eChapters

Phenols constitute a class of aromatic organic compounds having at least one hydroxyl group attached directly to the benzene ring.

The Total Horticulture production of the country is estimated to be an impressive level of 314.87 Million Tonnes during 2018–19.

Production of fruits is estimated to be about 97.38 million tonnes during 2018–2019.

Production of vegetables is estimated to be about 187.36 million tonnes during 2018–2019.

Production of spices is estimated to be about 8.61 million tonnes during 2018–2019.

Plantation crops are another potential sector with lot of opportunities for employment generation, foreign exchange earnings and overall supporting livelihood sustenance of mankind at large.

In short and sweet horticulture supplies quality food for health and mind, more calories per unit area, develops better resources and yields higher returns per unit area.

It also enhances land value and creates better purchasing power for those who are engaged in this industry. Therefore, horticulture is important for health, wealth, hygiene and happiness.

Similar to forest trees these horticultural trees will maintain the ecosphere. They help in transforming the micro climate.

It provides shelter to birds, reptiles and other micro organisms and add to the geo–ecological diversity on the land.

The Indian subcontinent is bestowed with a great variety of climate and soil conditions.

• Broadly the country can be divided into Tropical, subtropical and temperate regions.
• Within each broad category there are differences due to rainfall, humidity, altitude etc.
• Considering these aspects six different horticultural zones have been identified so that appropriate choice of the crops can be made and development is planned. They are;
• Temperate: Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, North Uttarakhand, Sikkim and part of Arunachal Pradesh.
• N.W. Subtropical: Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Central Uttar Pradesh and North M.P.
• N.E. Subtropical: Bihar, Jharkhand, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur.
• Central tropical: South Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Orissa and West Bengal.
• Southern tropical: Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
• Coastal tropical humid: Konkan, Goa, Kerala, Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa.

• It is the technology of intensive production system.
• In which modern, less environmental dependent and capital–intensive but with a capacity to improve productivity and farmer income.
• Use of plastics, protected cultivation, precision farming, high density planting (HDP), integrated nutrient management (INM), integrated pest management (IPM), mechanization etc., are important facets of hi-tech horticulture. There are many practices which helps to enhance horticulture production:

5.1 Kinds of Soil Water

The following re the three main classes of soil water:

(i)  Hygroscopic water. Water held tightly to the surface of soil particles by adsorption forces.

(ii) Capillary water. Water held by forces of surface tension and continuous films around soil particles and in the capillary spaces.

(iii) Gravitational water. Water that moves freely in response to gravity and drains out of the soil.

The resources on the land have started showing sign of faster depletion owing to the population explosion, over exploitation of mineral and water resources and also the improper exploitation and the related wasting of the natural resources. Hence a time has come to search for more and more newer natural resources amongst which the ocean resources gain supreme importance as this treasure is yet to be hunted due to the non - availability of suitable technology for the same.

Such ocean resources mainly include the mineralogical and biological resources. The ocean biological resources, their birth, growth, population and migration greatly depend as chlorophyll content, total dissolved oxygen, total suspended solids, salinity etc. These parameters which constitute the marine environment drastically change in a quick span of time owing to the dynamically changing marine forces.

The Distributed Information Sub Center at Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur was set up in May 1995 as the 23^rd center of the BTISNet of DBT, Government of India. The area of specilisation of the Centre is Agricultural Biotech- nology. The Centre passed through several phases involving Internet connectivity through the ordinary C band connectivity, then the Ku band connectivity etc. Now the commu- nication facilities of the Centre have been strengthened by procuring an ISDN Internet connection and a connection through ASIANET. The Center caters to the needs of the students (UG, M Sc & Ph D) and faculty of all departments of the Colleges in the main campus as well as of the other nearby academic and research centers of the University. Over the years, DISC has come to occupy a position in the KAU in the area of Infor- mation Technology , information sources and services based on Internet, CD-ROMs etc. The Centre has procured databases in the field of Biotechnology and developed several databases in the field of Agriculture and related fields. The center regularly conducts training programmes in Bioinformatics. The research activities in the field of Bioinformatics have been enhanced. The Centre has now been upgraded to DIC to facilitate intensive research on Bioinformatics in an effective manner. During the year 2004, the Centre has also started offering a course on Bioinformatics for the M.Sc Biotechnology students of the College of Horticulture.

Biotechnology research in KAU spread over various research stations and cam- puses includes Plant Biotechnology, Animal Biotechnology and Fisheries Biotechnol- ogy. Thrust areas for Plant Biotechnology include developing in vitro protocols for mass multiplication of elite types of fruit plants, ornamentals, medicinal plants, spices, plantation crops and forest species. The other thrust areas include checking clonal stability and genetic fidelity of in vitro derived plants using molecular markers, DNA finger printing and characterisation of germplasm with molecular markers, imparting biotic and abiotic stress tolerance in otherwise accepted crop varieties, genetic trans- formation for imparting/ improving expression of desired traits, in vitro germplasm conservation, enhancement of secondary metabolites production etc.

The crops identified for biotechnology research at KAU include spice crops like black pepper, ginger, turmeric, vanilla, cardamom; plantation crops like cashew, coco- nut and medicinal & aromatic plants such as Kaempferia, Trichopus, Gymnema, Holostemma and Coscinium. For improvement of such crops through molecular breed- ing, it is highly essential to identify/design specific probes/primers, micro-satellites, etc. By combining the research results generated at the Biotechnology Centre and informa- tion retrieved from the Bioinformatics Centre, suitable probes, primers are being de- signed for characterization and improvement of these unique crops through molecular breeding.

Procedure

Place a portion of your RNA sample (approximately 40 mg, hydrated) into a heavy walled Pyrex test tube. Add 1.0 ml of 1 N HCl and seal the tube.

Heat the tube in a boiling water bath for 1 hour.

Cool the tube, open it and place the contents into a centrifuge tube. Centrifuge the contents at 2,000 RPM in a clinical centrifuge to remove any insoluble residue. The supernatant contains your hydrolyzed RNA.

Prepare Whatman filter paper No. 1 for standard one-dimensional chromatography.

Using a micropipette, spot 20 µl of your hydrolyzate onto the paper, being careful to keep the spots as small as possible (repeated small drops are better than one large drop). Allow the spots to completely dry before proceeding.

Place the paper chromatogram into your chromatography tank and add the solvent (acetic acid:butanol:water). Allow the system to function for an appropriate time (approximately 36 hours for a 20 cm descending strip of Whatman #1). Remove the paper and dry it in a circulating air oven at 40° C for about 2 hours.

Locate the spots of nucleotides by their fluorescence under an ultra-violet light source. Expose the paper chromatogram to a UV light source and outline the spots using a light pencil. The order of migration from the point of origin is guanine (light blue fluorescence), adenine, cytilic acid and finally, uridylic acid.

After cafefully marking the spots, cut them out with cutters and place the paper cut outs into separately labeled 15 ml conical centrifuge tubes. Add 5.0 ml of 0.1 N HCl to each tube and allow the tubes to sit for several hours to elute the nucleotides from the paper.

Introduction

This method can be scaled to yield amounts of DNA ranging from less than ten to more than hundreds of micrograms of DNA. However, shearing forces are generated at every step, with the result that the DNA molecules in the final preparation rarely exceed 100-150 kb in length. DNA of this size is adequate for Southern analysis on standard agarose gels, as a template in Polymerase chain reactions (PCRs), and the construction of genomic DNA libraries in bacteriophage Lambda vectors.

Principle

The method described in protocol involves digesting eukaryotic cells or tissues with proteinase K in the presence of EDTA (to sequester divalent cations and thereby inhibit DNases) and solubilizing membranes and denaturing proteins with a detergent such as SDS. The nucleic acids are then purified by phase extractions (isopropanol). Contaminating RNA is eliminated by digestion with an RNase, and low molecular-weight substances are removed by dialysis (or centrifugation).

To isolate a streptomycin resistant mutant of E.coli by Indirect selection using Replica Plate Method.

Introduction

J. Lederberg & his wife E. M. Lederberg devised this technique in 1952.

U.V. light coming from the sun emits strong radiation to extent the antibacterial effect in the microbial population. However it has a very short penetration power, UV light is used as a mutagenic agent & was used by Beedle & Tatum to obtain biochemical mutation. The mutation rate is only once in 10^-9 cells per population. Then hence using mutagens like UV light by 10 to 1000 folds will increase this mutation rate.

In isolation of the mutant using UV light the dose of UV light is measured by its units/nm² organisms. The time selected for the mutation is calculated on the basis of 0.1 to 1% survival & a suitable biochemical character is used to evaluate the mutation.

Family : Amaranthaceae

Flowering: August-October

Fruiting: November-January

Botanical description: The plant is a perennial sub-erect, diffuse or prostrate herb, growing upto 0.3-2 meter high, branched from the base and often also from above. Stem and branches are densely woolly with whitish or yellowish, shaggy hairs. Leaves are alternately arranged, nearly circular to lanceo shaped-elliptic, wedge-shaped at the base, rounded to sharp at the tip. Flower spikes are stalkless, solitary or usually in clusters in leaf axils, silky white to creamy in colour, forming a long inflorescence leafy to the ultimate spikes.

Ecology: This plant is commonly found in open forests on mountain slopes, on waste and disturbed ground and coastal scrubs. The plant is widespread in drier parts of the tropics and subtropics.

Use: Leaves are collected, fried and then eaten

Urinary system is relatively simple and consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, the bladder and the urethra. The kidneys are the main organs that filter the blood and produce the urine while the rests of the organs of this system are simply accessory structures that are used for transport and storage of urine. For proper functioning of the metabolic processes of the body, it is essential to constantly maintain the chemical composition and volume of the tissue fluid. This is called the homeostasis. This particular task is performed by the urinary system and in particular by the kidneys.

Kidneys

The kidneys right and left, are bean shaped red brown relatively large glands situated in the abdominal cavity. These are placed retroperitoneal against the dorsal wall of the abdomen on either side of the spine. The right kidney is about half of its length ahead of the left kidney and it fits into the renal impression on the caudate lobe of the liver. An indentation at about the middle of the medial border is the hilus of the kidney through which pass the renal vessels, nerves and ureters. Both the kidneys are covered by a thin capsule formed of fibrous tissue which surrounds the parenchyma of the kidneys. The capsule can be easily striped away from the kidney. The function of the kidneys is to maintain the volume and composition of the plasma,regulate water, ion, and pH levels, retain nutrients and excrete fluid wastes, toxins and excess electrolytes. The kidneys achieve these functions through glomerular filtration, solute reabsorption, tubular secretion, water balance and acid-base regulation.

The renal capsule provides a stiff outer shell to maintain the shape and protect the inner soft parenchyma. Deep to the capsule is the soft, dense vascular cortex. Several cone shaped pyramids form the medulla deep to the cortex. The pyramids are aligned with their bases facing outward towards the cortex and their apices point inward towards the centre of the kidney. Each apex connects to a minor calyx, a small hollow tube that collects urine. The minor calyces merge to form three major calyces, which further merge to form the hollow renal pelvis at the centre of the kidney. The urine collected into the pelvis drains into the ureter that exits through the hilus of the kidney.

Peripheral nerves

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the part of the nervous system that lies outside the brain and spinal cord. It includes cranial nerves, spinal nerves and their roots and branches, peripheral nerves and neuromuscular junctions. In the peripheral nervous system, bundles of nerve fibres or axons conduct information to and from the central nervous system. The primary role of the peripheral nervous system is to connect the central nervous system to the bones, muscles and skin of the body trunk and the limbs and the organs to allow the complex movements and behaviour.

The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic (visceral) nervous system.

The somatic nervous system is associated with skeletal muscle voluntary control of body movents. It consists of afferent and efferent nerves. Afferent nerves are concerned with relaying sensation from the body to the central nervous system. The efferent nerves are responsible for sending out commands from central nervous system to the body, stimulating muscle contraction. This system is made up of nerves that connect to the skin, sensory organs and all skeletal muscles.

The autonomic nervous system is the part of peripheral nervous system that controls the visceral functions which occur below the level of consciousness. It consists of two divisions, the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.

Horse

Articulations of bones of skull

Most of the joints of the bones of skull are sutures similar to those in ox. However, in the adult horse many of the sutures are effaced. The ossification of the cartilage between the basilar part of the occipital and the sphenoid occurs quite earlier. The fusion of the mandibular symphysis takes place at about second to third month after birth. The temporomandibular articulation has an additional ligament which consists of elastic tissue. It connects the post-glenoid process to the caudal border of the ramys of the mandible.

Hyoidean articulations

In the hyoidean articulations, there is only one intercornual articulation in horse instead of the proximal and distal cornual articulations appearing in the ox. The middle cornu is generally lodged in the articulation between the great and small cornu.

Articulations of thoracic vertebrae

These are (1) Intercentral articulations which are amphiarthroses formed between the bodies of the adjacent vertebrae and (2) Inter neural articulations which are diarthroses formed between the articular processes of the vertebrae. These articulations are similar to the articulations described for typical vertebrae of the cervical region. The only difference is that the supraspinous ligament in the thoracic part of vertebral column is single as against two parts the funicular and lamellar parts of the cervical part of this ligament. The supra spinous ligament in the thoracic part is the backward continuation of the funicular division of its cervical part which extends medially behind from the occipital eminence , passes through the cervical region as nuchal ligament and continues behind over the summits of the spinous processes of the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae and finally terminates on the sacrum.

The wall of the thorax and its contents (the viscera) are supplied by the following branches of the thoracic aorta.

Brachiocephalic trunk

The brachiocephalic trunk (Fig. 3-4 A) is a large vessel distributing arterial branches to the head, neck, thoracic limbs (fore limbs) and the cranial part of thorax especially to the region of the withers, thoracic floor and parts of the cranial third of the lateral thoracic wall. It arises from the convexity of the aortic arch between the right auricle and pulmonary artery within the pericardium. It is directed cranially and dorsally in the cranial mediastinum ventral to the trachea. It is partly covered on the right side by the cranial vena cava and on the left it is crossed by the vagus nerve. The recurrent laryngeal nerve runs between it and the trachea. It gives off the left subclavian artery opposite the second intercostal space or the third rib and the right subclavian artery opposite the first rib and then continues cranially as the common bicarotid trunk.

The subclavian arteries entirely furnish blood supply to the thoracic limbs. Except for different (separate) origins and the left artery being longer than the right artery, the right and left subclavian arteries are identical in their course and distribution. A short portion of each artery is within the thoracic cavity and is called as intrathoracic course. Each of these arteries leave the thorax by encircling and crossing the cranial border of the first rib below the insertion of the scalinus ventralis muscle and above the brachial vein. The intrathoracic branches of the subclavian arteries are the costocervical, caudal cervical and internal thoracic arteries.

The lymphatics of the thoracic region are comprised of large number of lymph nodes which are arranged in different groups like the aortic, sternal, mediastinal and bronchial. The efferent ducts from these lymph nodes ultimately join the thoracic duct which carries lymph from all over the body except the head neck and fore limb to open in the cranial venacava.

Thoracic aortic and sternal lymph nodes

The lymphatics of the thoracic and sternal region is comprised of thoracic aortic, intercostal, cranial and caudal sternal, and the xiphoid lymph nodes and the thoracic duct which conducts the lymph collected from most of the parts of the body except the head, neck and fore limbs.

The thoracic aortic lymph nodes are located along the dorsolateral border of the aorta, ventral to the sympathetic trunk. The afferents for these lymph nodes are received from the muscles of thoracic wall, diaphragm, pleural and pericardial sacs and the intercostal lymph nodes. The efferents from the thoracic aortic lymph nodes are connected to the thoracic duct either directly or through other lymph nodes of the thoracic cavity.

Arteries of thorax

Horse

The bronchial and oesophageal arteries in horse have a common trunk of origin as broncho-oesophageal artery. It arises from the convexity of aortic arch, passes ventrally and caudally on the right side of the aorta and divides into bronchial and oesophageal arteries. The oesophageal artery passes caudally in the caudal mediastinum along the dorsal face of oesophagus and supplies branches to oesophagus, caudal mediastinal lymph nodes and pleura and anastomoses with the pleuro-oesophageal branch of the gastric artery.

The intercostal arteries are eighteen pairs in number. The first pair arises from the superior artery, the next three pairs come from subcostal artery and the remaining four arise from the thoracic aorta.

The phrenic arteries are not variable in origin as in the ox. They are small and are two to three in number. They arise on the ventral face of the aorta while it passes through the hiatus aorticus and enter the crura of the diaphragm.

The rest of the arterial branches of thorax in horse are similar to those in ox.

Sacroiliac articulation

The sacroiliac articulation (Fig. 4-2 A) is a synovial (diorthroidal) joint formed between the articular surface on the wing of the sacrum and pelvic surface of the proximal extremity of the ilium. The articular area of the wing of the sacrum has a rough eminence while that of the ilium has a reciprocal rough depression. Both the articular areas are covered by a thin layer of cartilage. The joint cavity is a thin like a cleft and is crossed by fibrous bands.

The joint capsule is closely fitting around the margins of the articular surfaces. The joint capsule is reinforced by the ventral sacroiliac ligament which surrounds the joint. The dorsal part of this ligament is quite strong and it occupies the angle between the ilium and wing of the sacrum. The movements are inappreciable at this joint.

Horse

The kidneys of horse slightly differ in form and size than those of ox. The outer surfaces of kidneys of horse are smooth and plane as against lobulated kidneys of ox. The right kidney is like the heart of the plying cards while left kidney is bean shaped. The right kidney is placed under the vertebral ends of the last two ribs and first lumbar transverse process. The left kidney is situated under the last rib and the first two or three lumbar transverse processes. The hilus of both the kidneys is at about the middle of the medial border of the respective kidneys. The cranial extremity of the right kidney is thicker while the caudal extremity of the left kidney is wider and thicker. The hilus of the kidneys lead into the renal sinus in the interior for the lodgment of the renal pelvis which is the dilated origin of the ureter. The inner central part of the medulla forms a concave ridge called the renal crest. It presents numerous openings through which the large ducts open into the renal pelvis. This part is called the area cribrosa.

The ureter of the horse kidney begins at the renal pelvis and is about 70 cm in length and 6 to 8 mm in diameter.

The urinary bladder of horse is shorter but wider than that of the ox. Its capacity is about 2.8 to 3.8 liters. The rest of the features are same as those of ox.

Lumbar nerves

There are six pairs of lumbar spinal nerves. Each of these, after emerging out of the intervertebral foramen, gives out firstly a meningeal branch which reenters the vertebral canal through the intervertebral foramen and supplies the meninges. Next to this it furnishes the ramus communicans to the sympathetic chain ganglion. After this, the lumbar spinal nerves divide into dorsal and ventral branches. The dorsal branches are smaller and they supply the muscles and skin on the loins and croup. The ventral branches are larger and they slightly differ from each other in their course and distribution. In their initial course, they pass under the psoas minor and psoas major muscles emerge at the lateral border of the psoas major and supply branches to the sublumbar muscles. Hereafter, they differ in their course and distribution.

The ventral branch of the first lumbar nerve passes on the medial face of the quadratus lumborum, runs down the medial face of the transversus abdominis, the obliquus abdominis internus and externus and finally reaches the rectus abdominis, supply all these muscles and the skin on the lateral wall and the floor of the abdomen.

The ventral branch of the second lumbar nerve has two divisions. The cranial division passes ventrally and caudally to reach the external angle of the ilium, supplies branches to the oblique muscles of the abdomen and the skin over this region and terminates in the rectus abdominis muscle. The caudal division passes caudally and laterally under the quadratus lumborum, supplies branches to the muscles and skin at the flank region and then crosses the circumflex iliac vessels. Here it joins a similar branch of the third lumbar nerve and forms the genitofemoral nerve.

Horse

There are six pairs of lumbar, five pairs of sacral and five pairs of coccygeal spinal nerves in horse. Their origin, course and distribution is in general similar to those in ox.

The number of sympathetic lumbar and coccygeal ganglia is just the same in horse as that of ox. However, the number of sacral sympathetic ganglia is four in horse as against five ganglia of ox.

The greater (major) splanchnic nerve in horse is formed by the fibres received from sixth or seventh to fourteenth or fifteenth thoracic sympathetic ganglia. It is smaller in its cranial thoracic part but as it proceeds caudally it gradually increases in size so much that it becomes larger than the thoracic sympathetic trunk in the caudal thoracic part. It receives a communicating branch from the lesser splanchnic nerve before terminating in the coeliacomesenteric ganglion.

The lesser (minor) splanchnic nerve is formed by fibres received from the last three or four thoracic and the first two lumbar sympathetic ganglia. It communicates with the greater splanchnic nerve and the renal and adrenal plexuses and terminates in the coeliac plexus and ganglion.

The rest of the features of spinal nerves and autonomic plexuses of the abdomen and pelvis in horse are almost similar to those of ox except those related to the distribution of fibres to the parts of ruminant versus simple stomach.

Horse

The shoulder joint of horse has same features as those of ox. However, this joint in horse exhibits greater degree of mobility.

The elbow joint of horse is almost similar to that of ox except that there is only one interosseous ligament in horse against two in ox.

The carpal joint of horse has only minor differences from that of ox. The special feature of the joint in horse is that it has two additional ligaments, the superior check ligament and the inferior check ligament. The superior check ligament starts from the rough elevation on the distal third of the caudal surface, close to the medial border of the radius and is inserted to the tendon of superficial digital flexor above the carpus. The inferior check ligament is the continuation of the caudal (palmer) capsular ligament of the carpus. It joins the tendon of deep digital flexor at about midway on the palmer surface of the metacarpus. The check ligaments assist the tendons of flexor muscles of the digits after severe exertion to keep then tight and prevent flexion.

Site for nerve block

Brachial plexus block

The brachial plexus is the key source of nerve supply to the fore limb. Loss of sensation below the elbow is achieved by blocking the nerve roots contributing to this plexus. In ox it is formed by the ventral branches of 6th to 8th cervical and 1st and 2nd thoracic spinal nerves. These nerve roots pass over the lateral aspect of the middle third of the first rib before anastomosing to form the plexus. All these nerve roots can be blocked by injecting anaesthetic solution on these nerves at the middle third of the lateral surface of the first rib. To reach this site, the needle is inserted between the thoracic wall and the medial face of the shoulder at the level of acromion process of the scapula about 12 to 14 cm cranial to it horizontally in the caudal direction.

The blocking of brachial plexus is indicated for operations for reducing the fractures of the bones of fore arm and manus.

Horse

The hip joint has an additional ligament called the pubio-femoral ligament. It arises from the prepubic tendon, passes dorsally and laterally and then caudally and lodges into the subpubic (pubio-femoral) groove, penetrates the capsular ligament, passes through the acetabular notch and is inserted into the fovea capitis behind the round ligament on the head of femur. This ligament is peculiar to solipeds and it prevents the side kicking. The absence of this ligament in ruminants allows them abduction freely and that is how the ruminants can kick sideways. As against this, the equines can kick only back way. The other difference about the hip joint in horse is that the cotyloid ligament is narrower because of the deeper acetabulum.

The stifle joint of horse in general resembles that of ox except that the middle patellar ligament is not so prominent as that in ox.

The tibio-fibular articulation in horse is a diarthrosis and an amphiarthrosis. The diarthrosis is formed between the lateral condyle of tibia and the head of the fibula. It has intimate capsular ligament. The amphiarthrosis is formed between the shafts of the tibia and the fibula. The shafts of the two bones are binded by the proximal and distal interosseous ligaments.

The hock joint of horse has minor differences with those of ox owing to the difference in the number of tarsal bones and their arrangement. The synovial membrane is supported everywhere except at the dorsomedial (craniomedial) aspect where it bulges out in the cases of bog-spavin. If there is a distension of tarsal sheath, it bulges out as two rounded swellings on either sides of the tendon of deep digital flexor. The movements at the hock joint are very limited.

Horse

The lumbosacral plexus in horse is formed by last three lumbar and first two sacral nerves, similar to that in ox. The caudal gluteal nerve divides into two branches. The medial branch supplies the superficial gluteal muscle in addition to the middle and deep gluteal and biceps femoris muscles. The lateral branch reaches the level of tuber ischii and terminates into the semitendinosus muscle at the perineal region. The sciatic nerve is almost similar to that of ox in the disposition and distribution of its branches. The superficial and deep peroneal nerves are also similar to those of ox. The tibial nerve divides at the distal third of the leg into medial and lateral plantar nerves. Each plantar nerve divides at the fetlock into cranial, middle and caudal digital nerves.

Dog

The lumbosacral plexus in dog is formed by the last four or five lumbar and first two or three sacral nerves. The cranial gluteal nerve receives fibres from sixth and seventh lumbar and first and second sacral nerves. The caudal gluteal nerve arises from sixth and seventh lumbar and first sacral nerves. The sciatic nerve derives fibres from sixth and seventh lumbar and first and second sacral nerves. The lateral cutaneous nerve arises either from sciatic or from the peroneal nerve. The peroneal nerve divides into superficial and deep branches, similar to those of ox. The tibial nerve divides into medial and lateral plantar nerves at the level of distal third of the leg. The medial plantar nerve divides at the metatarsus into medial and lateral branches. The medial branch becomes the first plantar common digital nerve. It divides to form the plantar proper digital nerves of the first and second digits. The lateral branch divides into three plantar metatarsal nerves which unite, in the intermetatarsal space with the three plantar common digital nerves of the lateral plantar nerve. Each of these united plantar common digital nerves descends and after reaching at the metatarso-phalangeal articulation into three plantar proper digital nerves. The lateral plantar nerve, divides into three plantar common digital nerves which join the three plantar metatarsal nerves and form the plantar (caudal) proper digital nerves. The united proper digital nerves supply the second to fifth digit and terminate into the corresponding intermetatarsal space.

Phenotype is the product of genotype and environment. In presence of genotype x environment interaction (differential performance of genotypes over the environments), phenotype is the product of genotype, environment and genotype x environment interaction. A stable genotype is one which interacts less with the environment or shows a minimum of g x e interaction. When g x e interaction is significant, one must investigate the specific types of g x e interactions such as genotype x location, genotype x year and genotype x location x year interactions by growing selected genotypes over multiple locations and years. Normally, the genotypes are evaluated for three years. A typical analysis of variance for g x e interaction is given in Table 7.1 (Allard, 1960).

A variety produced by crossing inter se a number of genotypes selected for good general combining ability in all hybrid combinations with subsequent maintenance of the variety by open-pollination. According to Hayes and Garber (1919), the synthetic production of an improved variety by inbreeding and cross-breeding seems a reasonable plan. Synthetic cultivar is a commercial entity and a combination of number of inbred lines, sibbed lines, clones or other populations of cross-pollinated crops. The features of the components are as follows:

1. They will have been tested for their combining ability.
2. They will be preserved for future syntheses of the synthetic variety.
3. The component lines will be combined in a manner so as to allow random mating.

Synthetic varieties are normally used in cross-pollinated crops in those situations where hybrid development and organized seed production are in the preliminary stages. Inbred lines are common components of synthetics because they are easy to maintain and can be used again and again as per requirement of reconstituting the synthetics. When selfing is not possible, sibbing may be used. In case of perennials, clones are used as components. Combining ability of the component lines is determined in different ways. General combining ability is desired more than the specific combining ability because there are several components to a synthetic variety and each is required to combine well with the rest other lines. Random crossing of components of a synthetic variety is assumed and each line should contribute the same amount of seed to the next generation. Because a synthetic variety is a mixture of many genotypes, it might change under selection pressure during multiplication.

The science is a process of refining our understanding of nature by continual questioning and active investigation on questions. Students can approach science in this manner, rather than as a collection of facts to be memorized. The Environment is to provide up-to-date information to the important concepts in the study of environment. Information is presented from an analytical, observation and multidisciplinary perspective from which we must view environmental issues in order to deal successfully with them. The environment may be defined as response of a human being influenced by various factors such as abiotic and biotic, which are present in the ecosystems.

2.1 Multidisciplinary Approach

The approach of environment science is multidisciplinary in nature like botany, zoology, physics, hydrology, hydraulics, chemistry, biophysics, biochemistry and biology. It integrates various subjects and includes few of the most important topics of modern civilization as well as oldest philosophical concerns. Applied and basic aspects of environment requires a solid function in the nature of our relationship with nature, in addition to fields like economics, anthropology, history, sociology and philosophy of the environment.

14.1 Introduction

The observation of phytosociology deals with the germination of growth on tree species in the industrial effluents. It shall be calculated germination potential based on germination capablility of the seeds. The growth parameters are measured then calculated leaf weight ratio, stem weight ratio, root weight ratio, top dry weight, sturdiness quatient, volume index and quality index. The following sub chapters dealing with formulae used to calculate the above parameters. The data so collected is then analyzed. The usual methods, which are employed in analysing the data, are averages, dispersion, skew ness, correlation, etc. The leaf weight ratio, stem weight ratio and root weight ratio are calculated by using the following formulae made by Kumaran (1991).

17.1 INTRODUCTION

Basella is a short-lived but productive leafy vegetable of the tropics. Its resistance to pests and diseases makes it very promising for small-scale production in home and market gardens. The plant is a climbing vine with thick fleshy stem and leaves. They are chopped and cooked as vegetables and has ornamental value too. Its leaves are rich source of vitamin A (3250 IU/100g), protein (1.2%) and rich source of iron (1.4mg/100g). The succulent leaves with petioles and tender leaves are cooked as vegetables. The plant is a climbing vine with thick fleshy stem and leaves. It was cultivated since long in South-East Asia and China, and is now widespread throughout tropical Asia, Africa and America. It is a popular vegetable in Malaysia and the Philippines. The colouring matter present in the red cultivar is reported to have been used in China as a red dye for official seals, as ink. These are used to allay fever and as a mild laxative for pregnant women. A decoction from the plant is used to alleviate labour pains. Boiled leaves are used as a poultice. Flower spikes are sold as vegetable in northern Thailand markets. Flowers have been reported as an antidote to poisons. Fruit juice is used as eye-drops in the treatment of conjunctivitis. Cooked roots are used to cure diarrhoea, while cooked leaves and stems are used as a laxative. The red types of Ceylon spinach are very popular ornamentals and are grown as a pot plant in Europe.

It is rich in iron and Vit –C and native of tropical Asia particularly eastern India and Southern China (Sheshadri 1986 Mini Raja et al., 1993).
 
Botany: Monoecious annual, staminate flowers small, yellow and borne on slender pedicel. Pistillate flowers solitary have small pedicel, flowers are yellow, leaves segmented pentamerous. Filaments 3, two are bilocular and one is unilocular. There are three short styles ended with three bilobed or divided stigmas.

Chromosome 2n=22: 6-centromere in middle, 3-submedian, 2-subterminal  (Vargheuse, 1973) 

Momordica dioica: 2n=28

Momordica cochincniensis: Sweet gourd of Assam

Germplasm

KAU-Vellanikara, IIHR-Bangalore, NDUAT-Faizabad, CSAUAT-VRS, Kalyanpur, BPUA&T-Pantnagar and IARI- New Delhi are the major sources of bitter gourd germplasm.

Garcinia mangostana Linn. (GML) belongs to the family of Guttiferae and is named “the queen of fruits”. It is cultivated in the tropical rainforest of some Southeast Asian nations like Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Philippines, and Thailand. The mangosteen fruit is round in shape, dark-purple, 2 to 3 inches in diameter and contains 4 to 8 segments of snow-white, delicious soft flesh. The fruit may or may not contain seeds. Encasing the flesh is a purple skin 6 to 10 cm thick. Because of its taste and medicinal properties, the mangosteen is often called “The Queen of Fruits”. For centuries, the mangosteen has been honored and cherished by the peoples of Southeast Asia. It is a delicately flavoured fruit of temperate zone.

Mangosteen is native to Malaya Peninsula, and mainly cultivated in Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, India, Vietnam, Philippines, China, California (USA), Hondurus, Panama, Hawaii, Trinidad and Cuba. In India it is cultivated in lower slopes of Nilgiris, Kerala and West Bengal.

Uses

Mangosteen is mainly used as a fresh fruit. Aril of the seed is edible after being boiled in water. The cortex of the fruit contain tannin, and is used as a commercial dye. The rind of fruit is astringent, which is used in chronic dysentery and diarrhea. The bark and young leaves are used to gargle for sore throat. It contains a crystalizable substance known is mangosteen.

Passion fruit, (Passiflora edulis Sims) belongs to the family Passiflora. Within this species, there are two distinct forms, the standard purple, and the yellow, distinguished as P. edulis f. flavicarpa Deg., and differing not only in color but in certain other features. The purple passionfruit is native of southern Brazil. The yellow form was unknown in India until just a few decades ago when it was introduced from Ceylon and proved well adapted to low elevations around Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

Uses

Passionfruit juice can be boiled down to a sirup which is used in making sauce, gelatin desserts, candy, ice cream, sherbet, cake icing, cake filling, meringue or chiffon pie, cold fruit soup, or in cocktails. The seeded pulp is made into jelly or is combined with pineapple or tomato in making jam.

Popularly known as Japanese, or Oriental, persimmon, it is also called kaki (in Spanish, caqui), Chinese plum or, Chinese fig when dried, belongs to the family Ebanaceae. The tree is native to Japan, China, Burma and the Himalayas and Khasi Hills of northeastern India.

Uses

Fully ripe Japanese persimmons are usually eaten out-of-hand or cut in half and served with a spoon. The flesh may be added to salads, blended with ice cream mix or yogurt, used in pancakess, cakes, gingerbread, cookies, gelatin desserts, puddings, mousse, or made into jam or marmalade. The pureed pulp can be blended with cream cheese, orange juice, honey and a pinch of salt to make an unusual dressing.

Phalsa belongs to the family Tiliaceae where only one genus, Grewia, yields edible fruit. The only species of any importance is G. subinaequalis DC. (syns. G. asiatica Mast), long referred to in literature as Grewia asiatica L. Phalsa is the most used vernacular name in India, where there are a number of local names. The plant is called falsa in Pakistan. Phalsa is commercially cultivated in India in states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.

Cultivars/Varieties: Two distinct types, viz. Tall and Dwarf were recognized in Hisar and dwarf type was found to be more productive. Some call them as ‘Local’ and ‘Sharbati’.

Uses

The fruits are eaten fresh as dessert, are made into syrup, and extensively employed in the manufacture of soft drinks. The fruit is used in making juice and squash. The bark is used as a soap substitute in Burma. A mucilaginous extract of the bark is useful in clarifying sugar. Fiber extracted from the bark is made into rope. The wood is yellow-white, fine-grained, strong and flexible. It is used for archers’ bows, spear handles, shingles and poles for carrying loads on the shoulders. Stems that are pruned off serve as garden poles and for basket-making.

The rambutan is native to Malaysia and commonly cultivated throughout the archipelago and southeast Asia. Though a close relative of the lychee and an equally desirable fruit, this member of the Sapindaceae is not nearly as well-known. Botanically, it is Nephelium lappaceum L. (syns. Euphoria nephelium DC.; Dimocarpus crinita Lour.). In the vernacular, it is generally called rambutan (in French, ramboutan or ramboutanier; in Dutch, ramboetan); occasionally in India, ramboostan.

Sapota is a hardy, evergreen small tree belonging to the family Sapotaceae. It is known botanically as Manilkara zapota van Royen (syns. M. achras Fosb., M. zapotilla Gilly; Achras sapota L., A. zapota L.; Sapota achras Mill.). Sapota, sapodilla, chiku is a hardy tropical fruit tree. In India, it is mainly cultivated for its delicious fruits. The sapodilla is believed native to Yucatan and possibly other nearby parts of southern Mexico, as well as northern Brazil and Northeastern Guatemala. But now its cultivation is extensive in India (Morton, 1987).

The major varieties under cultivation in thes states are as follows:

Andhra Pradesh: Pala, Kirtibarthi, Cricket Ball, Dwarapudi, Guthi Jonavalasa and Jonavalasa Round.

Gujarat: Kalipatti, Bhuripatti, Piilipatti, Dhola Diwani, Jhumakhia and Cricket Ball Maharashtra-Kalipatti: Cricket Ball, and Murraba

Karnataka-Kalipatti: Cricket Ball, Kirtibarthi, DHS 1 and DHS 2

Tamil Nadu: Guthi, Kirthibarthi, Pala, Co 1, Co 2 and PKM 1

Definition: Bio-aesthetic planning is recognized as the aesthetic branch of horticulture which deals with planting of ornamental plants to create a picturesque effect.

The term bio-aesthetic planning was coined by Lancelot Hogben. Egyptians were the first to adopt this type of planning in their cities. In India, M.S. Randhava was the flag bearer of bio-aesthetic planning.

India is one of the twelve mega-biodiversity countries of the world with 46,000 plant species and 81,000 animal species described so far from 70% of the total geographical area surveyed so far. Bio-aesthetic planned city in South India is Bengaluru and in North India is Chandigarh (Punjab and Haryana).

Scope: Benefits like environmental, ecological and socio-economic realizes a greater scope of bio-aesthetic planning. Potential of plants in combating pollution has not been utilized effectively so far. In bio-aesthetics, efforts should be concentrated to maintain for the next millennium, natural landscapes which appear healthy, harmonious, diverse and unique. Thus, bio-aesthetic planning can play an important role in environmental amelioration of urban and industrial areas along with their beautification.

Concept: Man has aesthetic sense and makes efforts to create orderliness and beauty. Natural forms, colours and textures have inspired most of the human art. Fulfilling recreational needs through ornamental plants and wild animals brings the idea of bio-aesthetic planning.

5.1. Meaning and importance of risk

Hardy defined as uncertainty about cost, loss or damage.

Inherent in all marketing transactions.

Destruction of produce by fire, rodents or other elements, quality deterioration, price fall, change in tastes, habits or fashion, and risk of placing commodity in wrong hands or area.

Longer the time lag, greater will be the risk.

Cannot be dispensed with and be ar the risk in marketing process.

One who holds commodity in process is risk bearer, because of which he may be better off or worse off

15.1. Soil Temperature

Soil temperature affects plant growth directly; influences soil moisture, aeration, structure, microbial activity, decomposition of plant residues and availability of plant nutrients. Intermediate temperatures, near optimum for each crop, are the desirable temperatures for crop growth. Extreme temperatures are undesirable, lest crop growth would be retarded and weeds and germs may be favoured. Moderate daily variations are desirable as they lead to soil moisture distribution and aeration.

15.1.1. Factors Affecting Soil Temperature

The mean annual soil temperature is about 1°C higher than the mean annual air temperature. Soil temperature is influenced mainly by climatic conditions. The factors which affect the transfer of heat through atmosphere from the Sun also affect the soil temperature. The following are the factors that affect soil temperature:

Removal of entire plants or the economic parts after maturity from the field is called harvesting. Portion that is left behind on the field is known as stubble. The economic product may be grain, seed, leaf, root or entire plant.

Time of Harvesting

If the crop is harvested early, the produce contains high moisture and more immature grains. The yields will be low due to unfilled grains. It is very difficult to store the produce as shriveled grains with high moisture are highly prone to infestation by pest. The quality of the grain as well as germination percentage is also reduced. Late harvest results in shattering of grains, germination even before harvesting in rainy season and breakage during processing. Hence harvesting during correct time is very important.

Plants may be harvested at physiological maturity or harvest maturity. Plants are said to be in physiological maturity when the translocation of the photosynthates ceases to the economic part.

A sustainable and healthy food system is one which can provide food and nutrition security for all, in an economical way which is socially and environmentally sound for future generations. Underutilized indigenous and traditional crops can support and strengthen the existing food system, as they are in particular economical and friendly with the environment. Several underutilized indigenous and traditional crops are nutrient dense and adapted to marginal conditions, suggesting that they could be used to champion sustainable and resilient agriculture and food systems for smallholder farmers residing in these environments. The mainstreaming of underutilized indigenous and traditional crops and foods should be recognized for their attributes to make them desirable and to conserve them. In this regard, the fact that value chains for underutilized indigenous and traditional crops are poorly developed at present has created many opportunities to diversify the current food systems. This will create a new employment, market and distribution opportunities.It will also help to combat poverty. It will be if the smallholder farmers and women in rural areas are given the opportunity to utilize underutilized indigenous and traditional crops and re-enter the manistream system. A significant role which is played by the women for the production and conservation of underutilized indigenous and traditional crops offers opportunities for women empowerment through their inclusion in the food system. Promotion of gender equality and empowerment of women is directly linked for strengthening the sustainable food systems that can fight hunger and malnutrition and improve the lives and livelihoods of rural populations. The mainstreaming of underutilized indigenous and traditional crops into the food system would support women to diversify in a sustainable way, feed their own households and to provide nutritious food into the local markets. This will also help in addressing, the Sustainable

Sustainable agriculture’s benefit to farm and community economies is grounded in four well-established economic development principles and a fifth, concern for the community:

Lower input farming system (LIFS)

Lower input farming system means reduced production levels with larger area of land used in order to maintain the same revenue; or reduced dependency on external inputs with similar production structure but improved valorization of the product through transformation and or direct marketing, cutting the length of the production chain is a sustainability concept (produce and consume locally). LIFS are seeking optimization of on-farm resources, minimization of off-farm resources use. It also leads to mixed farming system, characterized by animal valorization of vegetal production on farm and organic manure restitution to farm soil from farm husbandry. Mixed character of farming system optimally combines annual and perennial crops and animal production on the same farm. Lower input farming also maintains ecological infrastructures (at least 5% in integrated farming)-which prove to be very beneficial for biodiversity – can provide shelter for organisms providing biological control and also be a source of raw material (wood) for producing on-farm energy.

Dark reactions: It is light independent reactions occurs during daytime. This includes C₃, C₄ and CAM pathway involving the utilization of NADPH and ATP to fix CO₂ into carbohydrates. It is also called as stromal reactions.

Day neutral plants: The plants that flowers regardless of the length of the period of the light that is exposed to. They are called as day neutral plants.

DCMU (Dichlorophenyl dimethyl urea or diuron): An herbicide that inhibits non-cyclic photophosophorylation specifically blocks the electron flow at the quinone acceptors of PSII, by competing for the binding site of plastoquinone that is normally occupied by PQB.

DCPIP (Dichlorophenol indophenols): A dye often used as artificial hydrogen acceptor to demonstrate in Hills reaction in isolated chloroplast in laboratory. The oxidized form is blue in alkali and red in acid, while reduced form is colourless.

Facilitated diffusion: Facilitated diffusion is a movement in the direction of a concentration gradient; but it involves moving through a channel protein or a carrier protein. A channel protein is merely a pore in the membrane, and is often gated to control movement. A carrier protein has a binding site where the substance attaches and moved through the membrane.

Facultative CAM: Plants which behave as C₃ under conditions of normal water supply. However, switch over to CAM mode under conditions of water deficit.

FAD (Flavin adenine dinucleotide): A riboflavin containing co-enzyme of some oxidation reduction reactions.

Facultative long day plant: Facultative photoperiodic plants are more likely to flower under appropriate light conditions, but will eventually flower regardless of length of night.

FADH: In biochemistry, flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) is a redox cofactor, more specifically a prosthetic group, involved in several important reactions in metabolism. FAD can exist in three different redox states, which are quinone, semiquinone and hydroquinone. FAD is converted between these states by accepting or donating electrons. FAD, in its full oxidised form or quinone form, accepts two electrons and two protons to become FADH₂ (hydroquinone form). The semiquinone (FADH) can be formed by either reduction of FAD or oxidation of FADH₂ by accepting or donating one electron and one proton, respectively.

Gel: A semi-solid medium in to which proteins or nucleic acids are subjected to electrophoresis, to determine their size or to separate them from other components.

Gene family: A set of genes whose sequences differ only slightly that encode identical products; within a single species, a multigene family.

Gene tagging: The addition of a marker to a gene; often by the introduction of a transposon or insertion element.

Gene transfer: Transformation; the insertion of foreign DNA into a host conferring a trait not previously inherant in that organism.

Gene: The concise meaning might be the sequence of DNA that encodes a gene product (an RNA or protein), including all upstream and downstream sequences involved in the expression of the gene.

Genome: Sum of all genetic information of an organism, nucleus, organelle, or virus.

Geotropism (Barytropism or gravitropism): When a seedling is kept horizontally on the soil, the radicle always grows towards soil, and the plumule grows away from the soil. This type of growth movement of radicle and plumule is called positively geotropic and negatively geotropic respectively. But some runners and rhizomes grow parallel to the surface of the soil and this is referred to as diagiotropic. When the lateral roots grow obliquely into the soil, it is referred to as plagiogeotropic phenomenon.

Germination percentage: Germination percentage is an estimate of the viability of a population of seeds.

Half life: The time required for the disappearance of one half of a given component of a system.

Halochromism: It occurs when a substance changes color as the pH changes. This is a property of pH indicators, whose molecular structure changes upon certain changes in the surrounding pH. This change in structure affects a chromophore in the pH indicator molecule.

Halomorphic soil : A suborder of the intrazonal soil order, consisting of saline and sodic soils formed under imperfect drainage in arid regions and including the great soil groups Solonchak or Saline soils, Solonetz soils, and Soloth soils.

Hatch-Slack pathway: It is one of the carbon fixation pathway used by certain group of plants (C₄ plants) where the first stable compound is oxalo acetate, a C₄ dicarboxylic acid compound. In the first carboxylation reactions, atmospheric CO₂ combines with phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) to oxalo acetate and then to malate. These plants posses kranz anatomy with mesophyll and bundle sheath cells.

Lactate dehydrogenase: An enzyme that reversibly catalyses conversion of pyruvate to lactate by utilizing NAD as coenzyme. This operates under anaerobic respiratory condition.

Lactate fermentation: Lactic acid fermentation is a biological process by which glucose and six carbon sugars (also, disaccharides of six carbon sugars, e.g. sucrose or lactose) are converted into cellular energy and the metabolite lactate. It is an anaerobic fermentation reaction.

Latent heat: The heat required to convert a solid into a liquid or vapour, or a liquid into a vapour, without change of temperature. It is also called as hidden heat.

Leaching requirement: (LR) The amount of water in excess of the plant requirement that is needed to remove salt from the root zone in order to prevent soil salinity from exceeding a specified value.

Leaf Area Duration (LAD): It is the functional leaf area or estimated photosynthetic area which contributed for the total biomasss. To correlate dry matter yield with Leaf area, Power et al., (1967) integrated the Leaf area with time and called as Leaf Area Duration. LAD taken into account, both the duration and extent of photosynthetic tissue of the crop canopy. The LAD is expressed in m². days.

Obligate photoperiodism: Obligate photoperiod plants absolutely require a long or short day before flowering. If required photoperiod condition is not met they won’t flower. This phenomenon is called obligate photoperiodism.

Oleosome (Spherosome or oil body): Cell organelle bounded by a single membrane and contains triglycerides.

Oligohalophyte: A plant adapted to habitats of low salinity (0.04 to 0.4 MPa at field capacity; EC 1 to 10 dS/m).

Oligomycin: An antibiotic that inhibits oxidative phosphorylation by blocking the activity of F₀F₁ ATP synthase.

Oligosaccharide: A molecule containing fewer number of monosaccharide units joined by glycosidic bonds.