eChapters

INTRODUCTION

Gloriosa is commonly known as glory or gloriosa lily. Gloriosa lilies have assumed an important place in flower trade and are widely grown for cut flower and tuber production both in USA and Europe. Gloriosa lily is the national flower emblem of Zambia. Their cut flower stems last well in summer heat and their buds take lon time to open after picking. The bright vibrant and intense, red, gold, lemon and pink flower colours and the lush green leaves of gloriosa lilies bring a sense of the tropics or festivity to room. They combine well with many other flowers from roses to heliconias. Gloriosa blooms make perfect posies for the office desk, bedside cabinets or small tables and shelves. The stiff stems of gloriosa and their ability to hold their form out of water for a longer time make them ideal for out of water floral installation work. They are light climbers and are suitable for training on low walls or trellis. With proper trailing they can also be grown in pots. Its flowers are fascinating and its tubers and seeds have great medicinal value. The tubers are rich in alkaloids. Colchicine has been obtained from various plant parts viz., young leaves, flowers, old leaves, tubers, seeds and stems.

INTRODUCTION

Gladiolus is very popular bulbous flowering plant. It is an important commercial flower crop and having pivotal place as cut flower both in domestic and international market. Gladiolus was introduced into cultivation towards the end of the sixteenth century. It is relatively easy to grow and is ideal for bedding and exhibition. The fascinating spikes bear a large number of florets, which exhibit varying sizes and forms with smooth, ruffled or deeply crinkled tepals. Except true blue and green, practically all colours are available in gladiolus. The flowers are used in flower arrangement, in bouquets and for indoor decorations. Now it ranks next to tulip in the Netherlands and other European countries in trade for use as cut flowers of bulbous crops and fourth in international trade of ornamental for cut flowers. Its keeping quality makes it a very popular commercial cut flower after rose. Gladiolus occupies first place in terms of returns as compared to other cut flowers. Gladiolus, a potential floral crop forms part of Rs. 200 crores floriculture industry in the country. It is estimated that throughout India gladiolus is grown in about 1270 ha, producing about 127 million cut spikes. In India, gladiolus is commercially grown in West Bengal, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Punjab, Haryana, Sikkim, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Delhi and Rajasthan. The area of the states of U.P., Uttaranchal, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and H.P. and surrounding Delhi grow gladiolus mostly for Delhi flower market. Important pockets of commercial gladiolus cultivation are Lucknow, Meerut, Bulandsahar, Ghaziabad and Uttaranchal. In Delhi market, gladiolus is available virtually throughout the year as growers stagger the corm planting from July to December to harvest the flowers from September to May. During the period between June to December, the supply of gladiolus spikes to Delhi market comes from Jammu and Kashmir, Uttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh. The high remuneration in this market is obtained from winter grown gladiolus.

INTRODUCTION

Gerbera is a herbaceous flower crop with leafless stalk and daisy like flowers. It is popularly known as Barberton daisy, Transvaal daisy, Veldt daisy, African daisy and Hilton daisy. Gerbera is a popular cut flower grown throughout the world. It is ideally suited for flower beds, borders, pots, window boxes and gardens. The gerbera plant is also used in the preparation of traditional Chinese medicine i.e. Tu-er-feng, derived from whole plant of gerbera, is used for curing cold with cough and for rheumatism. Gerberas have wide range of bright, vivid and clear colours. Some of the flower colours available today are pink, yellow, red, scarlet, orange, salmon, lavender, violet, rose, cream and white. They are great plants for adding colour to any room or garden to create festive and elegant display. These spectacular, eye catching flowers are a complement to any kind of flower arrangement or bouquet and have a longer vase life. Their daisy shaped flowers have a velvet texture with green or dark centers and are cherished by florists and the cut flower industry.

It grows well in open tropical and sub tropical regions but in a temperate climate should be protected from frost and cultivated in greenhouses. Production of quality flowers of gerberas can be done under protected conditions, since they require partial shade. In California and Florida, it is grown in outdoors and is becoming increasingly popular as potted plant and bedding plant, whereas in other parts of United States it is cultivated in greenhouses. Gerbera cultivation has emerged as a very important option to progressive farmers in many parts of India, especially in Maharashtra, Karnataka, north-eastern states, U.P. and Uttaranchal.

INTRODUCTION

Freesias are extremely popular bulbous plants that are best known as florist flowers. They bear bell-shaped tubular flower and are grown commercially on a vast scale. They are grown both for flower trade as well as in house gardens. Freesias are suitable for pots, shallow pans, beds, indoor decoration and window boxes. Freesia flowers are prized for their curious elegant form, peculiar arrangement of the blossoms on their stalks and a vast range of delicate colours ranging from creamy white to yellow, orange, red, purple, brown, lavender and vermillion. They are highly valued cut flowers.

Freesia flowers are so strongly scented that only a few potted or cut blossoms can bring fragrance to an entire room. Its unusual appealing shapes make them suitable line flowers for any arrangement. They also make fragrant additions to bouquets and their wide range of colours increases their versatility for design uses.

INTRODUCTION

In the world of flower, together with lilies, gladioli, begonias; the dahlias are one of the most important and popular flowering bulbs. With the blast of different colours, shape and sizes, dahlias bring life and beauty back to the landscape in late summer and autumn. The diversity of dahlias allows their usage in many different aspects due to huge range of flower types available and fairly easy cultivation.

In modern garden, dahlias are extensively used for exhibition, garden display and decoration. It can be grown in any form in the garden; in beds, in borders or even in mixed borders alongwith other plants. It grows well in pots also. For border purpose dwarf growing type are preferred while in pots usually large flowering dahlias are grown. The long stemmed flowers of various forms and colours are used in flower arrangement. Dahlias make excellent cut flowers, which typically last about a week in the house and are also used in making garlands.

The tubers of dahlias contain appreciable amount of insulin and fructose and small quantities of phytin and benzoic acid which are of medicinal and nutritional value. Flavanone 3-hydroxylase, which catalyses the conversion of flavanones to dihydro flavonols, was detected in flower extracts of cyanic strains of dahlia.

INTRODUCTION

Crossandra is an important traditional flower crop of south India. It is small evergreen shrub that is quite hardy and has the ability to produce beautiful flowers with a remarkable range of colours almost all the year. This has made it extremely popular in southern states of India where the flowers are widely used in temple offering and for making gajras and venis to use as hair adornments.

Owing to their attractive colours, light weight and good keeping quality, crossandra flowers are ideal for garland making. Even though the flowers lack fragrance, they are widely used in garlands either alone or along with jasmine to produce charming colour contrasts. Steady market demand and assured and regular income have made crossandra a profitable venture for south Indian farmers.

INTRODUCTION

The chrysanthemum is one of the most beautiful and perhaps the oldest flowering plant, commercially grown in different parts of the world. It is commonly known as Queen of East, Autumn Queen and Guldaudi. It is im ortant both as cut flower and as potted plant in the international market. In Dutch cut flower auction, chrysanthemum ranks second after rose. It is preferred practically due to vast range of shapes and sizes of flowers, brilliance of colour tones, long lasting floret life, diversity of height and growth habit of the plant, exceptionally hardy nature, relative ease to grow all the year round and versatility of use.

It is one of the most important traditional flowers of India mainly used as a potted plant, loose flower, cut flower and as border plant in the garden. Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium inflorescences are of considerable importance in the manufacture of pyrethrin insecticides. The leaves of Chrysanthemum balsamita become leathery on drying and can be used as bookmarks. Fresh young customary leaves can be used in salads and to add a balsam flavour in beer, soups and bread. Now programmed blooming of chrysanthemum all the year around is possible by environmental manipulations.

INTRODUCTION

China aster is one of the most popular annual flowering plant grown throughout the world. Among annuals it ranks next to chrysanthemum and marigold and is grown mainly by marginal and small farmers. It can easily be grown in the open fields and lath houses for the roduction of cut flowers Cut asters last long and are used in vases and floral decoration. When asters are grown in large mass, they make very showy bedding plants and are valuable for filling up the gap in mixed herbaceous border. The dwarf types are put in front and the taller behind.

Some strains are used as pot plants, while dwarf cultivars are suitable for edging and window boxes. The prominent colours of flowers are blue, violet, lavender, rose, white, etc. In tropical and subtropical countries aster is extensively grown for bedding and cut blooms during winter month and spring. China aster is one of the most important traditional flowers in India and has maximum use for traditional purposes. The commercial importance of China aster is increasing in India especially in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Maharashtra.

INTRODUCTION

Carnation is one of the most beautiful and commercially important flower crop. It occupies prime position in the international cut flower trade and is a good commercial cut flower for internal market as well. Carnation flower can easily withstand long distance transportation as it has an excellent kee in ualit Its cut flowers with a 70 to 90 cm stem length, healthy and bright flower commands a better price. Carnations have a sweet fragrance and also commercially utilized for extraction of oil in France and the Netherlands. The volatile oil of carnation contain 40% benzyl benzoate, 30% eugenol, 7% phenylethyl alcohol, 5% benzyl salicylate and 1% methyl salicylate. It is used only in sophisticated perfumes. Carnation flowers round the year and have wider colour range like red, salmon, pink, purple, yellow, orange, bicolour, stripped, white and fancy combinations. The major break through in carnation flower industry was evolvement of cultivar William Sim. This cultivar was produced in 1938 to 1939 by William Sim of the USA. From this red variety there have been mutations to white, pink, orange and different variegated forms. The first genetically modified carnation variety Moon Dust is released in Australia by a plant biotechnology company Florigene. There are several distinct types of carnations and each of these can be grown in cooler parts of the plains and at medium to higher elevation. Carnations are cultivated under glasshouses in temperate countries and in the open or in semi-protected conditions under polythene cover, in both tropical and sub-tropical regions. Because of strong emphasis on quality in both export and domestic market, commercial production of spray and standard carnations is considered as a crop of protected conditions. Before being planted in the greenhouse, the crop must be carefully planted so that it will meet the demands of the international markets.

INTRODUCTION

Strelitzia is known as Bird of Paradise. The uniquely shaped flower of this exotic tropical resembles a head of bird and due to its brilliant orange and blue colour and unusual form, it resembles not any bird but a bird of paradise. Its another common name, Erane flower is another bow to its exotic avian shape. Fantastically handsome flowers aside, this is also a very attractive foliage plant resembling the related heliconia in vegetative appearance. Due to the brilliant colour and unique appearance of the flower, it is exceptionally popular as a cut flower which appears periodically throughout the year. Therefore, it is cultivated in different countries for cut flower production to supply it in local and export markets. Commercial production of cut bloom is done in California, Hawaii, Israel, France, South Africa and Japan.

Bird of paradise occupies a place of pride in the garden and is an important choice for landscaping. It is grown in backyard and also for mass effect. Plants of strelitzia can be used in the landscape in a low growing ground cover to enhance the beauty of garden. They serve well anchoring island beds when surrounded by lower growing annuals or ground cover. It can also be used in shrub borders and adaptable beauty is perfect for home and commercial interiors.

INTRODUCTION

Anthuriums are a perennial herbaceous plant of great beauty and grown either for their showy cut flowers or for their attractive foliage. They are valued for their colourful long lasting spathe and spadix. The cultivars contribute elegance and attractiveness, which are pre-requisites for quality and floral design. It is also known as Flamingo flower or Flamingo lily. What is usually considered the flower is comprised of a colourful, modified leaf (spathe) and hundreds of small, botanical flowers on the pencil like protrusion (spadix) rising from the base of spathe. Anthurium have been cultivated from many decades for cut flower production. Since the mid 1980’s its popularity has increased dramatically and has now become a popular addition to many foliage growers. The economic life span of anthurium is around 6-8 years.

In India the cut flowers of Anthurium andreanum are cultivated for considerable length of time although still in small scale. Commercial viable production should be estimated of approximately 5 ha, which is far below the market demand. The anthurium is getting increasing popularity in the Indian market and therefore, most of the locally produced anthurium is sold in the domestic market against reasonable prices. Its export possibility appears very promising as the flowers are already exported to the Middle East. The development of main flower distribution centre in Dubai offers important possibilities for Indian floriculture.

INTRODUCTION

Alstroemeria is still a relatively new cut flower in the world market and the interest in it is continuously growing. This increase is due to the fact that this flower crop is fairly easy to cultivate and does not require special demands. Its flowers are beautiful and have a very long vase life. It is commonly known as Brazilian Parrot lily or Peruvian lily or Incan lily or Red Parrot Beak or New Zealand Christmas Bell. In the Dutch market, it is an important cut flower and gaining popularity in the international market. Recently some efforts have been made to popularize this flower in India as cut flower and pot plants by some multinational companies. Its cultivation has been started around Bangalore, Pune and Hyderabad. Recently it has been introduced in Palampur, Solan, Srinagar and Ooty, to popularize this crop among growers for domestic and export markets. This crop can be grown successfully on the hill areas of Uttaranchal. Mid and high hill areas are very suitable for growing it. Alstroemeria is a typical greenhouse crop, but can be grown in open under mild environments with partial modifications. It is a potential, low volume and high value crop for hill horticulture.

In India, the agricultural research and technology generation are supported in five agro-ecosystems, viz. irrigated agro-ecosystem, arid agro-ecosystem, rain-fed agro-ecosystem, coastal agro-ecosystem and hill & mountainous agro-ecosystem. Each system with its varied socio-economic and agricultural features, demands appropriate technologies to augment the productivity of various enterprises with sustainable development and economic returns. Unfortunately, the conventional development efforts, which often follow “top-down” approaches in planning and implementation, don’t address the constraints and developmental potentials of farm household systems in a comprehensive way. To overcome these shortcomings, reversal of approach, i.e. from “Top down” to “Bottom up” is recommended. This can be achieved through site-specific assessment and refinement of technologies with farmer’s participation where the farmers of different agro-ecosystems have right to plan, implement and own their developmental projects (Johnkutty et al., 2001).

Introduction

Programme for self-employment of the poor has been an important component of the anti-poverty programmes implemented through government initiatives in the rural areas in India. The Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) is the major ongoing programme for the self-employment of rural poor at present. The programme was started with effect from 01.04.1999 after restructuring of Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP), and allied programmes namely Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment (TRYSEM), Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA), Supply of Toolkits in Rural Areas (SITRA) and Ganga Kalyan Yojna (GKY) and Million Well Scheme (MWS). Govt. of Orissa have launched ‘Mission Shakti’ programme in 2001 with an aim to have at least three lakh WSHGs by the end of 2008. By the end of March 2008, 3.73 lakh WSHGs have been formed under Mission Shakti (Annon, 2007-08). SGSY has contributed substantially in carrying forward the Mission Shakti activities in the state. A study was conducted by the Center for Management and Development, Thiruvananthapuram for concurrent evaluation of the implementation of the SGSY. It was established that the performance of SGSY in Assam, M.P., Orissa, West Bengal and Bihar was the lowest among the major states (Anon, 2002-03). SGSY is implemented in a very deterministic and top down manner, ignoring the participatory approach that is envisaged in the design. Good governance for poverty alleviation programme seems to be more of rhetoric than reality (Shylendra and Bhirdikar, 2005). The Ministry of Rural Development, Govt. of India has set guidelines for successful implementation of the scheme within the framework of targets under each head. As per the guidelines, all the states are directed to fulfill the targets. After 10 years of implementation of the scheme, an evaluation of the programme in district level and state level is in dire need. Hence, it is attempted to evaluate the physical and financial achievement of the SGSY programme operated at Orissa.

Introduction

At the very outset, the varied aspects which govern the agricultural scenario in India have been taken up. Basically, India is a land of diversity and Indian climate defies an easy generalization. It comprises a wide range of weather conditions prevailing across a large geographic scale existing in the midst of varied topography. A systematic analysis reveals that Indian climate can be partitioned into six major climatic subtypes, ranging from deserts in the west, to the alpine tundra and glaciers in the north, to humid tropical regions supporting rainforests in the southwest and the island territories. The landform pattern is also found to be widely varying over places. Interestingly, tIndian soils can be divided into six categories, namely, alluvial soils, regular soils, red soils, laterite soils, mountain soils as well as the desert soils. Being a populous country whose sixty percent of the population earns its livelihood on agro-based incomes, directly or indirectly, it is important to review the robustness of the system followed in the actual practice in the Indian scenario towards the process of raising crops which ultimately feed more than hundred crores population. The review reveals that the agricultural production and farm incomes in India are frequently affected by the natural disasters such as droughts, floods, cyclones, storms, landslides as well as the earthquakes, and, indeed, the susceptibility of Indian agriculture to these disasters is compounded by the outbreak of epidemics and man-made disasters such as fire, sale of spurious seeds, fertilizers and pesticides, price crashes etc. As a sequel, the farmers are severely affected through the loss of production of agricultural crops and consequently, the loss of farm income due to occurrence of such events, and it is no denying that the management of or coping with such factors remains beyond the control of the farmers.

Introduction

Developments in both hardware and software sectors of computer science raised high expectations and strong vision to solve number of problems in all sectors of economy. Introduction of personal computers (PC) in 1970’s created vision of paperless offices, simplified computing, automated process control, management information system, expert system etc. Initially, it had greater impact on agricultural research and development in developed countries in the form of Information and Communication Technology (ICT). Growth of companies with promises to provide specialist software to farmers and growers during 1980’s is a clear indicator of the high expectation and visualization of ICT in the field agricultural research and development. A review of agricultural software availability and use has been made by an international team in 1997 called FARMSOFT. This review covered on eight countries viz. Belgium, France, Germany, Israel, Italy, Portugal, Spain and The Netherlands. It was found that in 1996 out of 1315 software related to agriculture, 39% were in category of management, 26% were in category of animal husbandry, 8.9% in category of crop production, 7.0% in category of machinery and process control, 0.1% in category of irrigation and 19% in others category. Comparison of change in software inventory in 1996 with respect to 1994 revealed that there is around 15% growth in the agricultural software development. The higher positive growth was in the category of management software (38.40%) followed by animal husbandry (10.45%) and others (10.44%). However, highest negative growth was observed in the category of irrigation (-163.15%) followed by crop production (-53.85%) and machinery and process control (-30.95%). This indicates that overall agricultural software inventory was growing but while growth in the software related to agricultural management was sufficiently high, there was sharp decline in categories of irrigation and crop production. This change in pattern may be attributed to saturation of software and bottlenecks due to limitation of related technological innovations, socio-economic adoption and infrastructural facilities.

Introduction

Technological advances of the past two decades have profoundly reshaped and enhanced all aspects of medical research and practice. Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications of medical informatics with the latest technique and approaches are essential for every one pursuing in the medical IT field. Improvements in healthcare delivery in recent years are rooted in the continued industry-wide investment in information technology and the expanding role of medical informatics. The main goal of this chapter is to collate and provide innovative and creative ideas so far published on healthcare in one article for use by the researchers, practitioners and other related with health care system for improving communication environments in health and to explore all new technologies in medical informatics and health care delivery systems.

Medical Informatics can be defined as a discipline concerned with all aspects of understanding and promoting the effective organization, analysis, management, and use of information in health care (American Medical Informatics Association, 2007). In recent years, medical informatics has become a well-recognized branch of medicine.

Introduction

The advancements in the field of informatics, biology and allied fields of technology led to the emergence of an inter-disciplinary field known as ‘Bioinformatics’ (Kumar 2006, Madhan Mohan 2006). Explosion of knowledge in the field of biology and generation of new information (data) needs collection, storage, organization, integration, analysis, simulation of biological data and a faster distribution among the scientific workers (Mehrotra et al. 2005). The advent of super computers, high speed computing and development of algorithms for data formatting, assists in the storage of data at the site of origin and distributed through the hyperlinks in world wide web (www).

The vast field of Bioinformatics is beyond the scope of this article. However to elucidate the concepts that led to the the development of Bioinformatics vis-à-vis is given in brief before explaining the new and emerging area of ‘fluxomics’.

Introduction

Aquarium fish keeping has become increasingly popular in industrialized countries and has been rated as the second biggest hobby and the most popular type of pet (Oliver, 2001). The National Pet Owners Survey 2007-08 revealed that 142 million freshwater and 9.6 million salt water fish were kept as pet in the USA alone (APPMA, 2008). The growing interest in aquarium fish has resulted in steady increase in aquarium fish trade globally. Today, with a turn over of US $ 9.0 billion a year and an annual growth of 8.0%, production of ornamental fish is an important business activity as well as one of the most popular hobbies in the world (Yanar et al., 2008).

ABSTRACT

Coastal aquaculture in India is synonymous with shrimp culture since shrimp has a pronounced presence among the basket of commodities produced in the sector. In coastal aquaculture, maximum area is under shrimp culture due to its high profitability, ready marketability, premium price and unlimited export demand. Since the growth of shrimp has showed significant fluctuations in terms of area, production and productivity over time, this paper aims to seek and use appropriate methodology for computation of growth rates. Accordingly, the present study utilized nonparametric regression method for computation of growth rates. Results indicated that the methodology has been successful in extracting required information from the data set. The analysis revealed that growth of Indian shrimp farming is largely governed by east coast states. Potentiality of west coast states remains grossly underexploited. Broad results also indicate that growth rate is higher in commercial shrimp farming states compared to traditional farming states. Shrimp farming being a livelihood option for small and marginal farmers of the deprived sections of the population of a developing country, like India, consistent yield is more important than substantial growth in yield in shrimp farming.

Introduction

Water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes, is such an aquatic plant that needs hardly any introduction. This aquatic plant is considered as nuisance weed found floating freely on fresh water bodies, proliferates aggressively and therefore, spreads like wild fire. It can infest all types of water bodies, chokes waterways, canals, channels, dams, and thus damages potential water resources. Evidently, two plants produces 300 offspring within 23 days only and under ideal environment, 10 plants can multiply to 6 lakh and may cover an acre area within a period

Introduction

Mangroves are the special group of plants or the ecosystem in a holistic scence on the inter-tidal coastal areas, edges of the islands and major estuarine mouths. The frequently tidal inundated forests on coastal areas, wetlands and the inter-tidal zones of sheltered bays or shore lines, estuarine mouths, sides of the tidal creeks, backwater, lagoons, marshes and mud-flats of the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the Globe are the major mangrove habitats or zones. Mangrove ecosystem form an important ecological asset and economic resources of the coastal marine environment. These mangrove ecosystem is the most productive ecosystem, which can efficiently fertilize the sea and estuarine water and also physically protect the coastal zone, estuarine mouth from frequent natural calamities and vitally serves as the breeding ground, nursery and grazing place of diverse species of fish, shrimps, prawns, crabs and vast group of other marine and off-shore species.

Introduction

Aquaculture has developed quickly over the last three decades to turn into important economic activity world wide. It has been attracting heavy investment due to the availability of sound technologies and limitless potential for export especially shrimp. There are several forecasts on demand for aquatic foods and it is expected that it will be 183 million tonnes by 2030. As the capture fishery production is stagnating at around 90 million tonnes, aquaculture is seen as the only alternative to bridge the widening gap in demand and supply. Globally, Landings from worldwide aquaculture has increased 10-15 % per year in the last two decades and this growth was due to the combined effects of scientific farming, availability of infrastructure facilities, changing consumer preferences and export market potential to developed countries.

Shrimp farming is relatively new and its introduction on a commercial scale can be traced to the early seventies. Despite the recent introduction, one third of the world shrimp production is from farmed shrimp. The shrimp producing countries are found in all regions based on FAO statistics including Europe and Middle East. The major to five shrimp producing countries are China, Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, and India. The future increase in world aquaculture production will be driven by China with South Africa, Latin America, the Caribbean and the Europe providing small increases.

Introduction

Fisheries sector, a sunrise sector in India, has recorded a faster growth than that of crop and livestock sectors (Kumar et al., 2006). The sector contributes to the livelihood of a large section of economically-underprivileged population of the country. It has been recognized as a powerful income and employment generator as it stimulates growth of a number of subsidiary industries and is a source of cheap and nutritious food besides being a foreign exchange earner (Ayyappan and Krishnan, 2004).

With the changing composition pattern, emerging market forces and technological developments, it has assumed added importance in India. It is undergoing rapid transformation and the policy support, production strategies, public investment in infrastructure, and research and extension for fisheries have significantly contributed to the increased fish production. Particularly, after the mid-1980s, the development of carp polyculture technology has completely transformed the tradition backyard activity into a booming commercial enterprise. The aquaculture in the East Godavari delta region prospered with good yields and export driven demand. The paddy belt of the area rapidly converted into aquaculture hotspot owing to high economic benefits. But in recent years the dwindling of aquaculture and frequent losses caused and forced the farmers to withdraw from the once profit driven occupation. Apart from economic analysis, the motive behind this investigation is to find the efficiency of the farmers and the determinants. This will be useful in finding the lacunae in existing system of culture and will address necessities for shifting to new alternative.

Introduction

Cashew is an important horticultural crop. It has gained status of commercial crop from that of a forest component through technological advancements with respect to propagation, production and management. This has been possible as a result of increasing demand for raw cashew nuts and enhanced interest for its commercialization. The demand is mainly due to its good quality protein, unsaturated free fatty acids, rich blend of minerals and water-soluble vitamins, which altogether contribute an excellent dietary supplement. It is being cultivated by as many as 28 countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America

Introduction

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands popularly known as the Bay Islands are situated 1200 Km away from Indian mainland and are well known for their wide range of biodiversity.The dreaded tsunami hit the island on 26th December, 2004 and it destroyed livelihood of thousands of people. CARI on a limited scale initiated process of restoration of livelihood by technological interventions with generous funding by DBT under project entitled “Integrated Rehabilitation of tsunami affected people through technological intervention in the Andaman & Nicobar Islands” in the adopted villages of Manjeri, Manglutan and Guptapara. (Three situations). A total 56 ha has been affected by tsunami in the adopted villages. Following three situations occurred after tsunami and for each situation appropriate technological interventions were taken up.

Introduction

With the advent of modern agricultural technology, especially during the period of the Green Revolution in the late sixties and early seventies, there was a continuous surge for diversified agriculture, primarily on economic considerations. The changes in cropping pattern, however, are the outcome of interactive effect of many factors which can be broadly categorized into the following five groups-

Resource related factors like irrigation, rainfall and soil fertility.

Technology related factors viz. seed, fertilizer, and water technologies on one hand and marketing, storage and processing on the other.

Household related factors like food and fodder requirement as well as investment capacity of the farmers.

Price related factors covering input and output prices and economic policies that affect these prices.

Institutional and infrastructure related factors pertaining to farm size and tenancy arrangements, research, extension and marketing systems and government regulatory policies.

Introduction

Research and development (R&D) is one of the main components to tackle the problems persisting or likely to take place in future. Priority areas of research are depending upon the overall situation and requirements of the problem under consideration. Under these broad areas, topic of interest for research may be varying at different geographical level from household to nation or global. If it is addressing vast geographical area like states, nations, regions and/or global, there may be many individuals/groups/institutions are working over similar type of problems. With the growing communication facilities and rising fund requirements, collaborative research programmes emerged to provide effective and economic solution to the problem with respect to time, money and manpower etc. Earlier, it was limited to high priority areas like defense and long run planning of the nations or kingdom at nation or state level. Declining environmental conditions and biological diversity became global concern in seventh decade of twentieth century. To tackle this problem, The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm) resolved to establish the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in 1972. Further, to speed up the progress, global community through world leaders had identified two burning priority areas during conference United Nations (U N) Environmental Programme Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992, well known as Earth Summit. One of those two priority areas was Biological Diversity. To address the issues at global levels, The Convention on Biological Diversity was signed by party nations, which was later ratified by the 187 countries. India is also one of the signatory nations and need to fulfill some time bound commitments. Moreover, later, importance of biodiversity and germplasm has been underlined by different forum at regional and global level for its present and future values in the life of human kind. Countries and various geographical regions are now becoming more and more aware about its judicious exploitation, conservation and sustained higher output over period of time.

Introduction

Pulse production in India has fluctuated widely with no long-term trend, leading to a steady decline in per capita availability per day, i.e. from 60.7 grams to 33.40 grams during 1951 to 2001, while its average requirement is about 65 gram per day per head. The pulses used to serve a low cost food to meet the protein requirement of a large sector of people in India. But, the pulses are becoming out of reach for the common people of country because of its continuing shoring prices. A Technology Mission on Pulse production was launched by Government of India in 1986-87 as a special drive to increase the pulse production in the country. The vision of Technology Mission of Pulse is attaining self reliance in pulses for household nutritional security and sustainability of the production system. The mission statement was to increase Pulse production from existing (IX plan) 131.4 lakh tonnes to 162 lakh tonnes; Productivity from 594 kg/ha to 702 kg/ha and per capita availability of pulses from 35 g to 40 g per day at affordable price. Unfortunately, the country has not been able to achieve self-sufficiency in the pulse production. During the last 40 years, the acreage under pulse crops and its production remained almost between 21-24 million hectares and 10-15 million tonnes, respectively. Consequently, the country has had to depend on import of pulses every year to meet the part of its shortage. The National Commission of Agriculture had estimated that the country should plan to produce about 25 million tonnes of pulses by the end of 2000, but we could achieve only about 14 million tonnes. Presently, the area and the production of pulse crops account for about 18.50 and 7.20 per cent (2003-04) of total area under foodgrains and total food grains production in the country, respectively.

Logical Framework Approach (LFA) is a framework for designing change process, monitoring progress and evaluating impact. It is a powerful tool for project design, management, assessment, follow up and evaluation of projects. In designing change process, monitoring progress and evaluating impact, ordering the change process in a logical sequence where inputs or resources identify as necessary means for performing activities are very important. Specific activities are then identified because they result in outputs which are necessary to achieve objectives. The two terms i.e.; log frame and logical framework approach are sometimes confused by many. The log frame is a document whereas the logical framework approach is a project design methodology. LFA originally developed by the American Defense Department and was first formally adopted as a planning tool for United State Agency for International Development (USAID) by the end of 1960’s and today it is being used, in one form or other and with different names, by major organisations in the field of development co-operation and private industry. Among these are British DFID, the OECD expert group on Aid Evaluation, ISNAR International Service for National Agricultural Research, Germany’s GTZ and the Inter-American Development Bank. It has also been widely adopted by NGOs, though not without reservations and concerns by some. In the 1990s it was often mandatory for aid organisations to use the LFA in their project proposals.

Introduction

The acute food shortage was a major challenge in confronting the development of the country after independence with rapidly increasing population. Massive financial assistance of credit and subsidy under various rural development programmes unveiled by government could not yield desired impact on poverty and unemployment. The benefits of farm research did not reach the resource poor farmers. Several researchers indicated that the devolution of democratic decision-making at the village level was lacking.

The major task of bridging the gap between farmers and the scientific knowledge is in the hands of extension workers who should act as “conveyer belts” in communicating appropriate scientific knowledge and skills already available to the farmer in a smooth and acceptable form and in securing the adoption of these improved techniques. They must assess the intentions prevailing in the minds of rural people, their relationships and interactions, their groups, their institutions, their organizations and the culture, which influence the behaviour at large. They need to understand their motives, reactions, receptivity to new ideas, hidden resources of rural people and social and cultural obstacles prevailing in the society with their active participation.

To elucidate the hidden facts from the well-knit social, cultural and behavioral patterns, a family of approach known as “Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)” techniques is widely employed to understand the existing farming situations, problems, and opportunities in the rural areas. PRA techniques can also be used in evaluation and impact assessment in agricultural and allied enterprises and projects that can indicate the success and failure to plan for better future.

Introduction

Impact assessment is the process of identifying the future consequences of a current or proposed action. It is used to ensure that projects, programmes and policies are economically viable, socially equitable and environmentally sustainable. Programme Monitoring and Evaluation (PME) efforts are critical issues in management of agricultural research and development (R & D). In times of fiscal constraint, more emphasis is placed on accountability and programme effectiveness. As a management tool, PME is an integrated approach that incorporates the viewpoints of clientele, policy-makers, researchers and donors to address the intended goals. Public and private support to research will depend largely on efficiency issues and ability to reckon with multiple objectives, ranging from food security to sustainability, poverty alleviation, gender issues, export, etc. The PME of agricultural R & D projects is critical when the intended R&D has multiple outcomes. Monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of development activities provides government officials, development managers, and civil society with better means for learning from past experience, improving service delivery, planning and allocating resources, and demonstrating results as part of accountability to key stakeholders (World Bank, 2004).

14.1 Introduction

In this chapter we shall describe various simple and easy to fabricate fiber optic sensors. Most of these sensors are based on intensity modulation. Intensity modulated optical fiber sensors have been extensively studied in comparison to sensors based on other modulation techniques. This is because of their several advantages such as simplicity, reliability, flexibility and relatively low cost. Intensity modulated sensors make use of multimode fibers. Multimode fibers have large core and high numerical aperture that make the coupling of light into the fiber easier. The large core is also better suited to propagate high power laser beams. Further, the plastic-clad fused silica multimode fibers are available. Plastic-clad silica multimode fibers have an additional advantage. Their plastic cladding can be removed easily permitting access to the core. The evanescent field in the unclad part has been used for various kinds of chemical and biochemical sensors (see chapter 5). Above all, these fibers are cheap. This chapter is devoted to simple and easy to make both intrinsic and extrinsic type sensors. Sensors utilizing bare-ended fibers have also been described.

13.1 Introduction

Distributed optical fiber sensors are those sensors which monitor a single measurand at a large number of locations or continuously over the path of the optical fiber. The measurand can be a physical or a chemical quantity. The distributed optical fiber sensor generally consists of a common light source, optical fiber to carry light to the sensing probes and a return fiber to carry modulated light to a photodetector. These sensors can utilize any kind of light modulations described earlier. The advantages associated with distributed sensing are reduced number of components and hence the cost, reduced weight and cabling, and electrical passivity. The applications include the measurements of temperature, pressure, strain, current and chemical concentration. If the measurand is monitored continuously along the fiber length then the sensor is called intrinsic distributed sensor. If it is measured at a finite number of locations then the sensor is called quasi-distributed sensor. The quasi-distributed sensor has a number of advantages over intrinsic distributed sensor. In quasi-distributed sensor, spatial resolution is not as important as in intrinsic distributed sensor provided that individual sensors can be clearly resolved. Further, in quasi-distributed sensing, the sensor elements can be tailored in terms of responsivity and range to meet the specific needs of the application. In this chapter we shall describe various kinds of distributed sensing approaches and few optical fiber distributed sensors.

12.1 Introduction

Among a variety of optical evanescent wave techniques, spectroscopies based on the resonant excitation of surface plasmons have matured into a widely accepted surface analytical method used in different fields. Liedberg et al¹ were the first who demonstrated the exploitation of surface plasmon resonance (SPR) for chemical sensing. Since then the SPR sensing principle has received much attention. In this chapter we shall first describe the principle of this technique and then few sensors that have utilized this phenomenon.

11.1 Introduction

In previous chapters we have described fiber optic sensors based on intensity and phase modulations. These sensors have some problems in practical applications that need to be solved. Some of these are fluctuation of light source power, loss in couplers, scattering and absorption effects that affect measurement performance, temperature drifts and vibrations. In comparison to intensity and phase modulated sensors fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors have following advantages:

High resolution

Insensitive to intensity fluctuation because the signal obtained from an FBG sensor is encoded directly in wavelength domain.

Provision of well localized sensing region

Linear output as a function of the measurand

The capability of multiplex many sensors along one fiber

10.1 Introduction

There are very few frequency modulated fiber optic sensors. This is because frequency modulation of light occurs under a limited range of physical conditions. The principal one is based on Doppler effect. There are few other circumstances under which the frequency of light is modulated. These include luminescence and Raman scattering. Luminescence has been included in chapter 7under fluorescence based sensors. In this chapter we shall focus on the sensors based on Doppler effect and Raman scattering. In particular, we shall discuss the measurement of blood flow velocity, colloidal particle motion and Raman spectrum using optical fibers.

9.1 Introduction

Many physical parameters such as pressure, temperature, electric current etc. can be measured using polarization-modulated sensors. In these sensors modulation of state of polarization of light in the sensing region by an external stimuli takes place. A variety of physical effects influence the state of polarization of light. These phenomena are Faraday effect, electro-optic effect and photo-elastic effect. Polarization modulated sensors, in some cases, offer significant advantages not only over conventional sensors but also over widely used fiber optic interferometric sensors. These sensors require control over the state of polarization of light entering the sensing region of the fiber. Thus, for these sensors, highly birefringent fibers or single mode fibers are used. In this chapter we shall first discuss magneto/electro-optic effects and then shall describe sensors for the measurement of electric current/ magnetic field, voltage, pressure, temperature etc. utilizing polarization modulation.

8.1 Introduction

Interferometric or phase modulated sensors have received special attention because these are much more sensitive than intensity modulated sensors and can be used over a much larger dynamic range. The sensors rely on the interferometric technique. Generally, the sensor employs a coherent light source such as a laser and two single mode optical fibers. Light is split and coupled into both the fibers. If the measurand perturbs the optical properties of one of the fibers relative to the other, a phase shift occurs. The change in phase can be measured very precisely. For the measurement a sophisticated electronic processing equipment is needed. Thus the interferometric sensors are expensive compare to intensity modulated sensors. There are four kinds of interferometer configurations: Mach-Zehnder, Michelson, Fabry-Perot and Sagnac interferometers. The Mach-Zehnder, Michelson and Sagnac interferometers are the two beam interferometers while in the case of Fabry-Perot interferometer multiple beam interference occurs. In this chapter we shall first describe interference phenomenon and then different kinds of fiber optic interferometers. In the end we shall describe a number of sensors based on interference phenomenon or phase modulation.

7.1 Introduction

There are numerous wavelength dependent phenomena that may be used to modulate the wavelength of incident light source. These are wavelength dependent absorption, luminescence, dispersion, interference and scattering. Wavelength modulated sensors use a broadband source, a wavelength modulator or measurand (i.e. analyte), a form of spectrometer (using prisms, gratings or interference filters), a detector (single photodiode or array) and signal processing unit. Silicon photodiode is cheap and can be used for detection but it limits the detection wavelengths to the region 400 to 1050 nm. The sensitivity or the resolution of the wavelength modulated sensor depends on the characteristics of the detector, the inherent resolution of the spectrometer, mechanical stability of the modulation unit and the spectrometer, and the capability of the signal processing unit. However, wavelength modulated sensors do not require any form of referencing like intensity modulated sensors. In intensity modulated sensors, loss in intensity occurs due to connectors and splices, microbending, mechanical creep and misalignment of light sources and detectors due to environmental effect. Further the fluctuations in light source can affect the performance of the sensor. Thus, for intensity modulated sensors one needs referencing to cancel out these losses. In some intensity modulated sensors two wavelengths are used. One wavelength is used to cancel out all of the losses while the second is used to sense the measurand.

Wavelength detection is relatively easy if the spectral changes result from changes in chemical indicator dyes, fluorescence, phosphorescence, or black-body radiation. In these cases the incident and emitted wavelengths are far apart and therefore detection is easy. If the spectral change occurs due to mechanical movement, then the wavelength filtering mechanisms must have sufficient resolvable spectral points. The reasons for using fluorescence in the fiber optic sensors are well known. Fluorescence is intrinsically more sensitive than absorbance and is more flexible in that a great variety of analytes and physical parameters are known to change the emission of particular fluorophores. The fluorescence based sensors utilize the change in the intensity, lifetime or colour of fluorescence as the affected parameter by the measurand. That means, any interpretable observation of fluorescence can be made the basis of a sensor. In this chapter we shall first describe luminescence phenomenon and then various physical and chemical fiber optic sensors based on wavelength modulation and fluorescence phenomenon.

6.1 Introduction

There are a variety of intrinsic and extrinsic fiber-optic sensors which use absorption spectroscopy indirectly for the detection of various chemical species. These include pH, metal ions, oxygen in water etc. In such sensors a suitable reagent is immobilized on a solid support. The support can be the core of the fiber or some optical material attached at the end of the fiber. Further it is optically transparent to allow transmission of the light signal from the interface and should remain inert to the chemical reaction being analyzed. The analyte (or the chemical species) when comes in contact of the reagent affects the absorption properties of the reagent. In other words, in these sensors, the reagent acts as a chemical transducer for analytes that are not directly measurable by optical techniques. Following conditions for the use of reagents in sensors must be met:

5.1 Introduction

Evanescent field absorption spectroscopy is a powerful well-established laboratory technique for chemical analysis. The technique utilizes the evanescent wave penetration at the boundary between two dielectric media in conditions of attenuated total reflection (ATR). One of the media, a thin slab-shaped non-absorbing crystal, is called a waveguide, while the other medium of lower refractive index is the absorbing sample being studied. At each reflection at the boundary of the crystal and the sample, the penetration of the evanescent wave of the guided ray into the absorbing sample gives rise to a reduction of the power propagating in the crystal. The degree of absorption depends on the amplitude of the evanescent field in the sample medium and the number of reflections within the waveguide. The former increases dramatically for incident angles approaching the crystal-sample critical angle while the latter increases with the decrease in the thickness of the waveguide. The number of reflections can also be increased by increasing the length of the waveguide. Thus, to achieve maximum absorption, an unclad optical fiber is well suited for evanescent wave absorption spectroscopy. This is because, unlike the crystal waveguide, the narrow core diameter of the fiber provides a large number of reflections per unit length. Further, the use of an optical fiber to transmit light to a section of its core in contact with an absorbing sample offers the possibility of remote sensing or in-line analysis. These advantages, together with the benefits of simplicity, reliability, flexibility and relatively low cost have motivated a number of research groups all over the world to investigate evanescent wave spectroscopy at the surface of an unclad optical fiber. This chapter will be devoted to the fiber optic sensors utilizing evanescent field absorption spectroscopy.

4.1 Introduction

Apart from an optical source, the optical detector is another important component of the optical fiber sensor. The optical detector converts the optical signal to an electrical one. The signal is then processed either to record or display. There are various kinds of optical detectors but the commonly used in sensors are semiconductor diodes. In some of the cases photomultiplier tube has been used. In this chapter we shall describe the basic principles of optical detectors and their operational characteristics.

3.1 Introduction

Optical sources are a key element in many fiber optic systems. This component converts the electrical signal into a corresponding light signal that can be injected into the fiber. Several factors such as wavelength, source output and spectral bandwidth are important when selecting light source to achieve the best performance of the sensor. The optical sources used for sensors range from hot filament lamps to semiconductor lasers. These sources can be placed into two groups - incoherent and coherent sources. The tungsten lamp and light-emitting diode (LED) are some of the incoherent sources while the lasers come in the category of coherent sources. The LED is normally preferred if the multimode fiber is used for the sensor. If the optical power requirement is high then the laser with multimode optical fiber is used. For the sensors based on interference phenomenon, coherent sources with single mode fibers are used. In the case of distributed sensing, short pulse high power lasers are used. In a laboratory demonstration experiment, a visible laser such as a simple He-Ne laser may be the preferred source while in commercial applications a compact and rugged source such as laser diode or an LED is preferred. Before using the source it is very essential to know its maximum power output, wavelength of emission, linewidth, radiation pattern and modulation bandwidth. The purpose of this chapter is to provide the physics of some of the light sources and their important operating characteristics that are used in sensors.

2.1 Introduction

In a fiber optic sensor the heart of the sensor is an optical fiber. An optical fiber in its simplest form is a cylindrical symmetric structure consisting of a central ‘core’ glass/plastic of uniform refractive index and of diameter 4-600 µm. It is surrounded by a ‘cladding’ glass/plastic of slightly lower refractive index. To provide the mechanical and environmental protection to the fiber, the cladding is covered with an external plastic coating (seeFig. 2.1). The light in the fiber propagates by bouncing back and forth from the core-cladding interface. The design of the fiber optic sensor depends critically on the choice of optical fiber. Telecommunication fibers are inexpensive but may not be the right choice for sensors. Some of the fiber optic sensors dictate the use of application-specific optical fibers. In this chapter we shall first describe ray analysis for the light propagation in the fiber. The modes propagation, numerical aperture of the fiber, fiber characteristics and different kinds of optical fibers used for sensing will be described later.

1.1 Introduction

Since 1990s optoelectronics and fiber optics technology underwent significant advances due to innovations in the telecommunications, semiconductor and consumer electronics sectors. The developments of compact disk (CD) players, laser printers and the high performance and reliable optical fiber communication are the result of these advances. The optical fiber sensor technology is a direct outgrowth of the revolutions taken place in optoelectronics and fiber optic communication industries. Many of the components associated with these industries are used for optical fiber sensor applications. In the beginning the main hurdle in the development of sensors was the cost of components such as optical sources and detectors. With the time, components prices are falling and the improvements in fiber, laser and photodetector technology have taken place. It is expected that as the time progresses the optical fiber sensors will replace the conventional devices for the measurements of various physical, chemical and biological parameters such as rotation, acceleration, electric and magnetic fields, temperature, pressure, acoustics, vibration, position, strain, humidity, viscosity, pH, glucose, heavy metals, gases, viral infection, pollutants etc.

Globally livestock sector is changing rapidly in response to globalization and increasing demand for quality foods of animal origin. Animal husbandry is the backbone of rural economy of our country. The value of output from livestock sector is about 29 percent of the total value of output (GDP) of the agriculture and allied sectors. The livestock sector has been contributing over 5% to total GDP. India ranks first in milk production which accounts for more than 15 percent of total world output and 40 percent of Asia’s total production. It continues to grow at about 4 percent per annum far exceeding the global average of 1-2 percent. Further, the manure from animals provides a good source of organic matter for improving soil fertility and crop yields. The gobar gas from the dung is used as fuel for domestic purposes. The surplus fodder and agricultural by-products are gainfully utilized for feeding the animals. Almost all draught power for farm operations and transportation is supplied by bullocks. Indian animal husbandry practices are based on minimal use of off-farm inputs and on management practices that restore, maintain and enhance ecological harmony. This principle also holds good for organic farming. The primary goal of organic agriculture is to optimize the health and productivity of interdependent communities of soil life, plants, animals and people (NOSB, 1995). Organic agriculture is an ecological production management system that promotes and enhances biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity.

The biotic component of earth is continuously and significantly affected by the abiotic components. Physical factors of the environment (temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind, solar radiation, light, atmospheric pressure, etc) surrounding the animal have influence on the production, reproduction and welfare of the animal. Livestock performance is best when environmental factors are optimum which is difficult to achieve due its variable nature. To this complex livestock-climate interaction, animal responds favorably by undergoing ‘adaptation’ or unfavorably by being under ‘stress’. Type and magnitude of stress due to physical environment depends on climatic factors of a particular area, animal adaptability, breed characteristics and managemental interventions by humans to minimize the losses. To understand the physical environment of livestock frequently used terms are mentioned below

Poultry sector in India has grown from a backyard activity into a major commercial activity in four and half decades. Poultry is one of the fastest growing subsectors of agricultural sector in India. Within the poultry sector, broiler production is growing faster than egg production and about 66.7% of the total output (in value term) comes from the poultry meat sector and only 33.3% from egg production (FAO, 2008). India ranks fifth in chicken and sixth in duck population. Presently, India is world’s third largest egg producer and the fifth major producer of chicken meat (FAO, 2010). Poultry is today the major source of meat in India. As per an estimate about 2 million people are employed, fully or partly, along the poultry value chain and that an increase in annual per caput availability of one egg or 50 gm or poultry meat generates about 20,000 to 25,000 full time jobs (Ciamarra & Otte, 2009). Distribution of chicken and duck population as well as poultry meat and egg production among different regions, countries of the world and among different Indian states has been already discussed in chapter one of this book.

Origin and Distribution of Camel

A camel is an even-toed ungulate within the genus Camelus of the family Camelidae bearing distinctive fatty deposits known as “humps” on its back. There are two species of camel, viz. Camelus dromedarius (single humped dromedary) having habitat in dry hot arid lands of Africa and Asia, and Camelus bacterianus (double humped or bactrian) habitat of cold arid lands of Central palaerctic (a zoogeographical region consisting of Europe, Africa north of the Sahara, and most of Asia north of the Himalayas) region. Family Camelidae also includes other species which are camel like mammals. Those are Lama (Lama glama), Alpaca (Lama pacos), Vicuna (Vicugna vicugna) and Guanaco (Lama guanicoe). These four species are termed as new-world Camelidae having habitat in South America. The Indian camel belongs to Camelus dromedarius. A very small numbers of double-humped camels are also available in Ladakh area of Jammu and Kashmir.

Camel is an important component of desert eco-system. It is capable of traveling long distance in hot, arid and sandy regions carrying men, material and providing energy to agricultural operations. They provide milk, meat, hair and used as work animals. It is believed that Camels were domesticated during the period from 3000 to 2500 BC. Average life expectancy of a camel is 40-50 years. The height at the shoulder and hump of a fully grown adult camel is 1.85 and 2.15 metres, respectively. Camel can run at a speed of up to 65km/h for a short distance and can sustain a speed of up to 40km/h for long distance.