eChapters

1. Monsoon: Types and Behavior in India

The monsoon is a dynamic and vital climatic phenomenon in India, playing a pivotal role in shaping the country’s weather patterns, agricultural practices, and overall water resource management. This seasonal shift in wind patterns brings about distinct wet and dry periods, impacting various regions differently. Understanding the types and behavior of the monsoon is essential for effective planning and adaptation to this critical aspect of India’s climate (fig 1).

Types of Monsoon in India

1. Southwest Monsoon (June to September)

The southwest monsoon is the lifeline of India’s agriculture, bringing the much needed rainfall that supports a majority of the country’s crops.

Plant Relationship with Soil in Climate Change

1. Gravimetric Moisture

Significance of Gravimetric Analysis

Gravimetric moisture analysis, being the foundation of soil water assessment, allows for a meticulous examination of the water content in the soil. The process involves obtaining a representative soil sample, subjecting it to controlled drying conditions, and determining the weight loss after moisture removal. This method not only quantifies the total water content but also helps in understanding the soil’s water-holding capacity and drainage characteristics. Gravimetric analysis is indispensable in precision agriculture, aiding farmers in optimizing irrigation schedules and preventing overwatering or underhydration.

1. Introduction

Horticultural crops have emerged as a cornerstone of India’s agricultural sector, wielding substantial influence over the nation’s economic landscape. Comprising an extensive range of fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants, plantation crops, spices, and medicinal herbs, this sector has witnessed remarkable growth and transformation in recent years. The significance of horticultural crops extends beyond sheer economic value, permeating various facets of Indian agriculture and socio-economic development (Ravichandra & Ravichandra 2014).The unique agro-climatic diversity of India allows for the cultivation of an unparalleled variety of horticultural produce, contributing to its global prominence as a horticultural powerhouse.

Mango (Mangifera indica) is a tropical fruit tree that is well-known and cherished for its delicious, sweet, and juicy fruit. It is one of the most widely grown and economically important fruit crops in the world, primarily cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions. Mangoes are not only enjoyed for their taste but also for their nutritional value, as they are rich in vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants.

However, like all agricultural crops, mangoes are susceptible to a range of diseases that can impact their growth, yield, and fruit quality. These diseases can be caused by various pathogens, including fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes.

1. Powdery mildew (caused by Oidium mangiferae) is a fungal disease that affects mango trees, leading to significant losses in fruit production if left unmanaged.

Introduction

The banana (Musa parasidiaca) belongs to the Monocotyledons class, the Zingiberales order, and the Musaceae family. It is indigenous to Southeast Asia. They thrive in tropical and subtropical climates and are widely grown in countries such as India, China, the Philippines, Ecuador, Brazil, Uganda, Colombia, and Indonesia. A banana’s average length is 7 to 9 inches, and its diameter is 2 to 3 inches. Bananas are frequently planted during the rainy or monsoon season, when the soil is moist and the young plants can absorb enough water. In tropical and subtropical climates where they are commonly grown, the planting season typically runs from April to June. Planting may take place in September or October in areas with a dry season, following the rainy season.

Introduction

The innermost layer of the pericarp is the endocarp. The segments are also called “liths”, and the space inside each lith is a locule filled with juice vesicles, or “pulp”. From the endocarp, stringlike “hairs” extend into the locules, which provide nourishment to the fruit as it develops. Citrus fruits are notable for their fragrance, partly due to flavonoids and limonoids (which in turn are terpenes) contained in the rind, and most are juice-laden. The juice contains a high quantity of citric acid giving them their characteristic sharp flavour. The genus is commercially important as many species are cultivated for their fruit which is eaten fresh, pressed for juiceor preserved in marmalades and pickles.

Introduction

Carica papaya is a tree-like herb that grows 2 to 10 meters tall and is often unbranched, cylindrical & hollow stem Fruits are large, cylindrical, with fleshy orange pulp. Numerous, small, black, round seed with gelatinous aril. Papaya leaves have historically been used to treat thrombocytopenia brought on by a dengue infection. (Chinnappan et. al. 2016; Sharma et. al. 2019). Papaya fruits have healing capabilities against cancer, antimicrobial anti-malarial, anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, immune-boosting, blood sugar-lowering, wound healing, gastro-protective, and capable of curing fever, asthma, jaundice, irregular menstruation, and beriberi. The pharmaceutical and wellness industries have seen a steady rise in demand for papaya as a result of researchers’ recent discovery of their therapeutic potential.

Introduction

The Myrtaceae family includes the guava (Psidium guajava L.), a significant fruit crop in India (Nakasone and Paull, 1998). It was originated from Mexico or Central America and later spread to Asia, Africa and Europe. Some of the guava cultivars, which are used to produce seeds-free fruits, are triploid (2n=3x=33) while some are diploid (2n=22). It is primarily grown in tropical and subtropical nations including India, China, Thailand, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Mexico, Indonesia, and Thailand. The nutritionally rich, vitamin and mineral-rich guava is referred to as the “poor man’s apple”.

Grapevine

One of the fruits that is grown worldwide most commonly, grapes are said to have a longer history of human interaction than either rice or wheat. Apart from their nutritional significance, grapes are today regarded as one of the most lucrative crops. The grapes are farmed for a variety of uses, including the manufacture of raisins, wine, juice, canning, and table grapes. More grapes are produced worldwide than any other fruit crop. Approximately 11 million hectares are devoted to growing grapes, which yield 75 million tonnes yearly. More than half of the world’s supply of grapes was produced in Spain, Italy, and France. Grapes are cultivated in India in both tropical and subtropical climates. In Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu, commercial grape production only started in the last 40 years. Grapevine production affect many sever diseases like downy mildew, powdery mildew, Anthracnose, Black rot, Rust, Bacterial canker and abiotic causes.

Introduction

Pomegranates are a tasty, juicy, sweet fruit that are rich in nutrients. Punica granatum is its scientific name, and Iran is where it was originally found. Because pomegranates may be cultivated effectively in regions of the nation with dry climates, they hold a distinctive place among the fruits that are grown there. Other names for pomegranates include Dadim in Sanskrit, Bedana in Bengali, Anar in Hindi, and Madulai in Tamil. The states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh are the primary locations for its cultivation. From the perspective of export, this fruit is also highly significant.

Pomegranate is referred to as a “Super Food” because of its many health and nutritional advantages. It is one of the greatest sources of antioxidants and has significant medicinal and nutritional value. Ripe fruit has a pleasant and nutritious juice. Juice from pomegranates in the summer, sherbet is incredibly refreshing. Pomegranates are regarded as a medication for long life and excellent health in the Ayurvedic medical system.

Introduction

The apple (Malus domestica), a valuable and economically significant crop, is grown in India’s northwestern Himalayan region. After Orange, Banana, and Grape, it is the fourth most widely grown fruit worldwide. The tree is native to Central Asia, where its wild ancestor Malus sieversii is still found today. Apples have been cultivated in Asia and Europe for thousands of years. The world’s largest apple grower is China and in India it is grown in the hills of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu & Kashmir in India. The average summer temperature during the active period is about 21-24°C growing season. Apple does this best in areas where trees are dormant. The color development will be better in winter when plenty of sunlight hits. It is possible even at an altitude of 1500 -2700 meters from sea level. 1000-1250 mm well distributed rainfall during the growing season which is most suitable for optimal growth and fertility of apple trees.

Introduction

Brinjal (Solanum melongena), is a self-pollinated plant also known as eggplant, is an easily cultivated plant belonging to the Solanaceae family.Brinjal ishigh productive vegetable and easily grown everywhere.It is also known as poor’s man vegetable. Brinjal is cultivated widelyand grown as a vegetable crop in any environment. Brinjal grown large amount in India, Pakistan, Chinaand United States. The origin of the brinjal is India. In Brinjaleconomic parts are fruit. It is a high nutritional valuable food.The brinjal fruit and whole plant use as a medicine in some area. It is cultivated everypart of India except high attitude, all the year around. Depending upon consumer’s preference and yield, different types of cultivars are cultivated.Somewild spp of brinjal are fond in northeast states of India and Malaysia. Solanum insanum, a wild cultivar of the plant, mainlyobserved in the dry and hilly region of west Bengal.Some yellow color brinjal varieties are found in Malaya.

Introduction

Chili peppers, also spelled chile or chilli, are varieties of the berry-fruit of plants from the genus Capsicum, which are members of the nightshade family Solanaceae, cultivated for their pungency. Chili peppers are widely used in many cuisines as a spice to add "heat" to dishes.

Botanical Name : Capsicum annum

Family : Solanaceae

Chromosome Number (2n) : 24

Diseases of Chilli

 1. Powdery Mildew

The disease was first reported from Morocco in 1937.

Introduction

Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L).is a cross pollinated vegetable crop. Okra originated near about Ethiopia& its cultivation became widespread in North Africa and the Middle East (Lamont, 1999; Tindal, 1983). Okra is grown commercially in many nations, such as Ethiopia, Cyprus, India, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Turkey, Iran, Western Africa, Yugoslavia, Myanmar, Japan, Malaysia, Thailand, Brazil, Southern United States, and Ethiopia (Purseglove, 1987; benjawan et al. 2007; Qhureshi, 2007). It is a widely used, high-valued vegetable crop that is commercially grown for its tender pods during the spring, summer, and kharif seasons. Okra has high moisture content, making it a good source of vitamins, minerals, and mucilage. Okra is cultivated and consumed commercially throughout the year in many different places of India. 

Introduction

Potato (Solanum tuberosum) is a widely cultivated and essential staple crop globally, known for its versatile culinary applications and nutritional value. With the exception of Kerala, potatoes are grown in practically every state in India under a variety of climatic circumstances. During the brief winter months, which span from October to March, 82% of potatoes are grown in plains. In West Bengal, potatoes are the most widely grown crop after grains (Chakraborty, 2012). Originating from the Andes region of South America, potatoes have become a crucial part of diets worldwide, providing carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals. With a rich history dating back to ancient civilizations, including the Irish potato famine, this crop has played a significant role in shaping agricultural practices and food security.

Introduction

Cucurbits, a versatile and economically significant group of plants within the Cucurbitaceae family, encompass a wide array of popular vegetables such as cucumbers, pumpkins, squash, zucchinis, and melons. These cucurbit crops are not only vital components of global diets but also key players in agriculture. Also, cucurbits are used as fibre source and for utensil preparations, decorations, and ceremonial and medicinal purposes (McGrath 2004). However, their productivity and quality are frequently compromised by a range of diseases. In this chapter, we embark on a comprehensive exploration of the diseases that afflict cucurbits, including their names, symptoms, causative agents, etiology, disease cycles, favourable conditions, and strategies for effective management.

Introduction

Members of the family Brassicaceae, sometimes known as Cruciferae, include cruciferous vegetables, such as cauliflower, cabbage, kale, garden cress, bok choy, broccoli, brussels sprouts, mustard plant, and other related green leafy vegetables. This family comprises several genera, species, and cultivars that are cultivated for food production. While some are shrubs, herbaceous plants make up the great bulk. The leaves are simple (though sometimes deeply incised), without stipules, and grouped in rosettes or alternately on stems. The terminal inflorescences are devoid of bracts. Four longer free stamens and two shorter free stamens are present on. blossoms, as well as four free petals and sepals that alternate.

Introduction

Tomato scientifically known as Solanum lycopersicum L. is a widely cultivated and consumed fruit that is often mistaken for a vegetable due to its culinary uses. Belonging to the Solanaceae family, tomatoes are native to western South America with their domestication dating back to ancient civilizations in Mesoamerica. Tomatoes are prized for their vibrant red colour, juicy flesh, and rich, slightly sweet f lavour. They are a versatile ingredient used in a wide range of culinary dishes, from salads and sauces to soups and sandwiches. Tomatoes are a significant source of essential nutrients, including vitamin C, vitamin K, potassium, and folate. Additionally, they contain the antioxidant lycopene, which is believed to have various health benefits.

Bulbous herb (Onion) that belongs to Alliaceae family and usually called as the “Queen of the Kitchen.” It is an important biennial vegetable crop grown in India with high export value. A crop that thrives in temperate climates where temperatures between 12.8 to 23°C are necessary for vegetative growth and 20 to 25? are required later for proper bulb development. Onion pungency is due to the presence of allyl-propyl-disulphide. The pigment quercetin and anthocyanin is responsible for yellow and red colour of onion. It has medical benefits like lowering disease risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes and atherosclerosis. It possess antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties (Wilson and Demmig-Adams., 2007).The bulb is useful as diuretic and heart stimulant (Ahmad et al., 2016).

Coconut

 Kingdom: Plantae

 Phylum: Magnoliophyta

 Class: Liliopsida

 Subclass: Arecidae

 Order: Arecales

 Family: Arecaceae

 Genus: Cocos

 Species: Cocos nucifera Linnaeus

 1. Bud Rot

The fungus Phytophthora palmivora is responsible for the ailment known as “bud rot.” Butler first mentioned bud rot in India in 1906. Due to a number of factors, the disease has recently spread to practically every region of the state in a very serious manner.

Introduction The betel vine, scientifically identified as Piper betle L., belongs to the Piperaceae family, which encompasses plants such as pepper and kava. Paan leaves, widely cultivated in countries like Thailand, Philippines, India, Malaysia, Taiwan, Sri Lanka, and various Southeast Asian nations, are commonly used as a popular mouth freshener after meals. This traditional practice is predominantly observed in South Asia and among specific Asian diaspora communities worldwide, where betel leaves are commonly chewed as part of a betel quid or paan, often combined with areca nut or tobacco.

In the cultural traditions of Odisha, offering a bundle of betel leaves symbolizes respect and marks the beginning of auspicious events. Taxonomically, betelvine falls under the genus Piper in the Division Magnoliophyta, Class Magnoliopsida, Order Piperales, and Family Piperaceae.

Introduction

Mulberry is a very hardy and fast growing perennial plant belonging to the genus Morus of the family Moraceae. The leaf of mulberry is used for feeding and rearing of the silkworm, for the production of silk yarn. It is estimated that mulberry silk worm (Bombyx mori) contributes around 90 % of the total global raw silk production and it is a very attractive economic activities mostly to the rural people. In addition to the utilization of mulberry leaves as silkworm feed, it is being used for many other purposes due to its high nutritive value and delicious taste is getting importance as valuable food stuff as well as environmental importance of mulberry taking into account several aspects of its role as animal feed, foodstuff, phyto medicine and remediation of polluted soils and atmosphere etc.

Introduction

Chrysanthemum, commonly known as “mums” or “chrysanths,” is a genus of plants that bloom and belong to the Asteraceae family. These plants are native to Asia and northeastern Europe, with China being the primary centre of diversity for the genus. Chrysanthemums are well-known for their attractive and colorful f lowers, and they are popular ornamental plants in gardens, floral arrangements, and as cut flowers.

Chrysanthemum morifolium is a herbaceous perennial flowering crop. It is the second most popular cut flower worldwide, right behind roses, and a significant decorative plant for commerce (Silva et. al., 2013). Certain species’ flowers, such as those of Chrysanthemum morifolium and Chrysanthemum indicum, are rich in nutrients and biologically active substances and are used to make medicinal tea and cosmetics, respectively (Lin et. al., 2010).

Introduction

Roses, widely cultivated as cut flowers in greenhouses, as entire plants in nurseries, or within home gardens, encounter common issues across these diverse growing environments, including black spot, Botrytis blight, downy mildew, powdery mildew, and rust. Specific challenges like downy mildew and rose rosette gained prominence in the 2010s. The susceptibility of roses to various diseases varies by geographical region; for instance, rose replant disease is a concern in Europe but not in North America. Greenhouses and tropical climates, as seen in Central and South America, face heightened issues with powdery mildew, downy mildew, rust, and Botrytis blight. Disease management proves costly and can constrain rose production, prompting innovations like the adoption of hydroponics in Colombia, leading to improved pest control, enhanced rose quality, and increased productivity.

Introduction

In the ancient era, adulteration was practiced as economical fraud like the addition of water to milk and stone to grains and pulses but nowadays it has become a global concern due to adverse health effects of adulterants on a human being. Words like substitution and admixture can help define adulteration. In general, adulteration is defined as either removal of valuable constituents from food or intentionally/ unintentionally addition of substandard quality material to degrade food quality. Food adulteration not only negatively affects the quality of food products but also results in numerous adverse health effects along with significant economic problems (Cheng et al., 2015).

Introduction

Terrorism has been experienced throughout human history by unlawful violence against innocent population to achieve financial or religious or political objective (Rakesh Gupta, 1998). Terrorism has no geographic or geopolitical boundaries and is adapting to changes in the socio-political environment. Progress in the area of science and technology have the potential to be used for both beneficial and harmful purposes leading to dual-use dilemma. Of late, more scenarios are witnessed where the applications of well-intentioned scientific research are being used for vicious purposes. Earlier, terrorism has been associated primarily with physical acts of violence and crime. Eventually the global militant and terrorism strategies evolved to chemical, nuclear, radioactive explosive agents to biological terrorism. Recently, cyber terrorism controlled by computers has seen a new form of criminal activities (www.hannover-re. com).

Introduction

Organic substances consumed for nutritional purposes can be called as “food”. Food contains biomolecules, like, protein, lipid and carbohydrate, inorganic minerals as salts, and organic substances, such as, vitamins, emulsifiers, acids, antioxidants, pigments, polyphenols and flavour-producing compounds. They can be of plant or animal origin. Depending on the durability in terms of suitability of consumption, foods can be perishable, semi-perishable and non-perishable. Food spoilage occurs due to chemical, microbial, or physical actions. eventually affecting its nutritional values, colour, edibility and texture (M. Rahman, 2007).

Introduction

Since ancient times, addition of chemicals to food and food products has been done in order to to accomplish specific functions. Spices, smoke, vinegar, and alcohol were utilised to preserve foods more than 10,000 years ago. Usage of additives in food increased dramatically in the early 1900s, in tandem with advances in food chemistry and preservation. New, tasty, convenient, and healthy meals continue to be in high demand. As a result, by the early 1960s, over 2500 different types of additives were identified and utilized by developing countries in their diets. Basic foods are additive free, but as we increase the level of processing for conversion into an array of products, variety of additives are incorporated to increase the shelf life; to retain the nutritional value as well as to achieve higher standard of sensorial characteristics.

1. Introduction

The materials widely used for food contact applications include paper and coated-paper products, cellulose products, cellophane, metals, ceramics, glass, rubber, plastics, and miscellaneous materials such as wood, fabric, etc. Most of these materials have been in vogue for several years. Among them plastics are widely used in the food industry as they offer many advantages due to their high cost-to-benefit ratio. However, food safety issues in terms of migration of additives is a cause of concern. Plastics contain a number of additives either deliberately added during their manufacture or inevitable due to technical requirement.

Introduction

Food adulteration compromises quality of foods and causes human health hazards is a menace mankind had been facing since ages. Spice adulteration scandals in the year 2004, Horse gate scandal in Europe during 2013 are famous examples of food fraud. Various forms of food adulteration and cheating such as substitution of cheaper food components in place of original product, addition of non-permitted substances, and false claims by misbranding or mislabeling are prevalent from time immemorial (Spink et al 2019).

Introduction

The act of substituting food or drink with low grade quality ingredients thereby the f inal product will fail to the meet the regulation or standards and in most cases even unfit for human consumption (Augustin et al., 2009). With demand for profit based manufacturing market, there will be increase in points of adulteration with cheaper alternatives or inferior grade ingredients in the production of food or drink (Banti, 2020)]. Adulteration is highly prevails in developing countries such as India, where about 70% of milk supply is adulterated on day to day basis (Bittar et al., 2017). It is every nation and each individual’s responsibility to provide safe and nutritious food to the consumers.

Introduction

About sixty percent of the world’s food intake comes from the three major crops, i.e., wheat, rice and maize (Thielecke and Nugent, 2018). Depending upon the country of utilization and consumption, the products made from cereals such as barley, wheat, maize, triticale, spelt, buckwheat, rice etc. can vary in the range of pasta, bread, pastries, soups, chapatti, cooked rice etc. World cereal utilization in 2021/22 is forecasted at 2,811 million tonnes and the worldwide production of cereals is expected to reach 2,818 million tonnes by 2025 (FAO, 2020).

Introduction

All the worldwide cuisines generally rely on plant-based edible oils as the main cooking ingredient due to their unique chemical composition, further presence of unsaturated fatty acids in plant-based oils makes it a healthy complement in the diet. Lipids are known to provide almost double calories than carbohydrates. For ages, vegetable oils have contributed maximally to our nutrition and economics, but their authenticity is still a considerable issue (Firestone and Reina, 1996) as for more profitability fraudulent blends lower grade oils to high-grade expensive oils.

Introduction

Fruits and vegetables are an important part of healthy human diet. Consumption of vegetables is widely promoted by Governmental health agencies since it provide consumers essential nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, dietary fiber and phytochemical compounds, at a relatively low calorie density. Furthermore, the consumption of vegetables has been strongly associated with reduced chronic and degenerative diseases such as cancer and heart related ailments. The United States Department of Agriculture recommends five to nine servings of fruits and vegetables daily (Berger et al 2010). In recent years, fresh-cut produce has become more popular due to their convenience, freshness, taste and assumed “Healthiness”.

Tea as a Beverage

Tea is the most popular beverage consumed in the world after water. All types of teas including black. green, oolong, white and pu-erh tea are mainly made from the buds and young leaves of tea plants, Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze belongs to the family Theaceae [1]. Depending on the different processing techniques of tea leaves, tea types are categorized as “Green Tea” (unfermented), “Black Tea” (fully fermented), “Oolong Tea” (partially fermented), “Pu-ErhTea” (post fermented) and white tea (unfermented) [2]. The manufacturing process for these different types of teas mainly differ in the degree of enzymatic oxidation (fermentation) process [1].

Introduction

Coffee is a beverage made from the roasted and ground seeds of the African tropical evergreen coffee plant. Coffee is one of the world’s three most popular beverages (together with water and tea), as well as one of the most profitable international commodities, and it is the world’s second most marketed product after petroleum (Myhrvold, 2021).Coffee is a popular beverage that is enjoyed around the world for its taste, health benefits, and ability to enhance physical performance (Simkin, 2008).

Introduction

Cocoa beans are extracted from the pod of a tree crop Theobroma cacao. It is mainly cultivated in tropical and subtropical countries. In terms of world production, Ivory Coast and Ghana contribute about 65 percent of world production. Cocoa beans are the main ingredient in chocolate. (Teye, E et al 2014). One of the earliest examples of chocolate consumption comes from the Mayans. The Maya drink was prepared with cocoa and water and often included cinnamon and black pepper. It was also known as the “Food of the Gods” and offered to Emperor Moctezuma II by the Aztecs, (Verna, R. 2013). Christopher Columbus was the first European to encounter cocoa in 1502.

Introduction

Spices are botanical products of tropical and subtropical plants, mainly fruits, seeds, f lowers, roots, stems, leaves, bark, or whole plant (Golob & Nations, 1999). The dominant spices of trade including cardamom, cinnamon, cloves, ginger and pepper (A. Osman et al., 2019)including aroma, flavor, and color, to foods and beverages in an effort to enhance their palatability. Herbs and spices exhibit a plethora of medicinal properties including antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. Spices serve as natural preservatives to delay food spoilage and extend shelf life.

Introduction

Milk is regarded as the “ideal food” as it contains nutrients necessary for both newborns and adults (Azad & Ahmed, 2016). It is high in protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals. Unfortunately, milk is easily adulterated all over the world for several reasons, including a gap between supply and demand, the inherent nature of milk which can imbibe many adulterants that are difficult to identify, the low purchasing power of consumers, an insufficient share of the organized sector in the dairy business, and, most importantly, a lack of efficient and rapid methods for detecting adulterants (Ellis et al., 2012; Moore et al., 2012).

1. Introduction

Food is an essential requirement for survival. We work hard to earn money so that we can feed ourselves. However, at the end of the day, many of us are unsure about the quality of food we consume. The allure of money, along with a general disregard for humanity, has resulted in the addition of adulterants to food ranging from simple stones in rice to the more harmful chemicals in food of daily use. Surprisingly, food fraud is not a modern issue. There are several references to fraudulent food behaviour as early as the Romans, but it is usually considered to be the Victorian who places food fraud on the map.

1. Introduction

Livestock meat and fish are rich sources of high-quality protein and other valuable nutrients such as polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals and are an essential part of our healthy diet (Vladau et al., 2008; Mahmud et al., 2018; Mohanti et al., 2019; Mei et al., 2019). Food fraud and adulteration is an age-old distortive practice. The rising incidence of food contaminants and adulterants-induced health issues has challenged consumers to identify and consume safe livestock meat and fish products. Its significance has increased in recent years due to global trade, awareness among consumers, and sociopolitical issues.

In recent years dietary supplements have gained attractiveness within fitness and wellness circles. The other commonly used terms areNutraceuticals, dietary supplements or wellness-focussed foods. Being highly nutritious they are associated with a number of potential therapeutic effects. Nutrient-rich ingredients like fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, and grains are often considered dietary supplements as well. Oats fibre called, beta glucan, which has been shown to reduce inflammation, enhance immune function, and perk up heart health.

1. Conventional and Non-conventional Dietary Supplements

Nutrient-rich foods like fruits, vegetables, and legumes are often considered dietary supplements. Meanwhile, modified foods have been fortified with micro and macro nutrients to boost health benefits of foods.

Introduction

It is an eminent actuality that the diets of end users are being advanced globally; however, the patterns of food procurement and food safety protocols diverge across countries. The fundamental rationale of the trend is that the consumer awareness with regard to food safety, quality and variety has been proliferated greatly. Looking back to the history of food industry, it is unquestionable that the past has a full frame of misfortune, indignity and many disastrous incidents. Moreover, the entire muddle was not always related with microorganisms; numerous of them were associated with environmental problems, technological advancements or certain alterations in production protocols and management.

Introduction

Food fraud is not new it can be traced back to ancient Rome and Athens, where regulations prohibiting the adulteration of beverages with flavours and colours were in place. It exists since the food trade has been started. Food fraud affects all food supply chains, thus the entire food sector. Due to globalisation and the increasing complexity of supply lines, food supply chains are becoming more vulnerable to food fraud (Robson et al., 2021a). A fraud is “any act or omission relating to the use or presentation of false, incorrect, or incomplete statements or documents, or non disclosure of information in violation of a specific obligation, and any other illegal activity affecting the financial interests” (EU No. 2017/1371).

India is primarily an agriculture based economy, which implies, agriculture dominates the nation’s economic landscape. In the course of socioeconomic growth, agriculture is crucial. Around 58 per cent of the population in India rely only on agriculture for their livelihood. In India, agriculture acts as an important source of living for about 60 per cent of the population (India Brand Equity Foundation, 2021) and almost 70 per cent of rural households depend on farming. The farming sector in India contributes significantly to the economy, making up about 29 per cent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Balkrishna et al. 2021).

2.1. Concept of review of literature

Research is a continuous process. For any scientific investigation, previous f indings provide basis to the research. It also helps to know the previous research work done in that area and acts as a torch for the new researchers. The review of literature is one of the important aspects in the research process. It helps the researcher to keep his work going in right and appropriate direction. To point out prior research in the area of interest and how our findings connect to past studies, a review of the literature is conducted. The proposed study is new in its subject treatment. However, an attempt is made here to put together some of the closely related research findings in the area.

3.1. Entrepreneurship and its allied concepts

3.1.1. Concept of entrepreneur

The word “entrepreneur” has its roots in the french verb “entreprendre,” which means “to undertake.” It means “to start a business” in a business environment. Entrepreneurs are self-employed individuals who not only create jobs for themselves but also generate jobs for many others. An entrepreneur is someone who can identify and seize opportunities to transform inventions or technologies into new products. They can also see an invention’s commercial potential and put together the funds, talent, and other resources needed to transform an idea into a product that can be distributed.

Introduction

Research setting is basically a functional social ecology along with research objectives and condition wherein all possible socio-economic and communication processes are generated, and again gets regenerated. The researcher seeks to throw a spotlight on the implications and behavioral patterns of people who reside in the subject region and who are usual of the greater community. In this chapter, an in-depth review of the socio-demographic background of the local population in a rural setting has been provided.

4.1. Area of the study

The present research study was taken up in two states, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.

5.1. Research methodology

Research methodology is a thorough investigation plan and the manual for conducting the research. This chapter’s examination of methodology aims to help readers comprehend the ideas, strategies, and tactics used to plan a study, gather data, analyse it, and interpret it in order to reveal reality and develop theories. This chapter has been classified under various sub headings for clear understanding:

(i) Locale of research.

 (ii) Pilot study.

 (iii) Methods of sampling.

 (iv) Variables and their empirical measurement.

 (v) Preparation of the interview schedule.

 (vi) Tools and techniques of data collection.

 (vii) Statistical analysis and interpretation of data.

This chapter analytically represents the results of the empirical research study with the appropriate discussion on the basis of analysis.

6.1. Results of data collected from moringa growers of Tamil Nadu

6.1.1. Visualisation of descriptive statistics

This Table-6.1 presents 18 independent variables (x1-x18 ) and 5 dependent variables (y1-y5 ) in terms of their descriptive statistics viz. Minimum, Maximum, Range, Mean, Standard Deviation (S.D.), Variance and Co-efficient of Variation (C.V.).

of moringa growers, the maximum years of experience is 44 years and the minimum years of experience is 3 years. The Range of this variable x1 was found to be 41. The mean value of experience was found to be 16.033 years, with the Standard Deviation of 8.324 and Variance of 69.289 for the total distribution taken for the study.