eChapters

1.    Food Additives are

(a) Nutritive substances added to enhance flavour, texture or storage properties

(b) Non-Nutritive substances added to enhance flavour, texture or storage properties

(c) Both (a) and (b)

(d) Chemicals, added for preservation

2.    Which is an acceptable application of a food additive?

(a) As a fat replacer

(b) As an antioxidant

(c) As a food colorant

(d) All of these

1.    Substantially used metal for manufacture of tin container for heat processed food is

(a) Aluminum

(b) Steel

(c) Iron

(d) Glass

2.    The steel used for the manufacturing of tin free plate metal food cans is

(a) High carbon cold rolled steel

(b) Low carbon hot rolled steel

(c) Low carbon cold rolled steel

(d) Moderate carbon hot rolled steel

3.    Which are the processes primarily used to fabricate the plastic containers used in sterilization process?

(a) Molding and injection

(b) Blowing and injection

(c) Cutting and heating

(d) Conditioing and calendering

1.    Yoghurt usually contains total milk solids in the range of

(a) 12-15%

(b) 8.5 to 11.5%

(c) 15-19%

(d) 20-25 %

2.    Yoghurt is usually manufactured by heating the pre-mix to pasteurize it to

(a) 61-62°C for 20 minutes

(b) 80-85°C for 15 to 30 minutes

(c) 80-85°C for 15 sec

(d) 71-72°C for 15 sec

1.    In milk and milk products, non bacterial ropiness or sliminess may be due to the stringiness/sliminess caused/resulted

(a) Due to thin film formation of proteins, when cooled

(b) From cream thickness

(c) By mastitis, fibrin and leucocytes from the milch animal’s blood

(d) All of the above

2.    In milk, bacterial ropiness is caused by slimy capsular material from the cells usually

(a) Lipids

(b) Proteins

(c) Gums or mucins

(d) Polysaccharides

1.    Evolutionary relationships between groups of organisms are determined using comparisons of

(a) Biochemical pathways

(b) Nucleotide sequences

(c) Structural features

(d) All of these

2.    The different bacterial species can be subdivided into

(a) Serovarieties

(b) Biovarietites

(c) Subspecies

(d) All of these

3.    Kingdom Prokaryotae include

(a) Bacteria

(b) Protozoa

(c) Fungi

(d) None of these

1.    The predominant form of fat within fat (adipose) tissue is stored in humans in the form of

(a) Glycogen

(b) Triglycerides

(c) Diglycerides

(d) Monoglycerides

2.    The Thermic Effect of food refers to

(a) The ‘heat’ one feels from eating a chili pepper

(b) The amounts of energy the body spents to process, use and store

(c) The benefits of eating warm foods in cold weather

(d) All of the above

1.    The organic molecules which increase the rate of metabolic reactions are referred as

(a) Coenzymes

(b) Enzymes

(c) Reactants

(d) Apoenzymes

2.    Enzymes are

(a) Organic compounds produced by living organism

(b) Inorganic compounds

(c) Both (a) & (b)

(d) None of these

1.    The function of myoglobin is to store in living animal’s muscle.

(a) Oxygen

(b) Nitrogen

(c) CO₂

(d) Oxygen + carbondioxide

2.    Myoglobin is in color when not carrying an oxygen molecule.

(a) Red

(b) Blue

(c) Purple

(d) White

1.    A lipid is

(a) Insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents

(b) Insoluble in both water and nonpolar solvents

(b) Soluble in water but insoluble in nonpolar solvents

(d) None of the above

2.    Fats are

(a) Esters of fatty acid with glycerol

(b) Esters of fatty acid with long chain monohydroxy alcohols

(c) Both (a) and (b)

(d) Esters of fatty acid with alcohols

1.    The basic building block(s) of proteins is/are

(a) Amino acids

(b) Phenolics

(c) Carboxylic acids

(d) Fatty acids

2.    Alpha helix and ?- pleated sheet are characteristic of protein structure?

(a) Primary

(b) Secondary

(c) Tertiary

(d) Quaternary

1.    Carbohydrates can be represented by

(a) Fischer projection formula

(b) Haworth cyclic structure

(c) Both (a) and (b)

(d) None of these

2.    If a compound has got four chiral centers then it will have isomeric structures.

(a) 4

(b) 8

(c) 16

(d) 64

3.    The sugar, which does not possess chiral center is

(a) Glucose

(b) Fructose

(c) Glyceraldehyde

(d) Dihydroxyacetone

Abstract

The applications of enzymes are awe inspiring marvels of nature. Scientists can use enzymes to explore all aspects of biology; from molecules to cells to tissues to organs to organism as a whole. For the purpose of food and drinks, enzymes have been exploited by men for thousands of years without really knowing what they are and how do they work? Enzymes have played a pivotal role in many aspects of life since the dawn of life. Today, biocatalysis is being used as a useful alternative to chemical process technology. The fact that enzymes work under much milder conditions oftemperature, pressure and acidity, thus, obviate harsh processing conditions and thereby decrease the possibility of damage to heat labile substrates and save energy. Enzyme technology being eco-friendly can be justifiably termed as‘Green technology’. Due to their high specificity and high catalytic rate, enzymes prevent wastage and reduce time of processing / manufacturing, respectively. The ability of enzymes to act on wide variety of substrates has made them useful tools to exploit cheaper starting material in food industry. Reportedly, over 45% of the enzymes produced are being used in food industry and remaining is shared by detergent (34.4%), textile (11%), leather (2.8%) paper and pulp (1.2%) and other industries (5.6%). Enzymes serve a myriad of functions in food processing, from maximizing juice extraction of pectin-rich fruits to extending shelf-life in baked goods through slowing starch retro-gradation. Indian food processing industry has seen significant growth and changes over the past few years. Though, the market of enzymes is increasing at a fast pace but most of the enzymes of the food sector are coming from overseas. Seeing the unparallel role of enzymes in food processing sector as in multifaceted domains, the researchers should emphasize upon finding novel enzymes and explore their untapped commercial benefits using modern techniques of enzyme engineering, immobilization and biotechnological interventions.

Abstract

Genomics is playing an increasing role in generating new tools and databases with the rapid advances in genome technology which increases the eficiency and precision of crop improvement. With the emergence of new high-throughput technologies like next-generation sequencing (NGS) and reduction in their costs are bringing many more plants within the range of genomic and post genomic data along with the integration of information from the related fields of transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics and phenomics. Translating the vast abundance data produced by genome technologies requires large generic databases which hold specific data types for a broad range of species, which act as a resource for the crop improvement. The development of custom bioinformatics tools and advanced databases has become an expanding challenge which systematically helps in storing, organizing, manipulating and analyzing large amounts of biological information computationally. In this review, we outline some recent advances in the features of plant genome databases and various platforms with the recent advances in technology.

Abstract

In the present horticultural scenario of India, this is the burning issue as how best the underutilized horticultural crops can be exploited. There is tremendous potential for these crops especially for diversification. These plants can generate employment for millions especially to the natives ofdeveloping counties besides nutritional security. Traditional wisdom of Indian farmers if used properly can pave the path for transforming the economy of developing nations. There are great opportunities for the people to identify crops, explore their market, standardize their cultivation and processing techniques, document them and provide jobs to millions. This will salvage the people from exploitation by multinational companies of developed nations and can give a new direction to sustainable agriculture.

Abstract

Potato in India was introduced as a long day temperate crop which found suitable climate in the higher hills of the country. Since then it is grown widely in the Indo-Gangetic Plains, the Plateau and the Himalayan regions in north and the Nilgiris hills in south of India. The Central Potato Research Institute (CPRI), Shimla has developed 49 potato varieties by the conventional breeding for suitable cultivation of potato in different potato zones of India. A number of technologies for ware- and quality seed- potato production, storage and processing have been developed/standardized for adoption by the end users. These technologies have contributed immensely towards multiple increase in area, production and productivity of potato during last sixty years. Apart from conventional tools, modern biotechnological tools like whole genome sequencing technology, transgenics technology, molecular markers, RNAi and microarray technology have are also being employed in potato improvement.

Abstract

Issues regarding intellectual property rights and their protection are heralded nowadays in the scientific arena both in developed and developing countries. IPR is being given greater attention and importance due to the projected idea that it is a dependable means through which greater skills and knowledge can be utilised to serve as a reliable resource for the upliftment of the economy as well as knowledge dissemination. In context of microorganisms, India does not allow patenting of microbes whichalready exists in nature assuch but genetically modified version of the same microorganism with enhanced and improved efficacy can be patented. The deposition of microorganisms in a culture collection recognized as an international depository authority (IDA) is necessary if intellectual property rights regarding these microbes are to be claimed. An action plan for developing countries towards creating IDAs and preserving the natural gene pool has been evolved. It is likely that IDAs will transform into ‘biological resource centres’ and further into‘global common genetic resources’, with an internationally agreed legal basis for benefit sharing. This chapter is an effort to highlight the genesis of patenting and legalities of patenting microorganism in India.

Abstract

Bioinformatics is a field of science which studies biology, computer science, and information technology. The ultimate goal is to obtain useful information by data acquisition, analysis and interpretation of sequences data. In the current decade, a huge volume of sequence data is stored in the data bank due to global genome initiatives of many organisms. Management and understanding of the genome data cannot be possible without the bioinformatics tools. A large number of tools and softwares packages are available either commercial or freely online for the bioinformatics applications. The use of bioinformatics tools enhances the research capability for crop improvement through genome sequencing, database management, assembly, alignment, primer designing, markers development, genes prediction and annotation, gene expression, phylogenetics, protein structure identification, metabolic pathways analysis and many other applications.

Abstract

Fertilizer inputs are increasing the cost of production in inputintensive crops, so nutrient efficientcultivar is need oftoday. More demands for food by increasing world populations further enhance the importance of nutrient efficient crop cultivars that are higher producers. Breedingtechniques havebeenimplemented significantlyto breed highnutrientefficient crop cultivars to achieve the targets. However, molecular mechanism of nutrient metabolism has been understood to some extent in many crops through quantitative genetic approaches. This minireview outlines an update on recent progress on the genetic approaches of QTL/candidate genes controlling nutrient metabolism pathways in the crop plants.

Abstract

Health-conscious consumers are increasingly seeking functional foods in an effort to control their own health and well-being. The field of functional foods, however, is in its infancy. Claims about health benefits of functional foods must be based on sound scientific criteria. A number of factors complicate the establishment of a strong scientific foundation. These factors include the complexity of the food substance, effects on the food, compensatory metabolic changes that may occur with dietary changes, and, lack of surrogate markers of disease development. Additional research is necessary to substantiate the potential health benefits of those foods for which the diet-health relationships are not sufficiently scientifically validated. Research into functional foods will not advance public health unless the benefits of the foods are effectively communicated to the consumer. Finally, those foods whose health benefits are supported by sufficient scientific substantiation have the potential to be an increasingly important component of a healthy lifestyle and to be beneficial to the public and the food industry. Mounting evidence supports the observation that functional foods containing physiologically-active components, either from plant or animal sources, may enhance health. It should be stressed, however, that functional foods are not a magic bullet or universal panacea for poor health habits. There are no “good” or “bad” foods, but there are good or bad diets. Emphasis must be placed on over-all dietary pattern, which follows the current Dietary Guidelines, and is plant-based, high in fiber, low in animal fat, and contains 5-9 servings of fruits and vegetables per day.

Abstract

Molecular markers play key role in crop improvement. There are severalmarkers such as RAPD, SSR, AFLP, SNP, DArT and many more are available for their practical uses. From the past markers like RAPD, AFLP, and SSR have been used extensively in the crop breeding. Recently new markers such as SNP and DArT have become popular among the researchers of molecular biology for use in genomics-assisted crop breeding. These markers have been applied for study of genetic diversity, germplasm management, cultivar identification, genetic mapping, gene tagging and genomics etc. Though the conventional method of breeding willcontinue to play a primary role in the crop improvement, molecular marker technology is becoming one of its integral components. Agarose-based DNA markers like ISSR, CAPS, RAPD, SCAR and AS (allele specific) have the potential for faster and accurate breeding for target traits through MAS.

Abstract

Ber is an important fruit of India and South Asia. Its cultivation is gaining popular in recent years. The drupaceous fruits of ber are characterized by climacteric respiration phenomena and produce high amount of ethylene at ripening. It is very high in ascorbic acid content. Maturity and ripening is still judged by colour changes, as reliable maturity indices for particular cultivars are not fully established. Short shelf life is major problem in this fruit. Protocols for postharvest handling is not standardized, however, scattered information are available for postharvest behaviour and handling. Low temperature storage is beneficial and reduces respiration rates but simultaneously chilling injury is again hindrance in commercialization. Postharvest rot is major problem in storage. Therefore, focused research is needed to standardize the storage temperature and alleviation of chilling injury.

Abstract

The conventional methods of pathogen identification have often depended on identification of disease symptoms, isolation and culturing of the organisms, and identification by morphology and biochemical tests. The major limitations of these culture based morphological approaches, however, are the reliance on the ability of the organism to be cultured, the time consuming nature and requirement of extensive taxonomic expertise. Furthermore, diagnosis of plant diseases can be even more difficult with asymptomatically infected propagative materials such as tree grafting stocks or potato tubers. The use of molecular methods can circumvent many of these shortcomings. Accordingly, there have been significant developments in the area of molecular detection of plant pathogens in the last three decades. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) which revolutionised molecular diagnostics and biological sciences. In the last decade the range of targets that can be diagnosed using diagnostic PCR have grown tremendously. The very flexibility and application specific variations in the basic theme of the system have allowed the development of many PCR variants adapted to wide range of applications. Furthermore, diagnostic PCR has been greatly improved by the introduction of the second generation PCR, known as the Real time PCR where closed-tube fluorescence detection and quantification during PCR amplification (in real time) is possible eliminating the need for laborious post-PCR sample processing steps which greatly reduces the risk of carryover contamination. Using Real Time PCR, it is possible not only to detect the presence or absence ofthe target pathogen, but it is also possible to quantify the amount present in the sample allowing the quantitative assessment of the number of the pathogen in the sample. Enumerating the pathogen upon detection is crucial to estimate the potential risks with respect to disease development and provides a useful basis for diseases management decisions. Crops can be attacked by many pathogens which, in addition, often occur in complexes. Therefore, many disease diagnostic applications require simultaneous detection and quantification of several targets. Methodological limitations, however, are in many cases the reason for developing simplex or assays designed for only few targets. The DNA Microarray technology, originally designed to study gene expression and generate single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) profiles, is currently a new and emerging pathogen diagnostic technology, which in theory, offers a platform for unlimited multiplexing capability. It is viewed as a technology that fundamentally alters molecular diagnostics. The fast growing databases generated by genomics and biosystematics research provides unique opportunity for the design of more versatile, high-throughput, sensitive and specific molecular assays which will address the major limitations of the current technologies and benefit plant pathology.

Abstract

Indian is rich biodiversity and availability of a variety plants of enhances the interest of scientist for the possible use of plant products as natural herbicides. The emphasis should be to collect the information about such plants from the concerned people who have traditional knowledge about the use of these herbs and then to study scientifically to arrive at conclusions. The study of compounds produced by a plant which inhibit or stimulate the germination and the development of other plants is important for understanding the mechanisms of the ecologicalinteraction. Therefore, there is continuing need to develop and release new phytotoxic chemicals that preserve the environment and enable a more efficient control of weeds, improving crop yield and quality. Ageratum conyzoides a herb traditionally used for treatment of many diseases, releases some potential allelochemicals and other chemicals to the environment which inhibit the germination and growth of neighboring plants. A complete study of its potential allelochemicals may be useful in biological control for sustainable agriculture.

Abstract

Though India is second largest producer of fruits and vegetables but is far behind in per capita availability of this protective food as compared to many developed countries. Floriculture and allied horticulture crop production (spices, medicinal & aromatic crops, mushroom etc.) have great potential to generate high income, jobs and new careers. Hi-tech horticulture is the need of all the developing countries and it refers to “the precise production techniques for efficient use of inputs at appropriate time and quantity for maximization of yield and quality of crops”. Various ways to make horticulture hi-tech include modern nursery management including micro propagation, protected crop production, high density planting including canopy management, use of agrochemicals, rejuvenation technique, interated nutrient management, integrated water management, integrated pest and disease management. Inspite of this, in present context, major emphasis has been given on clean horticulture production with bio-derived, renewable energy sources for developing a profitable CEA (controlled environment agriculture) that would help in sustaining the system, improving socio-economic status of growers and of-course environment-friendly.

Abstract

Sustainable agriculture or farming is one that contributes to the overall objective ofsustainable developmenti.e. to meetthe present needs withoutcompromising the ability of the future generations to fulfill their own food needs and related demands from the land. A farming system is a complex, interrelated matrix of soils, plants, animals, power, implements, labour, capital and other inputs controlled by farming families and influenced to varying degrees by political, economical, institutional and social forces that operate at any levels. Research witha farmingsystems perspective has variousobjectivesranging fromincreasing the body of knowledge about farming system. The whole farming rather than the individual crops/enterprises need to be considered in the decision making under the farming systems approach. This is a multidisciplinary whole-farm approach and very effective in solving the problems of small and marginal farmers. Farming systems approach in analyzing the problems of agriculture is gaining lot of importance in recent years. Such a study would throw light on the problems associatedwith different farmingsystems and enable theacademicians and policy makers to formulate and implement appropriate policies for a balanced and integrated agricultural development.

Abstract

Modern agriculture largely depends on use of high cost inputs and energy intensive farm machinery. Worlds increasing population and continuously deteriorating soil fertility has alarmed agriculture system to look for some safe alternatives. Organic manures are rich source ofnutrients and humans, therefore crop residue recycling by composting is a best alternate of modern high cost input based agriculture. Compost is an aerobically decomposed organic matter .Bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes algae and protozoa are involved in the process of composting and are found throughout the natural environment. The composting material warms up due to microbial activity and it’s temperature becomes up to 160 ⁰F active stage of microbial activity . There are four types of compositing i.e. Windrow composting, Aerated static pile composting, In-Vessel composting and Vermi-composting. The C: N ratio, aeration, temperature and moisture are major factors affecting composting process. Major advantages of composting are: Aggregate formation, Reduction in bulk density, Increase in hydraulic conductivity, Reduction in loss of soil moisture, Increase in organic carbon content and pH of soil.

Abstract

Water scarce state Rajasthan is without efficient and effective management. Water, when at surface is cheaper and like free commodity to use. Most of it gets evaporated rapidly due to aridity. There is no water during summers and drought years. This is now critical time to rethink and review our planning and policies and make it ground water oriented instead of completely surface water based. Ground water management should be the thrust area and key issue. There is need to conserve andharvest each drop ofwater especially for recharge to ground water. Utilize the augmented ground water resources as crisis management during long dry spells. Also, enforcement of regulatory measures, creating awareness among masses and participatory approach ofmanagement are the key factors for ensuring sustainable availability of water resources.

Abstract

Seed technology deals with the various aspects of seed- right from production to make it readily and timely available to the end users. The advancement in seedtechnology was realizedlong back and itwas considered equally important to the development of new technology (varieties). Considering the importance of seed as well as variability among seed of different crop species or even in same crop species, the researchers initiated work and focused their direction of research accordingly which resultedinto worthy achievements. Brief overviews of the advancements made in seed technology are being discussed in this chapter. However, efforts are still on to get rid of problems of seed technology in order to strengthen the seed industry, which makes the highest contribution to rural development, probably among all industries.

Abstract

Plantbreeding is an ancientart practiced throughselection ofplants fordesirable traits. Over a period of time it has evolved into scientific discipline with various methodologiesbasedon theories and principles ofgenetics. Since the rediscovery of Mendel’s law, there has been accelerated increase in yield of various crop plants due to development of high yielding varieties. Conventional approaches of following phenotypic selection from a variable population in early generation followed by yield testing in later generations have been highly successful in most of the crop species. This coupled with hybrid varieties led to significant increase in food-grain production during later half of the 20^th century. At present manycrops are facing yield plateau asthey have reached their maximum genetic potential. The growing condition is also deteriorating due to changing climate. There is an urgent need among breeders to utilize full arsenal of techniques available to them to sustain crop productivity. Molecular markers and marker assisted selection has come as a boon to the breeders to increase the efficiency ofselection in early generation breeding especially for traits whose phenotypic evaluation is difficult. Further, transgenic technology has the potential to incorporate genes from diverse sources, thus enriching the gene pool from which breeders can search for specific traits. Although at present there is skepticism about transgenic crops among public but this may become a viable strategy in future.

Abstract

The genetic improvement of crop plants is possible only through employing an appropriate breeding technique. The use of plant breeding technique depends on mode of pollination and reproduction of plant species e.g. selection and hybridization are used in sexually reproduced species, while clonal selection in asexually propagated plant species. The plant species/ varieties are usually derived through conventional techniques (vi z. introduction, selection, hybridization etc.), which are commonly used in various breeding programmes, while some modern techniques viz. transgenic breeding and marker assisted selection etc. are also available which are equally effective for improvement of all crop species. Various techniques applied for development of new varieties and hybrids are briefly described in this section.

Plant breeding is an art, science and technology of improving genetic make-up of crop plants in relation to their economic usefulness for mankind. Various techniques/methods of breeding used for genetic improvement of crop plants are: introduction, selection, hybridization, mutation, transgenic breeding etc.

Classification of Breeding Techniques: Plant breeding techniques are classified as conventional and modern breeding techniques.

Flowers symbolize beauty, purity, peace and love. These are intricately associated with social beliefs and no social function is complete without the use of flowers; especially in a country like India, where it is a popular saying that flowers are associated with man from birth till death. Floriculture can be defined as a specialized branch of horticulture which deals not only with the cultivation of flowers, foliage, climbers, trees, shrubs, cacti, succulents, etc., but also with their marketing and production of value-added products from them.

Floriculture is increasingly regarded as a viable diversification from the traditional field crops due to higher returns per unit area and increasing habit of “saying it with flowers”. Flowers play a cardinal role in human behaviour and culture, bringing tranquility and peace of mind. From a symbol of love, flowers have transformed into an industry, generating both income as well as employment. India is blessed with a diversity of agroclimatic conditions prevailing in different regions of the country ensuring production of almost all the ornamental crops through out the year. Floriculture in India is a dynamic and expanding industry recording impressive annual growth rate.

The floriculture industry comprises of:

1. The florist trade traditional and contemporary cut flowers and cut foliage, both fresh and dried and value-added products like bouquets, floral baskets, flower arrangements and garlands.
2. The plant nursery for propagation and supply of plant material including tissue culture plants, seeds, bulbs, corms and other propagated material.
3. Plant rental service for supply of house plants on annual rent for a specific period.
4. Flower perfume and gulkand.

As a result of political changes in India, many entrepreneurs are changing to floricultural activities, which have become a high priority for the Indian government. Due to availability of sufficient winter and summer sunshine, high temperature, good soil fertility, good water quality, different climatic zones for different type of products and low labour and investment costs, India has great potential for floriculture. In the flower industry, significant changes are occurring in the competitive relationships worldwide. European integration, democratization in eastern Europe and the liberalization of world trade in the context of the GATT negotiations will have consequences on international trade. A number of traditional markets are displaying signs of saturation while, on the other hand, new countries are trying to get their place on the market. At the same time, we see new developing markets and in some parts of the world (USA, Japan) it is expected that per capita consumption will go up. Enormous genetic diversity, versatile human resources and varied agro-climate offers India unique scope for diversification not explored yet fully.

World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international body which deals with the “Rules of Trade” between nations on the basis of the agreements negotiated and signed by most of the world’s trading nations. These agreements are essentially contracts that bind governments to keep their trade policies within predefined limits. The goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters and importers.

The purpose of WTO agreement is to help free flow of trade, serve as a forum for trade negotiations and to serve as a dispute settlement body. There are 5 broad principles of the trading system followed under WTO:

Trade without discrimination

Freer trade, gradually through negotiations

Predictability, through binding

Promotion of fair competition

Encouragement to development and economic reforms.

Information is a basic resource essential for individual and organization in order to survive and succeed in society. Floriculture is a technology driven industry needing technological advancement. The new technologies that are being developed at various places the world over, needs to be disseminated through proper and quick linkage between the researchers and the beneficiaries i.e. the farmers. This demand can be met out by information technology. Information is data put into a meaningful and useful text. Today, information technology (IT) is a metaresource and computers are being used as a metatool and a metamedia.

COMPONENTS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

An information technology architecture is an integrated framework for acquiring and evolving IT to achieve strategic goals. It has both logical and technical components. Logical components include mission, functional and information requirements, system configurations and information flows. Technical components include IT standards and rules that will be used to implement the logical architecture.

Input devices: The advent of touch screen monitors has made it possible to develop user-friendly interface for farmers. It is now possible to capture and store good quality graphics and video clips with digital cameras.

Output devices: Output devices like monitor screen, printers and plotters, data projectors support high resolution and good quality output.

Processors: The processing speeds of computers have improved a lot these days. At present, Intel P-IV based processors @ 3.3 Ghz are available in the PC range.

Storage devices: To store substantial information at local level. Capacity of 40 GB and higher are common in hard disk devices, besides floppy disk drives and CDs; all making it possible to transfer large amount of data to locations which cannot be connected to networks quickly.

Biotechnology can be defined as utilization of materials and methods for benefit of mankind by the utilization of microorganisms and biological agents. It is an area with a tremendous potential in solving basic problems of food, fibre, fuel and medicines in developing countries. According to the office of the Technology Assessment of the US Congress, biotechnology can be defined as any technique that uses living organisms to make or modify a product, to improve plants or animals or to develop micro organisms for specific uses. Flower industry has always increasing demand for new forms, colours and types of flowers. Biotechnology has made significant advances in the improvement of ornamental crops and development of new varieties has great potential to be utilized in future. Utilization of this technology can be done in floriculture under two broad subheads viz., tissue culture and genetic engineering.

TISSUE CULTURE

The major commercial utilization of tissue culture has been micropropagation, which is an alternative to vegetative propagation. Micropropagation permits true to type multiplication of a desired genotype using in vitro culture techniques. Micropropagation process can produce a large number of propagules in a relatively short time and space under controlled conditions. It has already revolutionized production process of several nurseries. The dream of multiplying disease free plants in required quantity on the specified time schedule in an industrial way has become true due to micropropagation. Some of the important floricultural crops that are successfully propagated in vitro in Indian laboratories are given below with their explant source:

Carnation: Leaf segments, internodes, petals

Gerbera: Leaf, petiole, flower stalk segments

Gladiolus: Inflorescence stalk, leaf sections

Orchids: Epidermal peelings, leaf segments, root tips

Rose: Internodal segments, petals, leaf segments, immature embryos, root segments

Flower growing, once used to be a gardener’s activity has today transformed into an astounding business proportion. Globally, more than 140 countries are involved in cultivation of floriculture crops. The global floriculture trade stands at US $ 60 billion with an annual growth rate of 10-15%. But the picture is not all that rosy. The extensive use of pesticides especially in greenhouse grown crops is threatening workers health and safety, besides disturbing environment and may also affect consumers health.

Gaston Dorren and Niala Maharaj, authors of “The Game of the Rose” noted that floriculture consumes more pesticides than any other agricultural sector. Floral workers suffer the brunt of the trade’s pesticide use. About 60% of Colombian flower workers (the sprayers and handlers) suffer from headaches, nausea, impaired vision, rashes and asthma, reports Pesticide Action Network, North America. A study published by the Netherlands ‘Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment’, reports that Dutch floral workers are exposed to pesticide concentrations of up to 60 times the amount considered safe.

Dr. Marion Moses of the San Francisco-based Pesticide Education Center says that many of the pesticides in use are highly toxic. “One of the chemicals widely used in greenhouses for flowers is temik (aldicarb), and that has caused serious problems”. Methyl bromide, an ozone destroyer and a category I acute toxin, among the most dangerous toxic substances known, is also heavily used in Latin America and the U.S. on flower crops. According to a 1997 EWG (Environmental Working Group) study, California-grown roses have 1000 times the level of cancer causing pesticides as comparable food products. Consumers are buying roses that, toxicity levels suggest, should be handled by workers wearing protective gear. Testing the leaves and petals of roses from California, New Hampshire, Colorado, Canada and Colombia, EWG found two probable human carcinogens, three Category I pesticides (the most hazardous) and three neurotoxins at up to 50 times the amount allowed in food.

INTRODUCTION

Zinnias are popular in flower gardens because of their variable coloured blooms and their ability to withstand hot summer temperatures. They are easy to grow from seeds. Plants come in many colours, shape and size adapted well to most growing conditions. Out of about twenty species, these are some eight to ten species of zinnia known to the gardens, but only few of them have become favourite and that abundantly deserves the pre-eminence. They have attained position as one of the most splendid of annual flowers. Most varieties are prolific bloomer, making them excellent for landscape. They are also available as compact varieties suitable for hanging baskets, window boxes and containers. Recently, new hybrid zinnia cultivars have attracted attention as a cut flower crop. There are at least hundred varieties in the diversity of flower colour and types. Some with flower heads upto 15 cm across. The colour of zinnias are white, cream, green, yellow, apricot, orange, red, bronze, crimson, purple and lilac with stripped, speckled and bicoloured flowers. An important variety of zinnia is Coccinea or Scarlet-rayed. This variety became popular after its existence in 1829 and was thought much of for its brilliant colour and stately habit. During the fifty years that have elapsed since it appeared, the flower has been in all characters and now posses a race of perfectly double zinnias, the flowers of which show no central disc, but are perfect rosettes of exquisite form and of every shade of colour except blue. There is not a more striking instance of floral advancement, accomplished by systematic selection, than is afforded by zinnia, which is at once one of the largest and long standing of many good and cheap annual flowers.

INTRODUCTION

Zantedeschia is commonly known as Calla lily. The other names are Arum lily, Aroid lily, Lily of the Nile and Pig lily. They are mainly grown for their attractive, large flower spathes, which are usually produced in the spring and summer and also for their variegated and spotted foliage. They are grown in large quantities by commercial growers because they are commonly used for decoration in Easter and throughout the spring and early summer months. It grows very well in open conditions in warm climate. Regular gardeners may have their bloom in winter, spring or early summer depending upon the temperature conditions maintained in the greenhouse.

Zantedeschia is an excellent cut flower and last a long time in water. There are various species, which produces different coloured flowers. The flower spathes of calla or arum lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica) are white, the spathes of the yellow or golden callas (Z. elliottiana) are yellow, whereas the pink calla (Z. rehmannii) produces lavender red, rose red, violet red or pink spathes. The white arum (common calla) forms large colonies in marshy areas ranging from the coast to an altitude of 2250 m above mean sea level. Thus, they may exist in humid, salt laden air at the coast and freezing, misty mountain grassland at high altitudes and as a result, are very versatile in the garden. The leaves of the calla are very interesting in that they contain water stomata, which can discharge excess water by a process known as guttation. This prevents logging and enables calla lily to grow in wet conditions.

INTRODUCTION

Tulips are one of the most popular and widely grown flowering plant. Tulip is a main stay of spring gardens providing abundant flowers in vivid and vibrant spectrum and colours. It is first among bulbous ornamentals due to its attractive colours and exquisite flowers. Tulip is the national flower of Turkey and tulip motifs feature prominently in Turkish folk arts. The first European cultivation of the tulips as a garden flower occurred in the Netherlands in sixteenth century. In the following century, the early enthusiasm for the new flowers triggered a speculative frenzy now known as tulipomania. The Netherlands and tulips are still associated with one other. Tulip festivals are held in the Netherlands and in North America every May. A number of bewitching cultivars grown to perfection in a large variety of delicate and brilliant shades have developed tulip cultivation into a great bulb growing industry. Tulips are not only widely cultivated for cut flower production world wide but also grown for pot culture, in beds, borders, formal and informal location. They are also suitable for growing in orchards, lawns, rockeries and wild gardens.

The word tulip industry is dominated by the Dutch tulip growers. There is 10,000 hectare of tulip bulbs grown in the Netherlands. About 70 per cent of tulip bulbs cultivated are for forcing for flowers with 30 per cent for pre packs for gardens. The world market for bulbs has been buoyant for the past ten years. Production has been increasing at the rate of 6-8 per cent per annum and the market has expanded in line with this growth. In the Netherlands, three quarters of the total bulbs produced are exported, with the highest percentage going to the United State followed by Germany. In India, tulips are gaining popularity among the flower growers owing to congenial climate in hilly areas. Particularly in Kashmir valley, production of cut flower is increasing. Some area has been increased in Himachal Pradesh. It can also be grown successfully in other hilly parts of the country like Uttaranchal between 1300 to 3000 metre above mean sea level.

INTRODUCTION

Among the important ornamental bulbous plants, tuberose occupies a very prominent position. In the orient, where ‘white’ goes for virtue and purity, tuberose flower is much adored for its prettiness, elegance and fragrance. It is commercially grown as cut flower, loose flower as well as for its potential in perfume industry.

The flowers of tuberose are used for artistic garlands, floral ornamentals, bouquets and buttonholes. The long flower spikes are excellent as cut flowers for table decoration when arranged in bowls and vases. They remain fresh pretty long time and stand long distance transportation and fill a useful place in the flower market.

Plants of tuberose can be used in landscapes; in all-white gardens or with other plants. Variegated varieties with golden or yellow striped leaves are very attractive and these varieties are suitable for garden beautification. Potted plants can be put in decorative containers and used for entranceways and interiors.

INTRODUCTION

Stock or Gilly flower is an annual or biennial plant flowering in terminal clusters. It exists as both single and double forms and is valued for fragrant flowers that can be used as fresh or dried cut flower. Stocks are a most valuable race of garden plants for they are easy to grow and can be in bloom during the greater part of the year. They are excellent pot plants for the greenhouse in winter and spring and provide good cut flowers. Flowers are well arranged on a long column and the colours are variable from white to rose, crimson, purple, yellow, mauve, pink, etc. Seeds of stock are aphrodisiac, bitter, diuretic, expectorant, stimulant and are used as tonic. An infusion has been used in the treatment of cancer and when mixed with wine, it has been used as an antidote to poisonous bites. The highly fragrant flowers are used as a garnish, especially with sweet deserts.

INTRODUCTION

In many cultures, fresh cut flowers are deeply symbolic, conveying the message of nature to man. In recent times revolutionary changes have been seen in Indian floriculture sector which is due to the introduction of various annuals from abroad. Snapdragon too is the one of the relatively recent introduction in the field of cut flowers. Now-a-days, snapdragons are usually grown as annuals, though traditionally they are cultivated as perennials. Due to its curious shape of flowers, which resemble a dog, rabbit or dragon, it is popularly called as snapdragon, dog flower, bunny rabbit or bunny mouth. Snapdragons are one of the most popular and widely grown garden annuals. It is ideally suited for beds, pot, edging, window boxes, herbaceous border and rock gardens. Tall cultivars can be used among the shrubs, at the background of the annuals like hollyhock, larkspur, etc. in mixed borders or with herbaceous plants. The intermediate cultivars are very useful for bedding and potting purposes. Both these types are excellent for cut flower production. The dwarf cultivars are good for edging and bordering formal beds. The dwarf hybrids are suitable for covering the patches in rock garden. They are used in floral arrangements and in bouquets too. Their production for cut flower purpose began with the introduction of a winter flowering cultivar Chevoit Maid, followed by several F₁ hybrids with desirable cut flower qualities. The F₁ hybrids are grown all the year round. Flowers have good keeping quality, as they remain fresh for 6-7 days. Snapdragon has also been reported to have medicinal importance. It has diuretic and astringent properties and have been employed for the treatment of scurvy, liver tumor and ulcers.

INTRODUCTION

The rose is one of the oldest flowers in cultivation and most popular of all garden flowers throughout the world. It is one of the nature’s beautiful creations and is universally known as the Queen of Flowers.

Th e cultivation of th is f lower h as developed with the distillation of rose as mentioned in Ayurveda by Charaka around 100 A.D. At present, it has become the most important commercial flower. A large quantity of rose flowers is used for decoration purpose. Beside, it has been growing for centuries for the extraction of its essence. The rose water is frequently used for flavouring sweets and other food articles as well as for sprinkling over guests on festive occasions. Hips of some rose species are rich in vitamin C while its petals are used for preparing Gulkand and Pankhuri.

Domestic demand for roses has two components; the demand for stemless roses supplied by field grown roses and demand for stemmed roses, mainly grown under protected conditions. In most parts of India, rose flowers throughout the year, in a succession of flushes of blooms, without having any true dormant period. Good quality blooms are produced in winter when local market demand is good. There is a growing demand of value added floral extracts in world market, hence there is great scope for commercial cultivation of rose for production of floral extracts.

The fragrance of rose is said to be the only fragrance that never tires the human olfactory system. Export of rose water started in 8^th century from Iran and later in 9^th century from India and China, mostly to Arabian countries. Rose cultivation was introduced as an industry in Turkey in 17^th century and later spread to other countries like Egypt, Morocco, France, China, India, etc. About 80% of rose flower are utilized for rose water, 10% for attar, 1 to 2% for pankhuri and remaining for manufacture of gul-rohan and gulkand. Rose oil is used primarily as a fragrance component in pharmaceutical preparations e.g. ointments and lotions and is extensively used as a fragrance ingredient in perfumes, creams and soaps. Food products in which they are used include beverages, frozen dairy desserts, sweets, baked foods, gelatins and puddings.

INTRODUCTION

Orchids are the most beautiful flowers in God’s creation and have conquered the cut flower industry all over the world during the last few decades. They are most pampered of the plants, occupy top position among all flowering plants and are valued for cut flower production and as potted plant. They are known for their beautiful flowers, which exhibit an incredible range of size, shape and colour, long life of flowers on the plants and an amazingly long keeping quality which no other plant can claim.

Orchids are excellent for garden and can be grown in beds, pots, baskets, split hollows of bamboo pieces, etc. They are also suitable for interior decoration and remain fresh for many days. Before their aesthetic qualities were exploited, orchids were grown for their tubers which were considered as aphrodisiac. The leaves of Vanda roxburghii have been used against rheumatism in older days in India. Habenaria, a terrestrial genus of orchid also possess medicinal properties. Vanillin produced from Vanilla planifolia is used in flavouring industries. Orchids are used in indigenous system of medicine, particularly Ayurveda. Many of the orchid species contain alkaloids, which are important secondary metabolites. From Dendrobium nobile dendrobine and nobilonine are extracted. Similarly, laburnine from Liparis bicallosa, malaxine from Malaxis congesta and phalaenopsine from Phalaenopsis mannii are extracted. Pseudobulbs of Cymbidium madidum and Dendrobium speciosum are used as food.

Orchid industry in India is not as old as the cultivation and trade of other flowers. Our position in export market is very low as compared to south-east Asian countries like Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore, where orchid growing has become a multi-million dollar industry.

INTRODUCTION

Narcissus is a hardy or tender herbaceous perennial, growing from bulbs and seeds. In India it is commonly called Nargis. The splendid yellow and white flowers of the narcissus alone could make April and May month of delightful sweetness in the garden. Shakespeare mentioned Narcissus again and again as common symbol of the English spring. Narcissus are highly suitable for rowin in beds ots under the deciduous trees, window garden, etc. They are very good cut flower and are sold in the market. The bulbs of the European species are used in folk medicine as these are believed to possess the purgative, dermal and depurative properties. Few species are used for extraction of essential oil in France. There is often confusion as to whether the name narcissus or daffodil should be used. Popular thought attached the former name to the sweet scented tazetta or poet narcissus and the latter to the small wild Lent Lily which is still to be found massed in the wood and open pastures. Today daffodil usually refers to long trumpet and large flowered garden forms while, all the rest are narcissus. In the simplest words, the species of this are called narcissi, although the trumpets, which have trumpet (corona or cup) as long as or longer than the surrounding petals are usually called daffodils.

INTRODUCTION

Marigold is an important flower crop and constitute as one of the five most commonly cultivated and used flower in urban and rural India. They are extensively used for making garlands, beautification and other purposes i.e. pigment and oil extraction and thera eutic uses A art from these uses marigold is a widely grown plant in gardens and pots. It is highly suitable as a bedding plant, in a herbaceous border and is also ideal for newly planted shrubberies to provide colour and fill the space. French marigold is most ideal for rockery, edging, hanging baskets and window boxes. Flowers remain fresh for 4-5 days at room temperature and are used for religious offerings and social functions. Recently marigolds are grown commercially for extraction of carotene pigments mainly xanthophylls. The carotenoid extracted from petals are added to poultry feed for intensification of yellow colour of egg yolk. Lutein which is the major constituent of xanthophylls is used for colouring food stuffs. Purified extract of marigold petals containing lutein dipalmitate is marketed as an ophthalmologic agent under the name adaptinol. Dietary carotenoids can be used to treat cancer and photosensitivity diseases.

Marigold leaves contain a distinct odoriferous oil. Wild marigold (Tagetes minuta) oil has valuable and precious essential oil which is used in high grade perfumes and cosmetics. Ketones present in the oil are base material for synthesizing aroma chemicals. Marigold essential oil has bronchodilatory, tranquilizing, anit-inflammatory as well as insect repellent activities. The floral extract of marigold is used for treating eye diseases and ulcers.

INTRODUCTION

Lotus is the foremost symbol of beauty, prosperity and fertility. According to Hinduism, within each human inhabiting the earth is spirit of sacred lotus. It represents eternity, purity and divinity and is widely used as a symbol of life, fertility, ever-renewing youth and to describe feminine beauty especially the eyes. Egyptians considered it a symbol of rebirth, since it closes in the evening and falls to the water, then reopening again in the morning, thus emulating the behavior of the sun. All lotuses are day-bloomers that open early in morning and close by mid afternoon for three successive days, with first flower closing earlier. It possesses an amazing ability to flourish in a variety of environment ranging from clear ponds to muddy marshes. The exquisite flowers with long herbaceous stalk arise from the rhizomatous stems and a flat and peculiar seedcase at its center.

Lotus, the national flower of India, has been a part of Indian culture, religion and history from ancient times. It is considered sacred not only by the Hindus of India but also by the Buddhists of China and Japan. To early Egyptians, a lotus bud or Sesen was a symbol of rebirth. Lotus is offered to Goddess Lakshmi and is considered as her symbol. Besides, lotus has found place in one of the postage stamps in India. Every year some prestigious awards are given to the distinguished personalities of the country like Padmashree, Padmabhushan, Padmavibhushan and Swarna Kamal (Golden Lotus).

INTRODUCTION

Lily is one of the most important ornamental bulbous plants. It comprises one of the distinctive flowers in form, appearance and colour. The flower stems of lily are long and sturdy with luxuriant foliage and it has longer vase life. Lilies are very useful flowering plants which can be planted in any location as they do well in the bed or border with other perennial. Almost all varieties of lily are suitable for planting in combination with other plants and in front of tall shrubs. They look very charming in large clusters for mass effect. Shorter varieties are planted in containers. Lilies may be planted in the perennial border, preferably with the plants having ample foliage. They seem to have fascination for some companion and thus can be grown with other flowers in the garden. The bulbs of some varieties of lily are edible and somewhat bitter in taste but fairly pleasant when properly cooked. In China, bulbs of tiger lily are prefered as food due to its specific taste. Lilaline, an alkaloid is also found in the flower of some lilies. Lily has several medicinal properties. The bulb is diuretic, emmenagogue, emollient and expectorant. The flowers are carminative. They are used to strengthen the eye lid muscles and are commended in the treatment of myoptic astigmia.

Among the lilies, two groups have been evolved through extensive improvement and referred as coloured lilies and extensively grown for cut flowers and other popular type is generally grown for garden display in India. Asiatic and Oriental lilies are leading cut flower group and in the international market. It is dominated by the Netherlands. An oriental hybrid cultivar Tiara is developed. It is true pollen free lily, excellent for bouquets. Oriental and Asiatic hybrid lilies are compact, with plant height of 60 to 150 cm that bears many flowers. Spikes of 10 to 15 cm flower diameter that may point up, out or down. Blooms may be red, pink, orange, yellow, lavender or white in colour. They grow well in full sun or light shade, although flowers sometimes fade if exposed to hot sun. They can be grown with companion plants providing less competition. Popularity of Oriental lily is increasing over Asiatic lily.

INTRODUCTION

Liatris is a group of versatile and popular wild flowers of North America. It is commonly called as Blazing Star or Gay Feather and can be found growing in dry or damp places, uncultivated fields, thin woods or sunny locations. It is suitable for herbaceous border, wild gardens, cut flower and dry flower. Liatris spp. take up minimal space and are suitable for even very small gardens. Long floral spikes of liatris create a mesmerizing effect when arranged in bouquets as well as when grown in gardens.

One of the reasons for such popularity of liatris as cut flower is its ease of culture, durability, long season of bloom and the most important thing being its unusual mode of blooming. Unlike most other flowers produced in spikes, liatris open from the top to downward, i.e. basipetally. Liatris grow about 60-180 cm in height, stiff, erect and hardy perennials having linear (long and narrow) grass like leaves. The flowers are purple or white, lavender to mauve, composed of multiple florets which are arranged in a wandlike spike covering top one third of the stem. With increasing popularity, their demand as a cut flower crop for both greenhouse and outdoor production has increased. Purple varieties are in greater demand. Liatris spicata, L. aspera and L. pycnostachya are the major commercial species.

INTRODUCTION

Jasmine is one of the first plants that come to mind when one thinks of sweet fragrance. A single jasmine vine can perfume an entire room or garden. Jasmines have adorned the gardens of central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, Nepal and many other tropical and sub tropical countries. India exports jasmine flowers to the neighbouring countries like Srilanka, Singapore, Malaysia and also the Gulf. Jasmine contributes substantially to the national economy and annually about Rs. 20 crores worth of flowers are produced in India.

Plants are grown both as shrub and climber. Flowers and flower buds are used for making garlands, bouquets and veni and for religious offerings. Jasmine oil extracted from the flower is highly valued as it is used in manufacturing perfumes, cosmetics, creams, hair oils, soaps and shampoos. Flowers are used in jasmine tea or herbal or black tea. As a medicinal plant, jasmine has traditionally been considered an aphrodisiac and calmative. In India, it is grown in different states especially Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal because their flower and floral buds are in great demand.

INTRODUCTION

Irises are among the easiest of perennials to grow, providing an abundance of beauty with minimum care. Iris means ‘rainbow’ because they come in various colours. These are herbs with sword like leaves and roots are generally rhizomatous, although in a few species they are bulbous. The majority of garden irises are hybrid, often complex ones, whose parentage is obscene. Bulbous irises are more important in commercial horticulture, with over 50 cultivars, but dominated almost equally by two i.e. Ideal and Professor Blaauw which together account for over 70% of the area grown in the Netherlands. Regular irises make great cut flowers with their tall, sturdy stalks. Dwarf varieties are suited for flower beds and rock gardens.

Certain irises were at one time widely used in the manufacture of perfume, also has been widely used in folk medicine, mostly because of the fragrance of its dried roots which are used in the preparation of face powder and dentifrices. Commercially, the powder is known as Orris-root or Orris. The rhizomes of certain irises also have edible value.