eChapters

1.1 Problem
    1.    Compare the seed quality at different physiological maturity stages
    2.    Compare the seed recovery in acid and fermentation method

1.2 Materials
    ·    Tomato fruits – 4 batches
    ·    Plastic bucket/ Beaker
    ·    Water

The processing operations are carried out based on the principle of physical differences found in a seed lot.

9.1 Magnetic seed separator

These machines use a magnetic force to separate damaged seeds or other particles from the good seeds. This is used to solve special problems in seed lots that can not be taken out with our other basic seed cleaning equipment. Most of the time it is used for vegetable and field seeds that have problems in seed damage (fish mouth in cucumber or melon seeds / cracked radish or cabbage seeds), insect damage (beetle holes in cotton seeds) or contamination with soil or plant parts (white plant parts in onion seed) etc.

Objective: To study the seed treatment methods and equipments A key factor in achieving the few potential of good quality seed is the blanket treatment of the seeds with agrochemical in order to control or prevent diseases in the  crops.

According to Harrington’s rule (1960) of thumb, for storage, every one percent increase in moisture content, the seed life is halved far seeds of moisture content of 5-14%. For temperature, every 5^ºC rise in temperature, between 0-50 ^ºC, the seed life is halved.

PPEs are the personal protection equipments which protect the personnel against some hazards in the shop floor. PPEs form important aspects of Environment (safe disposal of treated chemicals, dusts coming out of processing), Safety (to seed storages) and Health (personnel) (ESH) strategy of any shop floor.

Most of the scientific research studies –except few descriptive survey research studies–will have one or more hypotheses to be tested as a part of study. Hypothesis is a prediction intended to be tested in a research study (Aron, Coups, and Aron, 2012). Hypothesis is the guide which directs the purpose and process of research by indicating the dependent and independent variables to be observed, extraneous variables to be controlled and the active variables to be manipulated.

There can be no scientific studies which do not involve the process of measuring. Measurement process is the integral part of research activity. Measurement can be defined as the assignment of numerals to the objects or events according to set of rules.  The emphasis in this definition is on phrase ‘set of rules’. If the rules can be set up based on some rational or empirical basis, then theoretically anything can be measured. It is very much easy to understand the concept of measurement in case of physical sciences (Example weight, length, mass etc.) but it is harder understand the concept of measurement in case of psychological objects/phenomenon (intelligence, aggressiveness, attitude etc.) without understanding the predetermined rules of measurement. A rule is a guide, command that tells you what to do/how to do.

Reliability aims at assessing the accuracy and consistency of whatsoever the measuring instrument measures irrespective of whether we are measuring what we are supposed to measure or not. Whereas the validity emphasises on the question “are we measuring what we were supposed to measure?”

To clarify the difference between reliability and validity, let us take an example of instruments that measure colour intensity. Assume, an expert develops two separate instruments X and Y to measure the intensity of green and red colour, respectively. But, the commercial manufacturer wrongly tags the red colour measuring instrument as X. When someone uses this wrongly tagged instrument for measuring the green colour intensity, whatever intensity values the instrument yields are reliable but not valid. It is so because the instrument is measuring red colour intensity accurately (hence data is reliable) but it is not measuring what it was supposed to measure –the green colour intensity (hence data is not valid).

Quantitative studies are preferred over qualitative studies for their relatively higher objectivity. But many of the times, complexities involved in the occurrence of phenomenon, its causes, and consequences demand for in-depth analysis of a single unit of study. Whenever we want to study a single unit in depth both qualitatively and quantitatively then case study is the best method of research. Case study is a best tool to use, when we are interested in exploring a new phenomenon on which there is very less scientific information available and also when we are interested in formulating new hypothesis for causal study.

Interview method: It is a two way interactive (either face-to-face or through multimedia technology), method of data collection wherein the researchers elicit required response from the respondent by presenting stimulus in the form of series of questions pertinent to it.

Interview schedule: It is a data collection tool consisting of properly worded, sequentially arranged questions, tests relevant to objective of research.

Existing positive as well as negative interactions among the members of the society determine the communication structure, leadership and technology diffusion pattern within the given social system. Sociometry is a method for gathering and analyzing data on communication choice and interaction pattern of individuals, within a group in order to identify communication structure and pattern.

Present study was conducted in an Eastern Indian State ‘Chhattisgarh’, which was purposively selected keeping in view the importance of SHG movement in empowering rural poor in Eastern Indian States, home of the largest proportion of population below poverty line. To have in-depth micro level analyses, one district of Chhattisgarh was randomly selected, which happened to be the Kanker district.

The main purpose of this chapter is to summarize the results to draw the conclusions on the basis of the foregoing analyses and to indicate some of the significant implications of the present study.
 
In previous Chapter, the study described a detail account of 12 SHGs, three SHGs from each of four schemes viz. NABARD’s SHG-Bank Linkage Programme (SBLP), National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM), Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP), Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA) in Chhattisgarh state. However, looking back to this study with the salient findings and implications would be the precursor for looking ahead.

Gangana(Grewia tenax) is a deciduous tropical shrub widely distributed in arid and semi-arid region. In western Rajasthan, the natural habitat of this shrub is buried pediments, hills and pediplains (Bhandari, 1971). It does best on deep sandy loam, and can grow in very shallow, skeletal, gravelly or clay soils. It has been reported that the species grow abundantly (density = 678 individuals per ha.) in hilly waste lands of Kailana, Jodhpur. Sharma (1997) reported that its efficient root system can penetrate into minute rock crevices. It is extremely drought hardy and can withstand high temperature in hot arid climate. It tolerates frost well but plant growth is slow in arid region. Mostly fruits for sale in the local markets are collected from wild stands. It is underutilized species (Gebauer et al., 2007), the major limitations to the development as a horticultural crop is the lack of detailed information, particularly the genotype, physiology and ecology (Gebauer et al., 2007). Due to its drought hardy and dense root system, it seems promising species in arid region. It has good fodder value for small ruminants. It is naturally grown in range lands, orans, and hilly track of Aravalli. It is untapped plant species and its potential should be exploited.

West Indian Cherry is a nutritive fruit mainly grown in semi dry and tropical parts of the country. It is native to West Indies and Central and South America and distributed in Southern Florida, Hawaii and other tropical and sub tropical regions of the world. West Indian Cherry received considerable attention in the 1950’s in its area of distribution because of its extremely high vitamin C content (2000-4600 mg / 100 gm of edible matter). It has been considered to be far superior to guava (Psidium guajava L.) as a potential source of vitamin c and it is richer than even the Indian gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica L.), which is reported to contain roughly 800 mg of ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible matter. One fruit the size of a large cherry can furnish a man’s daily requirement of this vitamin. Thus the fruit of West Indian Cherry can rightly be called as the “pill of nature’s vitamin”. The fruit can be utilized for the production of crystalline vitamin C. The fruit is also rich in vitamin A, iron and can be consumed fresh or can be used in preparation of sherbet, ice cream, jelly and baby foods, fruit nectars and soft drinks. The juice can also be used to fortify ascorbic acid content of various other products and fruit juices to improve their nutritive value. It can withstand mild frost and drought. Fruits are good source of vitamin C and bark yields tannin (Chadha, 2001).

Synonyms :  Three days sickness, Stiff  sickness,  Dengu fever of cattle, Bovine epizootic fever and Lazy man’s disease.

Bovine ephemeral fever (BEF) is a viral disease of cattle, Bos Taurus, Bos indicus and Bos javanicus and water buffalo Bubalus bubalis, although  subclinically infect a greater range of ruminant species. Although the disease has a variety of names, bovine ephemeral fever is most commonly used  and is very apt. The disease in cattle is characterized  by acute febrile reaction, stiffness, lameness and spontaneous recovery in three days.  The morbidity may be high but the mortality is low. It mainly occurs in subtropical and temperate regions of Africa, Asia and Australia.

Synonyms : Infectious adenitis, Equine distemper
It is  an acute infectious disease of equines characterized by catarrhal inflammation of the upper respiratory tract with suppuration and abscessation of the associated lymph node.
 
Etiology :  Strepococcus  equi subspecies equi is a Gm+ cocci that produces a -b haemolysin characterized by clear haemolysis surrounding colonies growing on blood agar. It is a biovar or genovar of S. zooepidemicus. Equines are very much susceptible and different genetic clones occur geographically. S. equi varies in virulence which is related to M protein and hyaluronic capsule produced. S. equi variant without capsule causes mild disease.

K    :    Kilo (10³g).
 
K    :    Potassium.

KA    :    Ketoacidosis.

Karlvon Baer    :    Person who‚ in 1828‚ published on the developmental stages in mammalian eggs and showed that an undifferentiated‚ single-celled egg grows into a many-celled embryo.

Seed Sampling

The size and quantity of seed sample required for seed quality testing remains small as compared to the seed lot hence, representative samples are randomly drawn for this purpose. The process of obtaining a uniform and representative sample from a seed lot for seed quality testing is called seed sampling. The samples are prepared in accordance to ISTA rules to ensure that small size sample should represent truly and in the same proportion all constituents of seed lot.

Physical purity test determines the proportion of pure seed, other crop seed, weed seed, inert matter, moisture and germination components in the seed lot by weight in percentage in accordance to prescribed Seed Standards. It thus, helps in improving the plant stand, raising a pure crop by eliminating other crop seeds, weed seeds and disease free-seeds. Seed must not be sold until the percentage of pure seed, other crop seed, weed seed, and inert matter are in accordance to seed physical purity standards. Physical purity test is required for seed certification or seed law enforcement and it is a pre-requisite for ger- mination test.

The cell is the unit of structure of all plants and animals. With increasing complexity of organization, masses of different cell types tend to become localized and to form recognizable patterns. An aggregation of cells forming a definite pattern is called tissue. A still higher level of organization, tissues aggregate to form organs. The animal cell is a highly organized structure. Plant cell is different from animal cell  by having a cellulose cell wall.  There are a number of well defined structures viz., nucleus, mitochondria, lysosomes, Golgi apparatus etc in the cell. Animal cells also have centrioles whereas plant cells contain plastids such as chloroplasts. The remainder of the cell is the cytoplasm.

Types of cells : Animal cells are usually defined by the tissue of their origin. On the basis of morphology, they can be divided into 5 types.

    1.    Epithelial cells : Epithelial tissues consist of a layer of cells which cover organs and line cavity. Example skin and the lining of alimentary canal. They grow well as single cell monolayer in culture.

    2.    Fibroblast cells : Connective tissue form the major structural component of animals. The tissue contains fibroblasts and most widely used cell in the laboratory. Fibroblasts are bound to the fibrous protein collagen in the connective tissue. They have excellent growth characteristics.

A finite growth capacity is a characteristic of all cells derived form the normal animal tissue. The cells pass through a series of age related changes before being incapable to divide further. The finite number of generations of growth is a characteristic of the cell type, age and species of origin and referred to as the “Hayflick limit”. The cells derived from embryonic tissue have a greater growth capacity than those derived from adult tissue.

Once cells are obtained from a culture collection or isolated from animal tissue,, cells are put in the flask with growth medium. The cells are inoculated at a density of 104-105 cells/ml to get a concentration of 106 cells/ml or 105 cells/cm2 in a solid surface in 2-3 days because of nutrient limitation, accumulation of toxic metabolite or lacking of growth surface.

Cell growth and cell passage : Different types of cells have different growth requirements but in all cases the surrounding medium must supply all the essential nutrients. The temperature, pH, osmolarity and humidity must be kept within limits. Again, toxic or inhibitory substances must not be allowed to accumulate. Serum, a source of macromolecular growth factors, is essential to the growth of many cell types. Anchorage dependent cells require nontoxic or biologically inert glass or plastic surface for attachment.

Vero (monkey, African green, kidney) 
Morphology: Fibroblast
Species:, African green monkey 
Tissue: Kidney

Properties: Virology, virus titration, virus replication, plaque assays, bacterial cytotoxicity

Small volume cultures are useful for experiments such as studying cell morphology, titration of viruses, plaque assay, pock assay, SNT and to compare the effect of agents on growth and metabolism. However, there are other application where there is a need of large number of cells such as extraction of DNA/RNA from cells, production of viruses for vaccine production and a number of products namely interferons, interleukins, hormones, enzymes, antibodies, glycoproteins etc. The large quantity of cells can be obtained by using a large number of flasks/bottles but it is tedius, labour intensive, expensive and there is a risk of contiamination. Although the unit processes are more cost effective and efficient, it needs some modification to overcome limiting factors such as oxygen depletion, shear damage and metabolic toxicity. There are a number of aberrations available to scale up cell culture described below.

Early passage cell lines are relatively unstable and go through a period of adaptation to culture. However, between 5^th and 35^th generation (human diploid fibroblasts), the culture is fairly consistent although it varies from one cell to another cell. Finite cell lines should be preserved after adaptation but before senescence (getting older). Cells should be preserved to protect cell line instability, availability in case of contamination, incubator failure or accidental loss.

The tentative diagnosis of viral diseases of livestock can be made by clinical symptoms alone. The clinical diagnosis is substantiated by the laboratory to obtain a precise, correct and prompt diagnosis. The success however depends on the collection of suitable materials in proper transport medium at a particular stage of disease condition and its dispatch to the laboratory in a manner that little or no alterations occurs in the specimen. This would facilitate the isolation and identification of the causative viral agents easily.

Bovine
 
1.    PPR    Eye, mouth, rectal swab in PBS on ice, 10 ml blood  in anti-coagulant at height of temperature, Prescapular lymph node, spleen, piece of intestine on ice, lung, liver, spleen, tonsil in 10% neutral formol saline solution.

Processing

On arrival in the laboratory, the specimens are processed immediately or refrigerated until processed. For inoculation into animal/cell culture/embryonated eggs (EE), swabs are shaken in fluid medium, faeces are dispersed in fluid medium and tissue specimens are homogenized in a high speed blender/pestle and mortar with the help of an abrasive like powdered glass or sand. Good quality hard sand should be properly washed in distilled water, treated with HCl, washed thoroughly, dried and sterilized before use. Generally the infective tissue is homogenized in a few ml of buffer usually having a pH of 7.2 to 7.3 to make about 10% tissue suspension. The suspension is centrifuged at about 1000g for 10-15 minutes to sediment the tissue debris and coarse materials.

Principle

The infectivity of a virus may be neutralized by specific antibody when they are mixed and incubated. In some cases, the addition of homologous or guinea pig complement to the mixture enhances neutralization, particularly when early antiserum is used. Serum must be inactivated by heating at 560C for 30 minutes to inactivate complement or to remove non-specific virus inhibitors. Serum-virus mixtures are inoculated into appropriate cell cultures, which are then incubated until the only virus controls develop cytopathic effects. Antibody by neutralizing the infectivity of the virus, protects the cells against virus destruction.

INTRODUCTION

Northeast India comprises the contiguous seven sister states.viz., Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura and the Himalayan state of Sikkim. The Northeastern states of India are blessed with diversified fish fauna which assumes special interest due to the fact that the region is grained by two important drainages viz., Brahamaputra-Barak and Chindwin Irrawaddy. (Gurumayum and Choudhury, 2009). Riverine fisheries resources of Northeastern States comprise of 19,150 km of streams and rivers. Except the Brahmaputra and Barak Valleys in Assam and Imphal Valley in Manipur, the Northeast mainly comprises of Hills and Mountains which form 65% of its territory (Suguman, 1998).

INTRODUCTION

The North Eastern Region of India comprises of eight states, viz., Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura, Nagaland, Mizoram and Sikkim. These north eastern states are home to myriad tribals and several ethnic groups. Most of the people of the north-eastern region of India belong to the Mongolian race and the food habit of the region is fairly similar with that of South-East Asian countries. Fermented foods form an intrinsic part of the diet of these people. Fermentation has been an age long traditional practice of preserving various food products in the region. These fermented products are used as condiments in the preparation of various traditional sauces, strews and dishes (Saisithi, 1994).

Introduction

North East India constitutes the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim which reflects ecological and cultural contrasts between the hills and the plains. It is one of the most biodiversity regions in the world, with more than a hundred and fifty tribes forming a melting pot of variegated cultural mosaic of people and races constitute a vital component in this region (Dutta and Dutta, 2005).
 
More than 70% people of the region are engaged in agriculture while rice is the staple food crop (Bhattacharjee and Ray, 2010). The farmers from different ethnic diversity of the region have developed their own systems of cultivation of various crops (Islam et al. 2004). These indigenous traditional knowledge systems are quite endemic to this region (Deka et al. 2006).

INTRODUCTION

Traditional knowledge is the knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities around the world. Developed from experience gained over centuries and adapted to the local culture and environment, it is transmitted orally from generation to generation. It tends to be collectively owned and takes the form of stories, songs, folklore, proverbs, cultural values, beliefs, rituals, community laws, local language. Sometimes it is referred to as an oral tradition for it is practiced, sung, danced, painted, carved, chanted and performed down through millennia. Traditional knowledge is mainly of a practical nature, particularly in such fields as fisheries, health, horticulture, forestry and environmental management in general. Appreciation of the value of traditional knowledge is growing. This knowledge is valuable not only to those who depend on it in their daily lives, but to modern industry and farming as well. Many widely used products, such as plant-based medicines, health products and cosmetics, are derived from traditional knowledge. Other such valuable products include agricultural and non-wood forest products as well as handicraft. Traditional knowledge can make a significant contribution to sustainable development.

Livestock production is an integral part of agriculture and plays a significant economic role in most developing countries. It contributes to poverty alleviation, food security and provides elements that are essential to the national economy. Livestock production accounts for 40% of the gross value of the agricultural production globally and this figure is likely to go up, as the demand of livestock products is increasing rapidly with the increase in income and urbanization (FAO, 2012). For poor farmers, animal ownership ensures varying degrees of sustainable development and economic stability. Livestock provide a stable cash reserve independent of inflation and are an important source of traction. Livestock are closely linked to the social and cultural lives of several million people. Quality and quantity of feed is essential for optimum animal productivity. Inadequacy of quality animal feed resources is most often the crucial factor for livestock production. The success of livestock is greatly dependent on continuous supply of good quality nutritious feed at competitive price. Poor nutrition of animals has been identified as the major constraints to animal production across the developing world (FAO, 2000). Feed is the major input cost in animal production system, accounting for 65-70% of the total rearing cost.

Silage is the material produced by controlled fermentation of forages or crop residues with high moisture content. The objective of silage making is to preserve the harvested forages by anaerobic fermentation in which soluble carbohydrates are converted into acids. Due to acid produced, pH of a well-ensiled product becomes so low that all life processes come to a halt and the material remain preserved so long as it remains in airtight storage. Soluble carbohydrate present in forage is converted to lactic acid which drops the pH to a level sufficient to inhibit any further biological activity in the ensiled forage mass (McDonald, 1991). Fresh forage crops, such as maize, grasses, legumes, wheat and Lucerne, can be preserved by ensiling. It is essential to have a good microbial fermentation process to produce high quality silage. Good silage is achieved by discouraging the activity of plant enzymes and undesirable micro-organisms and encouraging the dominance of lactic acid bacteria. A good fermentation process is not only dependent on the type and quality of the forage crop, but also on the harvesting and ensiling technique. Silage-making is a managemental tool that allows producers to match feed resources (forages, crop residues, agro-industrial byproducts, etc.) with feed demand for a dairy herd.

Haylage or baleage or round bale silage, is a somewhat newer method of preserving forage. Haylage is simply forage that is baled at higher moisture content than dry hay and then stored in a sealed plastic wrap. Because of the high moisture level and air-tight environment, the forage ferments and is preserved by acid production during fermentation. The higher pH values associated with baleage are related to a slower fermentation process. During the respiration stage of the ensiling process the oxygen that is trapped in storage is rapidly consumed by aerobic bacteria. Anaerobic bacteria, which survive in the absence of oxygen, begin to grow and multiply in the fermentation stage and convert the plant sugars into organic acids- mainly lactic acid and acetic acid. With production of acids, the pH of the silage is reduced from an original level of 7.0 to a final ideal pH of 4–5. Typical large bale haylage has a pH of 4.5–5.5. Fermentation ceases when bacteria growth is stopped by the accumulation of acids. The haylage will then remain at a stable pH with no bacterial growth and can be preserved for a long time, providing there is no exposure to air. Harvesting forages with a long fiber usually results in a slow release of the plant nutrients necessary for the growth of acid producing bacteria. This generally results in less fermentation in the baleage than in chopped silage.

Total protein: (Biuret method)

There are several methods of estimating protein, in food, agricultural and clinical samples, each of them varying in sensitivity and applicability.

Principle
Biuret method is highly specific for protein and is based on the formation of the blue peptide-copper complex in alkaline solution. It is a method of choice in the clinical laboratory because of the simplicity accuracy and precision. The major limitation of the method is its poor sensitivity for many dilute solutions. The principle of this method is that the peptide bonds in protein react with biuret reagent to give a violet colored complex known as cupric potassium biuret. The colour intensity of which is proportional to protein concentration.

The daily nutrient requirements of animals varies for various stages of life i.e. maintenance ration, growing, working, pregnant, lactating, dry and diseased animals ration. Maintenance ration contains the vitamins and mineral only for life without any other production, while during pregnancy and lactation their requirements changed drastically from the maintenance ration. If not supply the standard amount of vitamins and minerals during these stages may disturb the metabolism and ultimately cause the production or metabolic disease. Therefore, the proper and sufficient (as per standard requirements) supplementation of vitamins and minerals can help in the prevention and control of production diseases in livestock.

Bone marrow biopsy
Indications
    •    In blood abnormalities in which it is impossible to confirm a diagnosis by means of peripheral blood examination.
    •    In conditions like leucopenia, non-regenerative anaemia and thrombocytopenia.
    •    As a confirmatory diagnosis of leukaemia and differentiating it from leukemoid reactions.

X-ray Machines
 
There are many factors to consider when choosing X-ray equipment. The need of an individual practice varies depending on the species majority and case work load.
Types of X-ray machines: 
X-ray machines can be grouped into 3 categories:

I. Portable X-ray Machine

    ·    Is one that can be carried to the animal.
    ·    Portable X-ray machines are widely used in veterinary practice.
    ·    The maximum output is 15 to 35 mAs and kV ranges from 70-110 kVp.
    ·    Cost is less and easy to move around and transport. 
    ·    Suitable for X-raying of thin and small parts (limbs below stifle and elbow of large animals and can be used taking 
X-rays of abdomen an skeletal systems of small animals).

The radiographic appearance of various tissues is influenced by a number of factors which determine the character of X-rays.  Various exposure factors control the radiographic dentsity, detail and contrast: milliamperage (mA), time (sec), kilovoltage (kV), focal spot/film distance (FFD) and object-film distance (OFD), thickness and nature of the part radiogaphed, speed and type of film and intensifying screens, temperature and time of developing, grid type, incoming line voltage, make and type of X-ray machine. Of these, first five exposure factors (milliamperage (mA), time (sec), kilovoltage (kV), focal spot/film distance (FFD) and object-film distance (OFD) are very important as radiographic technique chart may be worked out by varying one or more of the five factors.  These exposure factors are integral to image quality and should, therefore, to be adjusted appropriately in order to achieve a diagnostic radiograph of optimal quality (image contrast, brightness and clarity).

Radiation therapy is the delivery of ionizing radiation to a specific body areas with the goal of obtaining maximum lesion control with minimal complication. Radiation therapy is based on the fact that ionizing radiation is lethal to the cells, particularly rapidly dividing ones. Normal cells in the irradiated area may be as sensitive to ionizing radiation as tumor cells. Therefore, the normal tissue response limits the amount of ionizing radiation that can be tolerated by the patient. Effective use of radiation therapy requires an understanding of the physics of the radiation used and normal cellular and tumor biology as it relates to radiation therapy as well as an appreciation of the clinical application of veterinary radiation therapy.

Daily Maximum Temperature : As per the IMD guidelines, the maximum temperature recorded in a 24 hour period at any given place or location.

Daily Mean Temperature : The average of the values observed during a day (at any regular intervals or maximum and minimum) of temperature.

Daily Minimum Temperature : As per the IMD guidelines, the minimum temperature recorded in a 24 hour period at any given place or location.

Daily Range of Temperature : The range of temperature (between maximum and minimum) recorded as per IMD guidelines in 24 hour period.

Earthquake : A sudden, transient motion or trembling of the earth’s crust, resulting from the waves in the earth caused by faulting of the rocks or by volcanic activity.
    
Easterlies : Usually applied to the broad patterns of persistent winds with an easterly component, such as the easterly trade winds.

Easterly Wave : A wave like disturbance, of the tropospheric easterlies of low latitude. These are synoptic scale and occur in the region of intertropical convergence zone.

Ecoclimate : Climate under crop canopy is called eco-climate. 

Edaphic : A term pertaining to the influence or relationship of soil or other similar media to plant growth in contrast to atmospheric influences. 

Fahrenheit Temperature Scale : A temperature scale having freezing point of water as 32 degrees and the boiling point equal to 212 degrees at standard atmospheric pressure. 
    Degree F = (Degree C x 1.8) + 32
    Degree C = (Degree F - 32)/1.8

Fair Weather : Fine sky. Appearance of cirrus or cumulus cover is in fair amount but not covering the sky totally.

Fetch : The distance over which a wind of nearly constant direction has blown, usually over a consistent surface such as water or a forest or a field. Most often the fetch is applied to a distance over water and used to determine the height of wind-generated waves.
 
Fine Weather : A blue and cloudless sky. Even if a few cirrus clouds are noticed, they do not express any vertical development.

Haboob : Sudanese name for duststorm or sandstorm with strong winds that carry small particles of dirt or sand into the air, particularly severe in areas of drought.
 
Habitat : A place where a plant or a community of plants or a crop is existing.

Hadley Cell : A mean thermally driven atmospheric circulation in which warm air rises and flows away from the equator at upper level and descends at the tropics. Wind moves from the tropics back to equator poleward. In many cases this term is also referred to as ‘Hadley circulation’.

Hail : Solid precipitation in the form of balls or pieces if ice (hailstones) with diameter ranging from 5 mm to 50 mm or even more. 
Hailstorm : A storm, often too long and severe, consisting largely of hail or frozen rain drops ranging in diameter from 5 mm to 10 mm or more.