eChapters

It has been a general notion that if an experiment is conducted under identical conditions, values so obtained would be similar. But the experiences of people have dispelled this belief. Observations are always taken about a factor or character under study, which can take different values, and the factor or character is termed as variable.
Hence, we have a set of outcomes (sample points) of a random experiment. A rule that assigns a real number to each outcome (sample points) is called random variable. The rule is nothing about a function of the variable, say, X, that assigns a unique value to each sample point of the sample space.

The theory of probability has its origin in the games of chance related to gambling such as throwing a die, tossing a coin, drawing cards from a pack of cards etc. Jerame Cardon (1501-1576), an Italian mathematician was the first man to write a book on the subject entitled “Book on Games and Chance”, which was published after his death in 1663. The systematic and scientific foundation of the mathematical theory of probability was laid in mid-seventeenth century by two French mathematicians B. Pascal (1623-1662) and Pierre de Fermat (1601 1665).

Important terms and concepts

To understand probability, let us first get acquainted with some important terms and concepts associated with probability.

• Trial: An experiment is any natural or planned activity for which it is not possible to predict the particular result called a trial.

• Events: The possible outcomes of experiments of a trial are called events. For example: Tossing of a coin in an experiment and one toss of the coin is called trial. In tossing of a coin there are only two outcomes or events, i.e. head or tail.

Types of events

Events can be of following different types:

• Exhaustive events

• Equally likely events

• Mutually exclusive events

• Dependent events

• Independent events

• Null or impossible events

• Exhaustive events: It is the total number of all the possible outcomes of an experiment.

In day-to-day life, one comes across many statements which create doubt about certain happenings and one may want to determine the chance of occurrence of a particular happening, e.g., if one desires to know the chance of rain based on some metrological observations.  In the case of coin tossing, one wants to know what will be the chance of winning if a person always stakes for head in a fixed number of tossing. There can be innumerable such queries which one would like to make and meanwhile evaluate mathematically the chance of the occurrence of such possibilities.  This invoked the need of probability theory. The theory of probability came in existence when problems of games were referred to mathematicians like Karl Pearson, Laplace and others. Complicated applications involving advanced theory of probability and axionmatic approach of probability are not dealt within this book.

True/False

Q.1.    A set containing all possible outcome of a trial in a study is known as “Sample space”.
Q.2.    If we are interested in observing the blood type of a child born in a hospital then sample space may be a set S is of the form S = {A, B, AB, O}.
Q.3.    If outcomes are continuous in nature, the sample space is specified as an interval that contains all possible outcome values.
Q.4.    When the occurrence of one event excludes the occurrence of other events, the events are said to be “Mutually exclusive events”.
Q.5.    In case of testing the type of blood of a newly born baby in a hospital, the blood types A, B, AB, O or gender (male, female) are exclusive events.

In some experiments the result can be predicted with certainty. For example, the bulb will stop glowing when switched off, the evolution of hydrogen gas when zinc reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid. Such phenomenon where the result can be predicted with certainty is known as deterministic phenomenon. But in some experiments the result cannot be predicted with certainty. For example, Sales of a firm, profit made by a company, yield of a crop, etc. Such phenomenon where the result cannot be predicted with certainty are known as probabilistic or random phenomenon. Such phenomena are frequently observed in economics, business, agriculture, social science, biology, etc., and in our day to day life.

The theory of probability is a very important branch of statistics which provides a numerical measure of uncertainty.

7.1 Introduction

The theory of probability has its origin in the games of chance related to gambling such as throwing a die, tossing a coin, drawing cards from a pack of cards etc. Jerame Cardon (1501-1576), an Italian mathematician was the first man to write a book on the subject entitled “Book on Games and Chance”, which was published after his death in 1663. The systematic and scientific foundation of the mathematical theory of probability was laid in mid-seventeenth century by two French mathematicians B. Pascal (1623-1662) and Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665).

A. Definitions of probability

1. A probability relies on having an understanding of the theoretical model defining the set of all possible outcomes of a trial; we evaluate the probability solely on the basis of this model, without recourse to performing the experiment at all. It is often called an a priori probability. So, for example, we know that there are two equally likely outcomes when an unbiased coin is tossed: either a head or a tail. This is the model from which we can deduce that the probability of a defined event, obtaining a head, say, is 1/2 = 0.5.

2. The next approach to defining a probability, and the one commonly used in statistical inference, is to regard a probability as the proportion of times a particular outcome (the event) will occur in a very large number of ‘trials’ or ‘experiments’ performed under similar conditions.

The result of any one trial should be independent of the result of any other trial, so whether or not the event occurs in any one trial should not affect whether or not the event occurs in any other trial.

Introduction

Food is the most vital prerequisite for sustenance of human life and provides adequate nutrients for the metabolism. Recently several hypothesis supports that, beyond meeting nutritional needs, they play beneficial roles in improving health, and minimize the risk of illnesses (Roberfroid, 2000a). In this way, a novel term “functional food” was introduced and plays an outstanding role in improving the overall conditions of the human body (e.g. pre- and probiotics), lessening the threat of some ailments (e.g. cholesterol-lowering products), and also as therapeutics for several diseases (Roberfroid, 2000a, Roberfroid, 2000b, Mollet and Rowland, 2002).

Recently throughout the world, an extensive array of functional foods were developed which includes prebiotics, probiotics, synbiotics, foods supplemented with anthocyanins, phytosterols, isoflavones, antioxidants, and fat, sugar and salt-reduced foods. Amongst them, probiotic functional food has exerted beneficial effects on the health and is comprised of both probiotic dairy foods and probiotic non-dairy foods. The demand for dairy probiotic foods are increasing as it attributes to the beneficial health effects on the host by improving the survival of gastrointestinal microflora, production of bioactive compounds and prevention of lactose intolerance. Consequently, production of these foods is a significant research importance for both food manufacturing units and research institutes.

Probiotics are the important ingredients for foods with a “healthy” image. It could be combined with other beneficial ingredients or simply used to supplement the natural functional qualities of whole foods. The amalgamation of probiotic bacteria with nutrient rich foods, like dairy products, will have the additional value of improving consumer nutrition.

Recent awareness of consumers towards innovative probiotic fermented food products containing friendly bacteria and healthier foods has coined the term functional foods. Food development in the world is taking place mainly in three strategic directions as functional foods, organic foods and national foods. Every year the global demand is increasing at the rate of 15–20 %.

Fermentation by newer technologies involves specific strain of lactic acid bacteria. This brings specific fermentation under controlled conditions resulting in a specific fermented product with enhanced organoleptic, nutritional and therapeutic qualities.

There are potential beneficial medicinal uses of probiotics for which research is limited and only preliminary results are available. Recent research on the molecular biology and genomics of Lactobacillus has focused on the interaction with the immune system, anti-cancer potential, and potential as a biotherapeutic agent in case of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea, traveller‘s diarrhoea, pediatric diarrhoea, inflammatory bowel diseases and irritable bowel syndrome (Ljungh et al., 2009). Studies of some probiotics tested in vitro on human epithelial cell lines have shown that they could block the adhesion of shiga toxin producing E. coli (Sherman et al., 2005). These are claimed to be health promoting and/ or disease preventing beyond the basic function of supplying nutrients. Probiotic foods are emerging as an important category of food supplements. Earlier workers have shown the inhibition of diarrhea caused by E.coli using probiotic lactic acid bacteria and yeast (Yan and Polk, 2006). Ratledge et al. (2002) have studied the biochemistry and molecular biology of lipid accumulation in oleaginous microorganisms.

In 1908, Metchnikoff, the father of modern Immunology, wrote “Prolongation of Life” and created the incredible ongoing revolution known as the “Probiotic Revolution”. He proposed that “Lactic Acid Bacteria” (LAB) could render a great service in the fight against intestinal putrefaction and might postpone and ameliorate old age. Till then today, some 95 years later, dozens of the worlds most brilliant minds carry on the astonishing work that has scientifically been proven to generate restorative and healing effects in the body.

In the late 19^th century, microbiologists identified microflora in the gastrointestinal (GI) tracts of healthy individuals that differed from those found in diseased individuals. These beneficial microflora found in the GI tract were termed probiotics. The term ‘Probiotics’ is originally a Greek word meaning ‘for life’. Parker (1974) for the first time used this word. He defined Probiotics as “organisms and substances, which contribute to intestinal microbial balance”. But the most accepted definition of Probiotics was given byFuller (1989). He redefined Probiotics as “a live microbial feed supplement, which beneficially affects the host animal by improving its microbial balance”. Fuller’s definition since been broaden to state “a probiotic is a mono or mixed culture of live microorganisms which, when applied to animal or man, affect the host beneficially by improving the properties of the indigenous microflora”. This definition stresses the importance of live microorganisms that improve the health status of either man or animal and that occur in the mouth, gastrointestinal tracts (GIT), or upper respiratory or urogenital tracts (Havenaar et al, 1992).

To understand how probiotics work, it is important to understand a little about the physiology, microbiology of GI tract and the digestive process. The digestive process begins as soon as food enters the mouth and to stomach, the microbes present in the GI tract have the potential to act in a favourable, a deleterious or a natural manner. Microbes in small intestine and in large intestine complete the digestion process.

Abstract

Nutraceuticals have potential to be used as food supplement, preventive medicine and the growing evidence points in the direction that certain foods fight and or prevent against diseases. The development of next generation nutraceutical “super foods” or products consist of value-addition in the traditional natural diets.The word Nutraceuticals combine ‘nutrition’ and ‘pharmaceuticals’ to mean that they can be used as preventive drugs or food supplements. The increase in knowledge about the immune response unveils the fact that besides immunological disorders and infections the outcome of many other diseases like diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, rheumatoid arthritis, etc. can be modified by modulating Immune response. Hence, the efficient immunomodulators can be employed to prevent or cure the diseases as immunotherapeutic agents. The most acceptable alternative therapeutic agents are the edible sources. Hence the researchers shifted towards formation of nutraceuticals or foods acting as medicine, a concept which was given by Hippocrates long back.

Probiotics and prebiotics are widely used in animal nutrition to promote gut health, enhance immune function, and improve production performance. Probiotics are live microorganisms (e.g., Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, Bacillus, and Saccharomyces) that confer health benefits when administered in adequate amounts. Prebiotics, such as fructooligosaccharides (FOS) and mannanoligosaccharides (MOS), are non-digestible compounds that stimulate the growth of beneficial gut microbes. The optimal supplementation levels vary among speciesbased on their physiology, diet, and production goals.
Cattle
Probiotics
Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bifidobacterium bifidum, Enterococcus faecium,and Saccharomyces cerevisiae are commonly used.
Dose
Lactobacillus spp.: 1 × 109– 1 × 1010 CFU/head/day.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae: 5–10 g/head/day or 108– 109 CFU/g feed.
Prebiotics
MOS and FOS are used to improve gut integrity and nutrient absorption.

1. Introduction
Aquaculture is a rapidly expanding industry, playing a crucial role in addressing the global demand for high-quality protein sources as wild fish stocks face depletion. With aquaculture production on the rise, ensuring the health and productivity of farmed fish has become increasingly important. The health of the fish gut is central to achieving these objectives, as the gut is responsible not only for nutrient digestion and absorption but also for maintaining a strong immune defense. A well-functioning gut leads to better growth performance, reduced disease susceptibility, and improved overall fish welfare.
However, maintaining optimal gut health in aquaculture systems presents challenges. The intensive nature of fish farming can lead to stressors that compromise the gut environment, including changes in water quality, fluctuating diet compositions, and exposure to pathogens. Gut health issues often manifest in poor feed conversion ratios, slower growth, and higher mortality rates, all of which negatively impact aquaculture productivity and sustainability. Therefore, there is a growing focus on finding innovative and natural solutions to improve the gut health of farmed fish.
In recent years, the use of probiotics and prebiotics in fish nutrition has gained significant attention as an effective and eco-friendly strategy to modulate gut microbiota and enhance fish health. These functional feed additives are considered a natural alternative to antibiotics and other pharmaceuticals, which have historically been used to manage diseases and promote growth in aquaculture but come with risks of antibiotic resistance and environmental contamination.

Introduction

The term probiotic is derived from Greek and means ‘for life’ as opposed to antibiotics which means ‘against life’. The history of probiotics began with the consumption of fermented foods which was first observed in ancient Greeks and Romans [1]. The term, probiotic, as is used today was first used by Parker in 1974. Parker defined ‘probiotic’ as substances and organisms which contribute to intestinal microbial balance. In 1989, the term was modified further by Fuller. Thus, probiotic is a live microbial supplement which affects the host’s health positively by improving its intestinal microbial balance. This definition was broadened to include mono or mixed culture of live microorganisms which benefits animals or man by improving the properties of the indigenous microflora [2]. Some authors have interpreted probiotics as microbial cell preparations or components of microbial cells that have a beneficial effect on the health and well-being of the host.

Introduction

Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food- the age-old quote by Hippocrates, is certainly the tenet of today. Microbial cultures have been used for millenniums in food and alcoholic fermentations and in the past century have undergone scientific scrutiny for their ability to prevent and cure a variety of diseases. Later it became popular in improving human and farm animal nutritive values and recently in aquaculture also. The growing interest in the understanding the role of food in human health has moved from its primary role as a source of energy to the subtle action of biologically active food components on human health. Henceforth functional foods or nutraceuticals are of great demand in present time. The growing scientific evidence suggests that the food supplements containing beneficial bacteria can provide an array of benefits to the host. Now a day’s probiotic fermented foods are in great demand due to the awareness of beneficial aspects of probiotics among people. Several industries focused on the improvement of conventional fermented foods scientifically in order to fetch good market for their products. Particularly, animal feed companies and researchers have been looking for alternative products and strategies that can help to maintain animal gut health in order to prevent or reduce the prevalence of pathogens in the food chain. After understanding the mechanism and beneficial aspects of probiotics in detail at molecular level in earlier chapters, now it is relevant to discuss the applied part of probiotics. In this chapter, commercial importance of probiotics and probiotics derived products at industrial level are emphasized.

Introduction

Ruminants are provided with a microbial ecosystem in the gastro-intestinal tract which helps in the bioconversion of lignocellulosic feeds into volatile fatty acids which are utilized by the animal as a source of energy. This microbial biomass is also helpful in synthesis of microbial protein and B-complex vitamins for the host animals. Any disturbance in the microbial balance may affect the performance of the animal adversely and any improvement in the microbial environment may lead to the improvement in productivity of the animal. A number of chemical feed additive like hormone, antibiotics have been used to improve the performance of the animals. But due to residual left over in the animal products and risk of creating disease, resistance against antibiotics, the use of these chemical feed additives have been discouraged and even banned in some countries. As an alternative microbial feed additive seems to be more natural; as it is not creating any new thing in GIT but it is merely restoring the normal and ideal flora in the digestive tract to its full capacity.

Introduction

During the first 50 years of the 20th century, scientific focus was on the identification of essential elements and their role in the prevention of various dietary deficiency diseases. This emphasis on nutrient deficiencies or “undernutrition” shifted dramatically, however, during the 1970s when diseases linked to excess and “overnutrition” became a major public health concern. “Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food”, the age old quote by Hippocrates is the ideology of today’s health conscious population. Eli Metchnikoff, the Russian Nobel prize winner was the first one to recognize the beneficial role of selected bacteria on gastrointestinal tract of humans. Subsequently the “Theory of Longevity” by Metchnikoff was correlated with prolonged youth and a healthy old age, observed largely in Balkan peasants of those times, who used cultured milks in their diet (Kaufmann, 2008). Since then, the quest continues for understanding the role of wide range of food components and nutrients in enhancing health or preventing chronic diseases. The research in this field has resulted in a plethora of new labels for pro-, pre- and synbiotics.

Abstract

The gut microbiota, microbe population living in the human large intestine is generally associated with various metabolic functions and it influences health and well-being. Taking into account the major role gut microbiota play in the normal functioning of the body and the different functions it accomplishes, experts nowadays consider it as an “organ”. However, it is an “acquired” organ, as babies are born sterile; that is, intestine colonisation starts right after birth and evolves as we grow. Each of us has a unique microbiota, as the fingerprints, it always fullfils the same physiological functions and they have a direct impact on our health. Gut microbiota consists of a complex of microorganism species that live in the digestive tracts of animals and is the largest reservoir of microorganisms mutual to humans. Gut microorganisms benefit the host by gleaning the energy from thefermentation of undigested carbohydrates and the subsequent absorption of short-chain fatty acids. The most important of these fatty acids are butyrates, metabolised by the colonic epithelium; propionates by the liver; and acetates by the muscle tissue. The human body carries about 100 trillion microorganisms in its intestines, a number ten times greater than the total number of human cells in the body Guarner and Malagelada, 2003). Gut microbiota, particularly the probiotics, have beneficial effects on gastroenteritis resistance, blood lipids, antitumor properties, lactose tolerance and gastrointestinal immunity. Probiotics have role in reducing the risk of rotavirus-induced diarrhea and colon cancer. The survivability of any probiotic bacteria till a longer time in the gut can be enhanced by the supplementation of prebiotics. Prebiotics are non-digestible food ingredients that benefit the host by selectively stimulating the growth or activity of one or a limited number of bacteria in the colon. There are so many prebiotics which stimulate the growth and survivability of probiotic bacteria such as fructo-oligosaccharide (FOS), inulin, galacto-oligosaccharide (GOS), polydextrose (PDX), acacia gum (GUM), lactulose (LOS), lactitol etc. Many research studies have been done on above mentioned prebiotics. Mostly inulin-type fructans have been used as functional food ingredients. The prebiotics are known for reduction of disease risk such as constipation relief, suppression of diarrhea and reduction of the risks of osteoporosis, atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease associated with dyslipidemia and insulin resistance, obesity and possibly type-2 diabetes. Probiotics are beneficial microbes that confer a realistic health benefit on the host, which in combination with prebiotics, (indigestible dietary fibre/carbohydrate), also confer a health benefit on the host via products resulting from anaerobic fermentation. The combination of probiotics and prebiotics in a synbiotic might improve the survival of the bacteria crossing the upper part of the gastrointestinal tract, thereby enhancing their effects in the large bowel and immune-modulatory ability.

In 1907, the Russian Nobel laureate, Dr. Elie Metchnikoff, fascinated by the unusual longevity of Bulgarian farmers, consuming beneficial lactic acid bacteria by way of traditional fermented milk products, suggested that regular intake of friendly microbes could benefit human health. Although Dr. Metchnikoff ’s recommended bacteria for the purpose proved largely ineffective, the theory was carried forward with moderate success until the war on bacteria began because of the advent of sulfa drugs and antibiotics (Scott, 2012). However soon after their rampant use and the realization of the rapid spread of antimicrobial resistance, researchers turned yet again to ecological notions and the time was fertile for the advent of probiotics. By the 1980’s the term had stabilized both in medical and veterinary literature. The mid 1990’s witnessed a surge of exponential studies on probiotics, the definition of Probiotics emerged in 2001 and the years thereafter saw tremendous progress in the science of probiotics.

Almost simultaneous was the study on the study of the intestinal microbiota when Alfred Nissile demonstrated that transferring members of the human gut microbiota to healthy typhoid carriers helped in Salmonella being cleansed from their system (Nissle, 1916). It was then, that the importance of the gut microbes in prevention of infection became evident. What followed was the advent of culture independent, modern biotechnological tools for whole genome sequencing and the successful launch of two most ambitious projects - Human Microbiome project (Turnbaugh et al., 2007) and the Met Hit project (Metahit, 2009; Qin et al., 2010). They provided fascinating insights into the highly complex microbial ecosystem harboured by the human body. The term Microbiome (refers to the collective genome of our microbial inhabitants) had entered literature in 2001 and the concept of gut microbiota in maintaining overall health gained wider attention.

The increasing use of antibiotics in livestock and poultr y led to development of antibiotic resistant micro organisms and antibiotic residues in livestock products besides other side effects. These caused alarm bells ringing all over the world and by the end of June, 1999 majority of antibiotics as growth promoters in monogastric diets had been banned within the EU. The ban on use of antibiotic at sub therapeutic level in Europe and the potential for a ban in the United States have made scientists to seriously think of alternatives to antibiotics. In fact, the use of probiotics for farm animals was already stimulated by the findings of the Schwann Committee in 1969 which recommended that antibiotics in animal feeds should be restricted. However, the concept of probiotics gained momentum in later part of the last century. In recent years, with the public disapproval of using antibiotics in livestock and poultry production due to their residual effects in their products, there has been a greater emphasis on the use of probiotics in poultry.

Regeneration capacity of the soil is enhanced with the sowing of MVS which provides ideal condition for regeneration. It creates green cover / dry leaf cover in the top soil (35-40 cm height) which will facilitate the multiplication of inoculated beneficial microbes in the soil.

Multi Varietal seeds sowing techniques

MVS contains seeds of three to four crops belonging to each category viz., cereals, pulses oilseeds, nitrogen fixing green manures and spices and condiments. The seeds of above crops may be mixed in different proportion based on their growth habit and seasonal requirement. For example in the summer the following mixture can be practiced with each of 1-1.5 kg each.

12.1. Problem soils

Chemical constraints: Salinity, sodicity, acidity and nutrient toxicities

Physical constraints : High or low permeability, sub soil hard pan, surface crusting, fluffy paddy soils, sandy soils etc.

10.1. Introduction

The soils possessing characteristics that are not suitable and economical for crop growth are termed as Problem soils. These characteristics may be of physical, chemical and biological. For cultivation of crops in these soils, it is necessary to follow specific management interventions and proper reclamation measures. Frequently we come across another term, ’degraded soil’. Degraded soil is also a problem soil. However, there exists a hair-line difference between problem and degraded soil. Problem soils refer to the soils in which the inherent soil characteristics, obtained from its genesis, pose problems for their optimal use, while degraded soils are developed due to anthropogenic activities by unwise management interventions.

10.2. Types of problem

Mainly there are four types of problem that may exist in soils: physical problems, chemical problems, biological problems and nutritional problems as a result of physical, chemical and biological constraints in soils.

Introduction

Farming community is facing multiple problems to maximize crop productivity as well as to increase farm income. In spite of successful research on new agricultural practices concerning crop cultivation, majority of the farmers are not getting upper-bound yield and not earning profit due to several constraints. One of them is that expert advice regarding crop cultivation is not reaching the farming community in a timely manner. It is true that India possesses valuable agricultural knowledge and expertise. However, a wide information gap exists between research and actual adoption in the field. Farmers need timely expert advice to make farming more productive and competitive. Local information resource centers are gaining importance with computers carrying expert systems to help farmers in making decisions. It is known that many Agricultural Research Institutes are involved in the development of agricultural expert system to satisfy the information needs of farmers.

“Mostpeople spend more time and energy going around problems than in trying to solve them.”
 

- Henry Ford

A problem can be defined as a situation that prevents us from achieving the goals we have set for ourselves. It can be anything from financial, personal to work-related. Problems can arise anywhere, and any activity that helps to end our problem results in problem-solving. Being a part of an extension organization we have to come across different kinds of problems. Every job role has its problems. But how well do we cope up with the everyday problems that we often face? Some people are good at problem-solving. Others may think they are not. Most are somewhere in between.

Good problem solving skills empower managers in their professional and personal lives. Good problem solving skills seldom come naturally; they are consciously learnt and nurtured. The selection of good problem solving skills includes:

Duration: 60-75 minutes
Objective: Develop creative and analytical skills to identify, analyze, and resolve workplace challenges effectively.
Why It Matters
Problem-solving is critical for overcoming obstacles, improving processes, and driving innovation. Effective problem-solvers think critically and act decisively, while poor problem-solving leads to delays or ineffective solutions. For example, misdiagnosing a client complaint can escalate issues, while a structured approach resolves it quickly. This module equips participants with practical tools to tackle problems confidently.
Learning Outcomes: By the end of this module, participants will:
1. Understand a structured process for problem-solving (define, generate, evaluate, implement).
2. Practice root cause analysis and brainstorming techniques.
3. Apply problem-solving strategies to real-world scenarios.

ACID SOILS: Acid soils with pH below 6.5 are widespread. Main limitations of these acid soils are low pH, low CEC, low status of bases, especially Ca, Mg, and K along with toxicity of Al and Mn. Use of acidifying fertilizers aggravates this situation.

Introduction

Problem soils are those that impede agricultural productivity owing to mineral stress, dryness, acidity, sodicity, waterlogging, etc. Vertisol, acid sulphate soils, saline-sodic soils, peat soil, and fine textured alluvial soils were the categories Beek et al., (1980) used to group the problematic soils. In addition to vast areas where deficiencies of zinc, phosphate, and iron, or excesses of iron, aluminium, and manganese limit rice yields, Ikehashi and Ponnamperuma (1978) observed that approximately 100 million hectares of land that are physiographical and climatically suitable for rice lie idle due to the soil toxicities caused by salt, alkali, acid, or organic matter. Problem soils can be broadly defined as those that have unfavourable conditions whether natural or artificially created that severely restrict the successful development of crops. Soil profiles with high groundwater levels and a less permeable argillic layer, degraded soils, sandy soils with low fertility, coastal soils that frequently flood, and laterites could all be categorised as problem soils. Without taking into account related soil functions, soil health is evaluated independently. It is also based on the f indings from a few soil tests for different criteria. 2015 has been recognized the International Year of Soils by the 68th UN General Assembly in recognition of the importance of soil health in all dimensions.

Introduction

Before start of this chapter some pertinent questions need to be answered. What are different agro ecology and what are the problem soils. Since dawn of agriculture in early 2000 B.C. man has been doing agriculture as subsistence farming to cater the needs for his own consumption. Later on as the population increased, the availability of land per pearson reduced and further the commercialization of agriculture after world war II, particularly in industrialized nation, compelled farmers to increase productivity per unit area. The green revolution involving higher fertilizer uses, more use of agrochemicals together with evolvement of improved crop varieties in later part of twentieth century played vital role in producing higher grain production resulting the global production triplet in contrast to merely increase in total global cultivated area to the extent of 10%.

The catastrophe of green revolution was realized in later years when reports of soil health degradation started appearing. Intensified agriculture characterized by excessive use of fertilizers, agrochemicals and unsupportable level of over exploitation of natural resources led to serious degradation of ecosystem. Thus management of agroecosystem has reached to a crossroad with serious pressure to increase productivity simultaneously holding the soil health with prime concern for future generation. Thus the soil heath under different agroecosystem are posing problem as the soil productivity has not reached to plateau level but has started reducing year after year. Thus such soils are becoming problem which need special attention to bring them back to support higher crop production.

The problem soils are those which, due to its land or soil characteristics, cannot be economically used for the cultivation of crops without adopting proper reclamation measures. 
Classification of  Problem Soils:  The problem soils are divided into 3 groups. 
    ·    Highly Eroded Soils 
    ·    Saline and Alkali Soils 
    ·    Acid Soils 
Highly Eroded Soils
These soils are called ‘Usar’ in U.P., ‘Kallar or Thur’ in Punjab and ‘Luni’ in Rajasthan. In India, area under saline alkali soils is 7.0 mha. When the chloride (Cl), sulphate (SO₄^2-), carbonate (CO^₃2-) and bicarbonate(HCO₃-) salts of sodium (Na⁺), calcium (Ca²⁺) and magnesium (Mg²⁺) are increased in the soil, the soil become saline and alkaline. On the basis of amount of soluble salts, average quantity of exchangeable Na and pH, they are classified into 3 groups

The soils which owe characteristics that they cannot be economically used for the cultivation of crops without adopting proper reclamation measures are known as problematic soils. Different kinds of problematic soils viz., Physical, chemical and biological problematic soils exists and pose problems of crop production.

The popularity of greenhouse-grown produce continues to rise as it provides a variety of produce during the “off” season. Greenhouses are good for healthy plant nursery production and other a number of crops for profit. Though the greenhouse farming in India like in other countries is progressing but there are certain problems and constraints as stated below.

1.Greenhouse production generally is highly technical and requires constant and continuous attention during cropping period. Relevant information about the crop environmental requirement such as right temperature, humidity etc is essential.

2.Knowledge about the right type of inputs for greenhouse production is a must which is not easily available.

3.Greenhouses cultivation increases the land, water and fertilizer productivity along with reduction in pesticide use. But such interventions are associated with very high initial cost. Although, it is linked with several Government Schemes in India and have 50-90% of subsidies depending on intervention, status / socio-economic condition and policy of State and Central Government.

4.Uninterrupted and regular power supply is required for operating cooling and heating system of the controlled environment greenhouses which necessitate a back-up power pack which is also expensive and underutilized.

Soil erosion refers to detachment and transport of soil and soil particles from one place to other by the action of water, wind or gravity. Soil erosion consists of (i) detachment of soil particles from surface (ii) their transport from one place to other and (iii) deposition in another place.

Soil erosion are of two types: Natural erosion and accelerated erosion. The natural or geological erosion is steady, nondestructive and slow process of nature. On the contrary the accelerated erosion caused due to human activities like cutting of forest, intensive cropping, construction of roads and building is very rapid and destructive. Surface one inch of soil which is formed in thousand years can be lost within one year due to accelerated erosion.

In India, out of total 175 million hectares of degraded land, soil erosion due to water and wind accounts for 150 million hectare. Soil erosion due to shifting cultivation, salinity, alkalinity, water logging and shifting of water courses account for 25 million hectare.

Average soil loss from various land surfaces in India has been estimated to be 5334 million tonnes per year out of which 29 percent is permanently lost to sea, 10 percent is deposited in reservoirs and 61 percent is transported from one place to other. The plant nutrients lost through 5334 million tonnes of eroded soils was estimated to be 8.4 million tonnes which includes 2.5 million tonnes of N, 3.3 million tonnes of P and 2.6 million tonnes of K.

Siltation of reservoirs through water erosion is a major concern in India. This accelerated silting has considerably reduced the estimated life span of major reservoirs. The rate of siltation depends on the catchment area, soil erodability, topography and rainfall pattern. Larger the catchment area, smaller is the siltation load in the reservoirs because, the coarse fraction of eroded particles may be settle down in the stream valley before the water enters into the reservoir.

Saline and alkali soils occur commonly under arid climate due either to the presence of an excess of soluble sodium salts or to the predominance of sodium among the exchangeable bases.

Saline and alkali soils have been classified as follows

1. Saline soils

Saline soils were originally called “White alkali” soils. Russians term them as “Solonchak” soils.

The soils are classified as saline if the electrical conductivity of saturated soil paste is more than 4 dS /m at 25⁰C, exchangeable sodium is less than 15 percent and pH is less than 8.5.

2. Alkali soils

The soils have been classified as alkali if the electrical conductivity of saturated soil paste is less than 4 dS/m, exchangeable sodium is more than 15 percent and pH is 8.5 to 10.0.

Global demand for cut flowers is increasing steadily at around 10 per cent per annum. The share of India in this flourishing trade estimate at over US$ 40 billion per annum is negligible at 0.4 per cent. Floriculture include cut flowers, pot plants, cut foliage, seeds, bulbs, tubers, rooted cuttings and dried flowers or leaves. At international cut flower trade, flowers such as rose, carnation, Chrysanthemum, gerberas, gladiolus, gypsophilla, liatris, nerine, orchids, anthurium, tulips and lilies are preferred. Roses, gerberas and carnation are grown in greenhouses. The open field crops are Chrysanthemum, roses, gaillardia, lily, marigold, aster, tuberose etc. In India, floriculture is emerging as an important economic activity, earning foreign exchange. It has become a potential farm income enterprise. The domestic markets for high-quality flowers have been growing at 10- 20 per cent per year for the last few years. India’s flower business is estimated to be worth $ 400 million at retail, and about $ 100 million in international trade. Flower exports are about $ 30 million, constituting mainly of roses and dried flowers. Both Central and State Governments have been more than proactive and have made large investments in this industry in assisting production and marketing.

A large variety of floricultural crops can be produced in protected environment as economic cash crops for the benefit of farmers. Problems associated with floriculture in hills are small, scattered land holdings and sparsely located population. There is a lack of irrigation facilities due to scarce availability of water resources; widespread natural vagaries like drought, hail storms, frost etc. There is a serious gaps in application of advanced floricultural technologies for improving quality and productivity; high pressure on land use for different purposes like cereal crop production, fodder production, etc. due to low per capita land availability; difficulty in technology dissemination due to difficult terrain, hostile climate, poor communication facilities and sparsely located population. Consuming markets within the state are very less which result in dependence upon distant markets of the county. There is a high post-harvest losses due to lack of modern post-harvest management system; very high temperature differentials in production areas and consumer markets; perishable nature of flowers, resulting in high post-harvest losses during transportation; and distant location of production areas from main roads. High cost of marketing, lack of organised system of marketing, lack of bargaining power with individual growers due to small production levels; inadequate availability of market intelligence to farmers resulting in imbalances in distribution of produce in different markets.

Problems Associated with Rainfed Farming Agriculture

It is a dream desire to eliminate drought from this region. There are many problems that are associated with rainfed farming systems. The problems may be grouped into four major factors: climatic, edaphic, technological and socio- economic.

Climatic

1.Scarcity of rain-water which is low and unpredictable with respect to intensity and distribution;

2.High ET (nearly 3650 mm annually compared to total annual precipitation ranging from 350 to 1400 mm);

3.Extreme thermic values (upto 490C with the mean annual temperature exceeding 180C at some places);

4.High solar incidence (450 to 500 Cal cm² day^-1);

5.High wind velocity with desiccating winds causing a high rate of ET and wind erosion;

6.Low relative humidity;

7.Extensive climatic hazards such as weather aberrations, drought, flood, frost, gale, cyclones and burning winds due to dry, deserted and denuded situations.

Abstract

Development of vermicomposting technology in India was started in seventies, but except some areas of South India it has not been popularized among common masses. This technology is labour intensive and needs attention to handle the tiny earthworms in a proper manner. Sincerity and dedication bring success while casual attitude ends up in financial loss. Lack of proper knowledge on suitable technique, unawareness about nutrient and hygienic standards of vermicompost, non availability of suitable earthworms, lack of marketing and training facility are some major problems in non-flourishing this technology in rural areas. But this technology being simple and easy to follow, is gradually becoming a boon to the low educated poor unemployed youths of the society for their economic development through generating income and creating self employment. Vermicompost, vermi-T and earthworms are marketable product. Government agencies and Non Government Organizations are trying to popularize this technology which has bright prospect to maintain health and hygiene of human to environment.

Introduction

First feed mill was established in 1875 A.D. in the state of Illinois, U.S.A. for calf meal production.

First feed mill in India was established in Ludhiana, Punjab in 1969 A.D.

Introduction

Poultry farming is the process of raising domesticated birds such as chickens, ducks, turkeys, quails, guinea fowls, and geese for the purpose of farming meat or egg for food. Indian poultry industry is one of the fasted growing segments of the agricultural sector today in India. Undoubtedly, this impressive growth is a result of several factors such as active development support from the state and central government, research institutes, international collaboration and private sector participation. Indian poultry industry is self sufficient, supported by a broad and strong genetic base in which the productivity levels of broilers and layers are equal to those achieved elsewhere (i.e. in the United States of America and the European Union). Raising of day old chicks up to the stage of sale with assistance in the form of services from hatcheries, medical care from veterinarians, supply of medicine from pharmaceutical companies, manufacturing quality medicine, supply of poultry equipments and supply of nutritive poultry feed by commercial poultry feed manufacturers and financial assistance from various financial institutions are included under poultry industry.

In the recent days, poultry farming has become an important industry in our country. The changes, it has undergone in the past few years are quite surprising. The scope of the poultry farming is very much and there is lot of chances for improvement in this field. With the help of sophisticated instruments, the production of poultry products can be increased. Creation of public aware is needed for overall development of poultry industry. The egg is needed for over all development of poultry industry. The egg earlier treated as non-vegetarian item, is not being considered by most as not so.

Introduction

Milk is a natural food source of mammals. Animals produce milk to feed their young-ones until they are ready for solid feed. Cow milk contains protein, vitamins and minerals which are essential for the overall growth of the body. Cow milk contains a lot of nutrients and it has great role for overall health. Cow milk helps to boost the immune system of humans. Cow milk has a high content of calcium and minerals which plays a key role in maintaining bone density. Because of its high calcium content, cow’s milk is also considered great for teeth health. Cow milk has all essential amino acids that are required for growth and development. It is very beneficial for children as it helps to grow with physically and mentally. Cow milk help to reduce weight loss as it loaded with protein which is essential for weight loss. Calcium and vitamin D of milk increases the metabolic rate of the body. A better metabolic rate helps in burning calories faster. Drinking cow milk regularly helps you in maintaining the blood sugar levels in the body. Cow’s milk has essential minerals and vitamins that help in processing the food normally and this helps to maintain the insulin and glucose level.

Introduction

Goat is being raised for centuries as poor man’s cow due to its importance of providing employment in rural areas by producing meat and healthy meat. Goats also play major role in agriculture economy of India. Goat is excellent source of additional income for poor and landless owners. Farm can start from 1 male goat and 1 female goat. The goat milk is nutritious and easily digestible milk to their kids. Goats are easy to maintain as they can graze on open land. Goat farming is an excellent option where fodder and forage is limited. Goat farmers can get good returns with successful goat rearing. Now a day, goat farming has become more commercial and many people are taking up as a challenge to meet the demand and supply. There is good encouragement from governments and providing subsidies on especially stall fed goat farming. Most of the farmers, choosing stall fed goat farming as it has its own advantages as compared to open grazing methods.

Introduction

Sheeps were first domesticated by human being, many thousands of years ago for their wool, meat and skins. It provides a source of income to the shepherds through sale of wool and animal. Sheep do not need expensive building to house them and require less labour than other kinds of livestock. The foundation stock is relatively cheap and the flock can be multiplied rapidly. Sheep are economical convertor of grass into meat and wool. Sheep will eat varied kinds of plants compared to other kind of livestock. This makes them excellent weed destroyer. Unlike goats sheep hardly damage any tree. The production of wool, meat and manure provides three different source of income to the shepherd. The structure of their lips helps them to clean grains lost at harvest time and thus convert waste feed into profitable products.

Introduction

The basic concept of digital libraries is the sharing of information and resources globally for providing right and nascent information to the right user at the right time. It is the computing terminals having linkage to different sources of information in electronic or digital form. Digital library is a collection of information that is both digitalized and born in digital form, which offer capabilities beyond those of the agricultural and traditional libraries. Digital library is not only digitization of physical resources, but also thoughtful organization of electronic collection for better access.

The purpose of technological advancement these days is to make our lives comfortable. But many of the new inventions have added more stress to our lives and have made our lives increasingly more complex and complicated. Even more needs and demands seem to be built into our daily lives. These demands have affected the mental health, wellness, and psychological well-being of people living in our society.

These days, many advances have been made in eradicating disease, poverty, and other problems that have plagued our society, with the strains of modern living. Insecurity, worry, unhappiness, etc., have increased and have made mental illness our number one health problem. Anxiety and tension have increased so much that one out of every ten persons in our society has started taking tranquilizing drugs in one form or another.

The cases of mental illnesses have also increased these days, as shown by the admission records of the mental hospitals. These conditions have given birth to many psychological problems that are related to mental health. In this chapter, we are going to study those problems.

It is agony of the situation that even after attaining food security after a wonderful revolution, we are at a verge of complex combination of several crisis. This notably includes lack of nutritional security, deteriorating genetic base, loss of biological-diversity etc. Therefore at the 66^th session of general assembly of the United Nation 2014 was formally declared to be the “International Year of Family Farming” to reposition family farming at the centre of discussion to address multiple problems existing in agriculture (www.fao.org/family-farming-214/home/what-is-famly-farming/en/).

Family is the basic unit of the society. A self reliant and prosperous society needs self sustaining families which in turn require equitable and creative participation by all members of the family. Family farming is the backbone of agriculture where a rural youth effuse and rejuvenate this backbone through effective participation and obeisance of the tradition through which indigenous technical knowledge is transferred.

In an orchard all the fruit trees do not bear equally or regularly and sometimes fail to flower and fruit under similar conditions where another fruit tree bears heavily. This failure to set fruits may be attributed to unfruitfulness. To understand the problem of unfruitfulness in orchards a familiarity with following terms is necessary.

1.    Fruit setting: It refers to initial growth of ovary and its associated parts after blossoming and taking it to maturity.

2.    Fruitfulness: It is the state of plant when it is not only capable of flowering and fruit setting but also takes these fruits to maturity and inability to do so is unfruitfulness or barrenness.

3.    Infertility: Ability of a plant not only to produce fruits but develop viable seeds and the inability to do so is referred as sterility or infertility. All fertile plants are fruitful but all fruitful plants are not fertile (Seedless fruits).

4.    Self fruitfulness: Ability of a plant to mature fruits after self pollination.

While developing the toolkit for Participatory Curriculum Development participatory approaches like Focus Group Discussions and Field Level Workshops were adopted. The goal is to provide demand-driven services and to do so, extension professionals need to respond for farmers’ requests rather than deliver predetermined packaged solutions. It is also time to enable the farmers to empower and make their voices heard. Equally important is to make the service providers accountable to the farmers, which is possible when the farmers pay for the services they receive.

Biological materials

Seeds from self fertilized plants will be obtained from the concerned breeder. Hand picked, uniform sized seeds will be chosen for mutagenic treatments.

Gamma irradiation

Gamma irradiation will be performed in gamma chamber, exposing the seeds to gamma rays from ⁶⁰Co source: well filled and hand picked uniform sized seeds with a moisture content of 8.5 per cent will be chosen for irradiation. A sample of say 120 seeds per treatment will be packed in butter paper cover and placed in 100 curie ⁶⁰Co gamma cell. The treatments will be given for various duration depending on the doses required with the dose rate of say 54.05 rads/sec.

Chemical mutagenesis

The seeds will be soaked in water for say 6 hours before the chemical treatment. The duration of pre-treatment with water will be determined on preliminary blank experiment. In cowpea genotype Co. Vu. 623, there was about 5-10 per cent radical emergence about 12 hours after soaking in water. There was no radicle emergence before 12 hours water soaking. An initial pre-soaking period of 6 hours was therefore adopted for later treatment with mutagens. The total treatment period will be about 12 hours (6 hours with water and 6 hours with chemical mutagen). The duration of treatment with chemical mutagens will also be based on the half-life period of the mutagen solution.