all sorts of stagnant water and shallow weed infested ponds, swamps, pits gutters and all other kinds of inland water bodies. Different species of mosquitoes prefer different kinds of water for breeding purpose.

A number of fishes have little food value but are of immense utility to public health because of their larvivorous feeding habits. Fish is a natural enemy of mosquito eggs and larvae and its use as means of biological control has been recognized since olden times. Several species of fresh water fishes are known to be larvicidal and of use in the control of mosquito population. Biological control of this type is now regarded as one of the most potent tool in destroying the mosquito population without any causing harmful effect in the food chain and the human system. Man learnt to use them as one of his several measures to combat a number of serious diseases which are spread through the agency of insects. A number of larvicidal fishes directly feed upon mosquito larvae and thus their introduction in such water bodies where mosquitoes breed results in a very effective control on the population the mosquitoes in selection of the larvicidal fishes for such a control of diseases.

The embryogenesis or embryonic development of a sexually reproducing multicellular animal is prefaced by the gametogenesis as ovum and sperms.

In some animals both kinds of gametes are produced by a single individual which is called monoecious or hermaphrodite.

But in majority of animals both kinds of gametes are produced by different individuals to an animal species are called dioecious.

The kind of sex cells as spermatozoa and ova; and those organs which are immediately concerned with their production i.e. male gonads called as testes and female gonads as ovaries form the primary sexual characters of each sex.

Besides these primary sexual characters the male and female sexes differ from each other in many somatic characters, which are called secondary sexual characters.

Such a phenomenon of morphological differentiation or specialization in secondary sexual characters between male and female individuals of a species is called sexual dimorphism. Sexes are generally separate in fishes and only a few species are hermaphrodite.

The role of remote sensing in fishery science is one of the established fact. But today remote sensing is used generally everywhere. Success of fishing depends upon capacity for fish detection. Traditional methods like sighting, listening, smelling, locating phosphorescent patches, blue or yellow patches and oily patches in water are absolute now. Application of acoustic devices such as echo sounders, sonar’s started in 1930. Satellite remote sensing technologies have been applied recently since 1980.

In India acoustic fish finder was used in 1946. However its application has remained insignificant. No acoustic survey has been carried out either in the Arabian sea or in the Bay of Bengal. In the Indian Ocean some headway was made in 1977 and there in 1982.

Satellite remote sensing is restricted to the surface of the ocean at present. The Satellite cannot use its sensors to penetrate the column of water. The two important ocean parameters in remote sensing of fish stocks are the colour and surface temperature. Colour is used to assess and map chlorophyll productivity and through fish productivity. Temperature on the other hand helps locating thermal fronts and upwelling Zones. There by assessing nutrient abundance as well as fish abundance.

In the Indian waters, air craft remote sensing has been used for locating shoots of pelagic fish like oil sardines and mackerels in the Arabian sea using colour and bioluminescence only. The signals help distinguish shoals by species and estimate the weight of the schools. Ocean colour map also help in locating tuna schools, which prefer clear oceanic waters as against the turbid.

Introduction

Rice is considered as the most important crop of India both in terms of area as well as value of output. It is estimated to contribute about 2.5 per cent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of India and provides employment to a large work force in crop production and in paddy processing.

According to Reinsurance Company ‘Munich Re (2001), costs associated with natural disasters has gone up 14 fold since the 1950. Every year from 1991 to 2001, an average of 211 million people in the world were killed or affected by natural disaster. Described as one of the “Worst Disasters” in recent history the Tsunami travelled 4,500 km across the Indian Ocean in a period of about seven hours causing damage to twelve countries including Sri Lanka, India and Thailand most dramatically impacted, The FAO estimates that in the countries hardest hit by the disaster (Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Maldives, India and Thailand), a total of 47,000 ha of agricultural land has been damaged (FAO, 2005).

Introduction

Beginning with the Green revolution organised training of farmers and extension personnel in the country has now come of age. Since, multiple training institutions government and non-govt have come up, playing a pivotal role in transferring the technical knowledge and know how to the farming community. The turning point and a giant leap in farmers’ training came with the establishment of Farm Science Centre or Krishi Vigyan Kendras by ICAR during 1974. Having district as its jurisdiction area, KVKs have played crucial role in transfer of technology through a well qualified and trained work force at its disposal. As an organization, KVK has its own process for managing the trainers/ subject matter specialists in order to keep them motivated and dedicated to the service of poor farming community. Keeping in consideration some of the job related attributes/ factors that contributes towards effectiveness and efficiency of the SMSs, the present study has been conceived with the main objective- ‘To study the job satisfaction of the KVK trainers’.

Introduction

The share of Agriculture sector in GDP is declining over the years. This is because, of the a large gap in the latest known technology and technology being used by the farmers. Our human resources are not being utilized properly because our people in the villages are ignorant about many scientific innovations.

In Andhra Pradesh, more than 70.00 per cent of the population is dependent on agriculture but its contribution to the state GDP is only 30.00 per cent. It is felt that this low contribution to the GDP by the Agricultural sector is due to uneconomic returns

Indian agriculture is passing through a phase of reforms, owing to its shifting emphasis towards diversification, intensification, commercialization and sustainability, which has posed newer challenges before the extension functionaries. Understanding and appreciating the information needs of different clients (farmers, farm women, labourers, youth, etc) and providing quality extension service is central to its success, which needs quality manpower at different levels. Among extension services training need resources is a key input for human recourses development and contributes substantially to face the challenges by all concerned. Farmer led extension approach gives farmers the opportunity to share their experience and practices through a method demo with fellow farmers in the area. It was noticed that farmers who are successful in their farming venture have established credibility among their peers. These very same farmers are just waiting to be tapped to act as extensionist.

Introduction

Farming community is facing multiple problems to maximize crop productivity as well as to increase farm income. In spite of successful research on new agricultural practices concerning crop cultivation, majority of the farmers are not getting upper-bound yield and not earning profit due to several constraints. One of them is that expert advice regarding crop cultivation is not reaching the farming community in a timely manner. It is true that India possesses valuable agricultural knowledge and expertise. However, a wide information gap exists between research and actual adoption in the field. Farmers need timely expert advice to make farming more productive and competitive. Local information resource centers are gaining importance with computers carrying expert systems to help farmers in making decisions. It is known that many Agricultural Research Institutes are involved in the development of agricultural expert system to satisfy the information needs of farmers.

Introduction

Agriculture has always been. India’s most important economic sector. To improve this agriculture betterment, it needs principally two important sectors, one is public sector and another one is private sector. In India, generally, Ministry of agriculture and co-operation, State department of agriculture, State agricultural universities, ICAR and its transfer of technology projects are the major public extension service providers

The contribution of public extension in attaining self-reliance in food production is very well recognized. But in this changing time of globalization, public extension alone is not sufficient to address the multi-faceted problems faced by farmers. Also the performance of public sector extension is under scrutiny. Rivera et al (2000) reported that the public extension system is now seen as outdated, top-down, paternalistic, inflexible, subject to bureaucratic inefficiencies and therefore unable to cope with the dynamic demands of modern agriculture.

Introduction

Livestock and livestock products are an important source of food nutrition and livelihood security. Animal origin foods are an important source of high quality protein and micronutrients compared to cereals and plant-based foods. Production of animal- based foods has grown dramatically over the past two decades. Meat, Milk and Egg consumption has grown rapidly in east and Southeast Asia over past twenty years. The greatest increase in the production and consumption of animal-origin foods, as a result of rising incomes and dietary diversification away from staple cereals, has taken place in East and Southeast Asia. World meat markets reveal that the production and trade of bovine meat, poultry meat, pig meat and ovine meat are significant unlike rabbit meat. In spite of many advantages in rabbit farming and rabbit meat, the rabbit meat is less consumed when compared to other meat. So the objective was to study the farmer who involved in rabbit farming.

Introduction

Among the various vegetable crops, tomato (Lycopersicurn esculentum) is one of the important and popular vegetable and plays an important role in balanced nutrition and hence it is called as `poorman’s orange’. Tomato fruits can be seen in the market round the year. In India, tomato occupies an area of 2,90,279 ha with the productivity of 15.85 t/ha and production of 46,03,446 tonnes (www.nhb.gov.in). Among the different districts of Tamil Nadu, Salem district has an area of about 6311 hectares under tomato with 17,359 tonnes of production. Pest management is one of the important dimensions in cultivating tomato crop that needs significant attention. The objective of pest management technologies are maximize pest control in terms of overall economical, social and environmental values. In order to restore ecological balance, it is necessary to integrate all the available pest management techniques in the most compatible manner with the least use of chemicals which is the principle of pest management. ‘Pest management technology’ utilizes all suitable techniques and methods in a compatible manner as possible and maintains the pest population below their economic injury levels given by Bikramjit et al. (2007).

Introduction

Land and water are important natural resources available for agriculture crop production. The resource is available either for agriculture or for human / animal consumption, from precipitation in the form of rain. According to National Commission of Agriculture, half of the available land in India will continue to depend on dry land even after our total surface and ground water potentials are fully exploited by 2025 A.D. So far efforts were made in improving the irrigation potential to step up crop production and very little attention has been paid to dry lands. Considerably improved but the farmers in dry land areas are still suffering.

Introduction

In India, the marginal, small and semi-medium land holding constitutes more than 90% of the land holdings in the country. They are caught in a vicious cycle of low investment, low productivity and low income with little chance to get out of it. In general, majority of farm families possess limited and scattered land holding with a low productivity and they have very limited accessibility to the improved agricultural information because of their illiteracy and lack of participation in extension programmes. The development of entrepreneurship in subsidiary activity like vermicompost production and Dairying will definitely help the small and marginal farmwomen to increase the farm income. The entrepreneurship among farmwomen in vermi composting and dairying will definitely encourage them to start self employment in addition to the agricultural income. Farmwomen perform -multifaceted role in various fields such as production, processing and marketing. In spite of their significant contribution to production they have virtually remained invisible as farmers, home makers and the ultimate by protecting the whole family. Their role has become critical in the process of moving their family out of the vicious ‘circle of poverty’ Nataraju and Perumal, (1990). Farmwomen generally have lower income and less leisure time than men and seldom have equal opportunities to develop their capabilities. Farmwomen have been considered unorganized and inferior to men, Lelamma (2001).

Introduction

Women in India had a high and glorious tradition. All nations have attained their pinnacle of glory only when women have been free, cultured and pure. Women have been the transmitter of culture in all societies. Modern living has brought with it not only innumerable means of comfort but also a plethora of demands that tax human body and mind. Stress is an inescapable part of human life is manageable to a large extent. With proper understanding of the processes that cause stress, the situation can be well managed. The stress management is very easy if we sincerely analyze the reasons of stress. Physical stress management techniques have been used since a long time.

The investigator had undertaken the study entitled “Positive Therapy for enhancement of Self-Esteem, Self-Efficacy and Management of Stress among Women in Local Governance in Coimbatore District”.

Introduction

For uplifting the socio economic conditions of the poor mass, government enacted many programmes to make available of institutional credit flow to the farmers almost at their doorstep at a reasonable rate of interest. Hence, the mind set of borrowers has changed. credit is no more regarded as “hangman’s rope” but are considered as an economic “ladder or elevator”

However, Credit can serve useful purpose only when it is used for productive purpose to generate additional income. Otherwise, its deviation for non productive purposes would affect the repaying capacity of borrowers and create over due and defaulters. The increasing rate of non repayment has been one of the major problems for all the financial institutions. Increasing default in the repayment of loan led to very serious implication, for instances, it discourages the financial institutions to refinancing to the defaulting members.

Macromutations were observed in the present set of experiments, under all the treatments (Table 12-14).

As the dosage of gamma rays increased, there was a decrease in their frequency. EB showed less mutation frequency than gamma rays and EMS. But in combination with gamma rays it produced more frequency of macromutations. As the dose increased the frequency also increased. EMS as single treatment produced macromutations like that of gamma rays, but in combination with gamma rays it produced more frequency than gamma rays as individual treatment. However, as the dosage increased the mutation frequency was also reduced. Medium dose combination produced more mutations than higher and lower dose combinations of gamma rays + EMS.

On M₂ plant basis, gamma rays in combination with EB produced the maximum viable mutation rate (4.04), whereas gamma rays individually induced a maximum rate of 2.23 and EB as a sole mutagen generated a maximum rate of 0.79. But EMS as a single treatment showed 1.69 as viable mutation rate, in combination with gamma rays it generated as much as 2.49. Combination treatment showed a less than synergistic effect.

Knowledge on genetic variability of the available population is very essential for any crop improvement programme, as it will positively enhance the efficiency of selection. The variability in quantitative characters increase considerably by treating the biological materials with different mutagenic agents. It is possible to identify mutants for different characteristics which can be useful in further programme. Variability is measured by different statistics viz., phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV) and genotypic co-efficient of variation (GCV). GCV would be more useful for the assessment of inherent variability as it exhibits the heritable portion only.

Vagina: A pouch-like or tubular genital chamber of the female genitalia; external opening of the female reproductive system; or the terminus of the female reproductive tract that opens to the outside; or the terminal portion of the female reproductive tract which receives the copulatory organ of a male in mating (L. sheath).

Valid name: The name of a taxonomic category which is available nomenclaturally and also is recognized as valid on Zoological grounds (cf. Available name).

Valvar lamina: The posterior margin (usually prolonged posteriorly) of the eighth abdominal sternite (female Odonata).

Valve: In animals, any structure that limits or closes an opening; the thin folds in veins, lymph vessels, or hearts or the circular muscles about a tubular exit; also, either external shell of bivalve mollusk, brachiopod, or some crustaceans.

Valvifer (s): A basal sclerite of a valve of the ovipositor, articulating with the tergum; or proximal structures of the ovipositor that bear the valvulae; in female insect genitalia, derivations of gonocoxites 8 and 9, supporting the valves of the ovipositor.

Valvulae: Distal structures of the ovipositor borne on the valvifers; the three pairs of processes forming the sheath and piercing structures of the ovipositor.

Natural gas: Produced from gas wells or oil wells rich in natural gas. It is composed mainly of methane, but it also contains small amounts of ethane, propane, hydrogen, helium, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulphate, and water vapour. It is stored either in the gas phase at pressures of 150 to 250 atm as CNG (compressed natural gas) or in the liquid phase at 162° C as LNG (liquefied natural gas).

Natural-draft cooling tower: Uses the naturally occurring density gradients between the inside air-water vapour mixture and the outside air which create an airflow from the bottom to the top of a wet cooling tower.

Needle valve: A valve in which the flow of liquid or gas is regulated by the adjustment of a pin or needlepoint, which sets in a cone-shaped depression having a small hole at the bottom.

Negative: One of the two terminals in an electrical circuit, presumably the one through which the current returns to the source.

Negative camber: The condition existing when two tyres are closer together at the top than at the bottom.

Cytogenetics helps in solving intricate problems of evolution of economic plants and their relationship with relevant wild ancestors. Ornamental plants provide very interesting material for evolutionary studies. Such a study would reveal the nature of the evolutionary steps and clarify the changes that the breeding system and chromosomes underwent. The genetic and cytogenetic reasons for the diversity in ornamentals would also be unraveled. Such a study also helps to chalk out a meaningful breeding methodology for genetic improvement. A systematic programme of genetics and plant breeding of ornamental plants was started at CSIR-NBRI. The objectives of the programme were both basic or creative (experimental analysis of the causes of variation and evolution) and applied or productive (experimental synthesis of new and novel variation with better putative parents). Evaluation of colchiploids of ornamentals with different genetic systems was being carried out at CSIR-NBRI, with a view to explore the possibility of their introduction in floriculture trade. Superiority of polyploid cultivars, in general, has been the main factor, which has induced gardeners to raise artificial tetraploids. Most of the garden forms are of hybrid origin, raised over a number of years and named differently by different workers and nurserymen. More often than not, there is no authentic record of their ancestory and they show a great deal of morphological and cytological polymorphism (Khoshoo 1968, 1990, Datta and Banerji (1995). 

Considering the economic importance of chlorophyll variegation in floriculture trade attempt was made for cytological, anatomical and biochemical analysis of chlorophyll variegated mutants for better and clear understanding of origin of chlorophyll variegation (Kirk and Tilney-Bassett 1967, Datta et al. 1995). Following chlorophyll variegated mutants and their respective original varieties were analysed –

‘Los Banos Beauty’ (LBB) : Original double bracted Bougainvillea with green leaf.

There are certain inherited traits (characters) in various species of livestock which are economically important. These traits have to be improved for increased production like milk, meat, egg, wool, etc.

Quantitative Versus Qualitative Inheritance

There is a continuum of traits being inherited as a Mendelian trait with simple inheritance and traits having quantitative inheritance without well separated classes and with many genes involved.
Classification of traits in relation to mode of inheritance and environmental tolerance are shown in Figure 1.2. First there are the well known traits with simple Mendelian mode of inheritance. The trait with quantitative genetic inheritance is caused by segregation of many gene pairs, each with small effect. At the same time the trait is influenced by a lot of minor environmental effects.
Diseases will often be ‘either/or traits’ as the simple Mendelian traits. Cases in which the severity of the disease has a normal distribution can also be found. In many production diseases the disease only occurs when a genetically prone individual is exposed to adverse environmental effects. Figure 1. Classification  of traits in relation to mode of inheritance  and environmental tolerance. 
 

The amount of variation is measured and expressed as the variance. When values are expressed as deviations from the population mean the variance is simple the mean of the squared values. For example, the genotypic variance is the variance of genotypic values and the environmental variance is the variance of environmental deviations. The total variance is the phenotypic variance of the variance of phenotypic values, and is the sum of the separate components. 

Individuality tells us what an animal seems to be; his pedigree tells us what he ought to be, but the performance of his progeny tells us what he is
Effectiveness of selection depends on ability to recognize those animals, which possess superior inheritance. Those superior animals must be mated together for the production of offspring. The aids available to estimate the breeding value of an animal is through the phenotype of an animal or its relatives.