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This is characterized by formation of erythematous papules or patches with clear margins and covered with white scales, in different parts of the body without any constitutional disturbances.

It is more common among young adults of either sex and occasionally a family history is present. This has a seasonal prevalence often appearing in winter and clearing up in summer.

The course in chronic is very obstinate and tends to recur after an apparent cure. It disappears without leaving scars or pigmentation. It is not infectious.

The epithelial layer is thickened and intercappilary processes and papillae are elongated, the horny layer is defective and there is cellular infiltration between the horny cells and blood vessels.

1. INTRODUCTION

The numbers of plant products that influence the nervous system are many and particular group that act on central nervous system by influencing neurotransmitters or endorphins are treated as psychoactive plants. Psychoactive drugs that act on the central nervous system are very much involved in psychiatry. The range of effect is wide for these plants and they can be divided into three categories viz.,

• Stimulants, which excite and enhance psycho motor activity.
• Depressants which reduce mental and physical performance and
• Hallucinogens which are capable of inducing dream like state.

A wide range of plant derivatives are involved in these mind altering drugs.

The psychological sets that can be barriers to communication can be characterized into several basic categories. These sets can occur in the sender or in the receiver in the communication process. The sender has the ability to recognize these barrier categories when they occur and to transform communication to overcome them. However, the receiver is a different story. If the receiver is interested in communication, he or she can recognize when these barriers arise and can consciously overcome them. On the other hand, when a receiver is passive in the communication process, he or she does not recognize the barriers and the sender can do little to overcome the blockage.

5.1 Introduction

The medium used in various unit operations of food process engineering such as heating, cooling, drying, mixing and transport processes, is moist air, which is a mixture of two substances. One of these is dry air which itself is a mixture of number of gases and the other is water vapour which may exist in a saturated or superheated state. The properties of moist air are called psychrometric properties and the subject, which involves determination of thermodynamic properties of moist air, is known as psychrometry. Thus, psychrometry is that branch of engineering science, which deals with the study of moist air i.e. dry air mixed with water vapour or humidity. Knowledge of properties of moist air is imperative in design of systems such as air- conditioning equipment for storage of fresh produce, dryers for drying of cereal grains, and cooling towers in food processing plants. In this chapter, important thermodynamic properties used in psychrometric computations are defined. Psychrometric charts useful in determining such properties are presented. In addition, various psychrometric process used in food process engineering are discussed.

1. Introduction

Pteridophytes consist of ferns and their allies and are one of the oldest groups of plants on the earth, and they are commonly known as vascular cryptogams. Pteridophytes have a long history of evolution and were the dominant group of plants during the carboniferous period. The ferns, which constitute major element of the pteridophytes, preferentially grow in shade, moist habitats with moderate temperature but also occur throughout from high altitude in arctic-alpine to rain forests of tropic regions of the world. The most favoured habitat of these plants, however, is tropical mesic environment, where 65% of the living species of fernsthrive vigorously and grow luxuriantly (Page, 1979). Ferns are distinct in having rhizomes, stipes, fronds and are homosporous, whereas the fern allies exhibit scale like leaves and are heterosporous (mega and micro). In ferns, the spore matures into gametophyte that bears both male and female gametangia in a definite pattern. In fern allies, both the mega and microspore mature into female and male gametophyte that bears female and male gametangia, respectively. Pteridophytes are unique in having two different phases-the gametophyte and sporophyte. There has been a wide range of variation in spatial distribution, habitat, growth pattern and morphology of pteridophytes. Fern and fern allies, are comprised of six distantly related classes viz. Lycopodiopsida, Selaginellopsida, Isoetopsida, Equisetopsida, Psiloptopsida and Polypodiopsida (Copeland 1947; Pichi Sermoli 1987).

There are about 12000 species of the pteridophytes belonging to 300 genera in the world, whereas India is represented by about 1200 species (Chandra, 2000). Beddome (1892) during the first quarter of the twentieth century provided a comprehensive account on ferns of British India, and subsequently, Clarke (1880) and Hope (1899, 1900, 1902, 1903, 1904) made significant contributions in taxonomic studies of pteridophytes mainly the ferns of north western India. Several workers (Nayar and Kaur 1974; Dixit 1984; Chandra and Kaur 1987, 1994; Manickam et al. 1992; Khullar 1994, 2000; Chandra 2000; Singh 2003; Singh and Panigrahi 2005a, 2005b) have significantly contributed towards the taxonomy of Indian pteridophytes.

Puberty • It is the age at which sexual organs are functionally developed and gonads start responding to GnRH to start steroidogenesis and spermatogenesis. Animal at puberty develops secondary sexual characters with proper libido. • At puberty, the bull is able to produce 50 million spermatozoa with 10% progressive motility in 1st seminal ejaculates. It should be 100 million spermatozoa with 10% progressive motility in 1st seminal ejaculate in case of stallion. • At puberty, gonadotrophic cells are functionally developed in the mature pituitary tends to gonadal maturation. The steroidogenesis starts properly which leads to the development of genital organs and secondary sexual characters.

Puberty and sexual maturity

Puberty is defined as the age at which reproductive function is initiated in animals. This corresponds to changes in hormone levels and the ability to function sexually in order to reproduce. The puberty is the period when the sexual organs are functionally developed, libido is prominent and the male is able to produce the spermatozoa and is able to copulate resulting in pregnancy. The onset of puberty is a gradual process and occurs after achieving optimum body weight, which is influenced by plane of nutrition, genetic differences, management practices, breed, diseases and individual differences.

The intricate relationship between weather, climate, and agriculture dictates food security and the livelihoods of countless communities across the globe. In this context, public awareness of agricultural meteorology – the science of how weather and climate impact agricultural practices and outcomes – is not merely informative; it is transformative. This chapter delves into the critical role of fostering understanding and knowledge of agrometeorological principles among the broader public, with a particular focus on empowering farming communities. By exploring the significance of making weather and climate information accessible, relevant, and actionable, we will examine the strategies, initiatives, and global efforts aimed at building a weather-literate agricultural sector (Fig. 15.1). Ultimately, enhanced public awareness in this domain equips individuals and communities with the tools to make informed decisions, mitigate risks, adapt to changing climatic conditions, and contribute to more resilient and sustainable agricultural systems worldwide.

Tools of Public Awareness

The public awareness and awakening can be created among people through various means and ways. In this age of computers and communication, science and technology, information and advertisements there are several quick and effective means of spreading news. The electronic media, the press, education institution, religious, adult education, moral education, spiritual education, religious discourse etc. all are essentially complementary to each other. The governments and the policy makers can only work forwards environmental preservation on political basis. The media, if work passively on pro environmental issues, awareness can be effectively generated among people.

Introduction
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as one of the most pressing global health threats, with implications that extend beyond human medicine to animal health, food security, and the environment. In livestock production systems, the misuse and overuse of antibiotics contribute significantly to the development of resistant pathogens. These resistant organisms can spread from animals to humans through direct contact, contaminated food products, and environmental pathways. The containment of AMR in livestock is not solely a technical or regulatory challenge—it is also a social and behavioral issue. Public awareness, education, and behavioural change are key pillars of any effective AMR mitigation strategy. Schools, community networks, and media platforms play vital roles in shaping knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to antibiotic use in livestock.
Causes of AMR in Livestock
Over-prescription and misuse of antibiotics in veterinary care Use of antimicrobials as growth promoters rather than for therapeutic purposes Poor farm bio-security and hygiene leading to frequent infections
Inadequate regulation and over-the-counter sale of antibiotics without veterinary oversight
Public Health Impact
Transmission of resistant pathogens via the food chain Contamination of soil and water with resistant genes through manure
Emergence of zoonotic diseases with limited treatment options

Introduction

The field of public finance is a critical aspect of economic governance that delves into how governments manage their revenue, expenditures, and debt to fulfill societal needs and ensure economic stability. Public finance encompasses the financial activities of governments at various levels, including national, state, and local, focusing on the income and expenditure of public authorities and the underlying principles guiding these financial transactions.

Significance of Public Finance

• Role in Society: Public finance is a branch of public policy and economics concerned with how governments raise funds, allocate resources, and address economic and social needs.

• Government Functions: Governments provide public goods and services like infrastructure, defense, education, and social welfare programs that are essential for societal well-being.

• Market Correction: Public finance enables governments to address market failures by providing public goods that individuals or businesses would not produce efficiently on their own.

• Income Redistribution: Through programs like social security and welfare, public finance helps moderate income disparities by supporting those in need.

Animal husbandry plays a vital role in the development of agriculture and is an integral component of rural economy especially in the hilly mountainous terrains of the country. Disasters, whether caused by unavoidable natural events or by avoidable, man-made events, always have been a part of human life. Hilly areas because of their geo-physical and climatic conditions are always prone to natural disasters like earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, cloud bursts and landslides etc. During the past few decades, disasters have killed millions of people and animals, adversely affecting the human and animal lives, resulting in substantial tangible and intangible losses in an unanticipated manner. Veterinary professionals by virtue of their strong scientific and technical competence play a pivotal role in human health by providing safe, wholesome and sound animal proteins which are valuable component in the prevention of malnutrition. Moreover, public health veterinarians are also actively concerned in protecting the environment by safe disposal of human and animal waste without adverse consequences. Thus, veterinarians always have a role to play in all stages of disaster mitigation and management; however the contribution of veterinarians will be most effective by integrating their expertise with other local, national and international groups and agencies involved in disaster management. In any country, funding for disaster relief should include veterinary management of disasters being recognized as a form of humanitarian assistance and a contribution to public health.

INTRODUCTION

‘Society’, this word is derived from the Latin word ‘socius’ which literally means a companion. Society is complex organism constituted by persons bound in willing allegiance to some common standards of psychological approach and outward behavior [10]. The story of libraries reflects the social, economical, cultural and educational needs to which libraries have responded. In preliterate society, human beings depended on live memory and the spoken words. By 2700 BC, the Sumerians had established private and government libraries for preserving their varied writings for use in the form of clay tablets. Ancient Egypt, from where writing was developed, produced some libraries which were composed of papyrus rolls [11]. So we can see, from the very initial stage of the society; books, papers, manuscripts, drawings, copper plates and other articles were being presented to it by various sources. We know that there is close relation between books and society. Healthy society is the creation of sound mind by books. Without sound mind, social progress can not be achieved properly. Every significant book may reflect distinct period of history. It is not essential to say that an author and his works can create new culture and lead to social changes. The books of authors of different countries in the world had / have a long influence on society [3].

In this present era, literature and knowledge is growing very fast and for their proper collection, preservation and to properly disseminate to people, we need public libraries. Society always depends on smooth growth and this growth is neither willful nor arbitrary[10]; it is consistent and systematic. For smooth and systemic growth of society, the government of different countries and states in the world have established schools, colleges and universities. No doubt, the government, different organizations, industrialists have to give priority to drinking water, sanitation and other conveniences. On the other hand, to remove illiteracy or to educate the citizens/nations and to introduce the human beings with phenomenal explosion of knowledge and information, government and other reputed agencies have established and also are establishing public libraries whose services play a vidal role in national progress and development.

1. Background

Agriculture sustains 58 per cent of population in India. Productivity and profitability are two major planks for food security and sustainable livelihood of farmers. About 86 per cent of farmers in India own less than two hectors of land. As a result, their marketable surplus is small which poses a major challenge in ensuring remunerative price. Limitations associated with quality of produce, storage, transportation, credit as well as vagaries of weather and market are other related problems. These limitations further aggravate if the producers happen to be women due to their socio-cultural and economic position in the society. Only a decentralised and income assuring approach alone can bring prosperity to the farmers apart from gender equality. This would ultimately propel the agricultural growth of the country.

The chapter discusses one of such approaches called the public private partnership (PPP). It has gained prominence in the wake of the demand for farm reforms, trade, commerce, climate change and gender equality in recent years.

A public relations (PR) is a vital function for any organization, aimed at fostering beneficial relationships between the organization and its various publics. This chapter explores the core processes in PR and the distinct types of publics involved. By understanding both aspects, PR practitioners can more effectively craft messages, manage perceptions, and achieve organizational objectives.
The Public Relations Process
The PR process can be broadly defined as a strategic framework used to plan, execute, and evaluate activities aimed at building and maintaining a positive image of an organization among its stakeholders. One commonly used model to describe this process is the RACE model: Research, Action planning, Communication, and Evaluation (Marston, 1963). Each step plays a critical role in shaping effective PR practices.
The process of public relations generally involves several key stages, often structured as a cycle. Here’s an overview of the main steps:
1. Research and Analysis This initial stage involves gathering information about the organization, its publics, the market, and the situation at hand. It includes understanding the needs, preferences, and behaviors of target audiences, as well as identifying potential issues or opportunities.
2. Planning and Strategy Development Based on research findings, a clear PR plan is created. This involves setting objectives, defining target publics, crafting key messages, and choosing the right communication channels. This stage outlines how to address the organization’s goals through tailored PR strategies.
3. Communication and Implementation The planned PR strategies and messages are put into action. This can include creating press releases, managing media relations, organizing events, running social media campaigns, or other methods of engaging with the target publics. Consistency in messaging is essential at this stage.

A Public Relations (PR) strategy plan for the transfer of technology focuses on effectively communicating the value, usage, and benefits of new technology to target audiences, ensuring its successful adoption. Here’s an overview of the key elements:
Objectives
• Awareness: Inform stakeholders about the new technology and its applications.
• Acceptance: Build trust and credibility regarding the technology’s benefits.
• Adoption: Encourage usage and integration of the technology within the target groups.
Key Components of the PR Strategy
a. Audience Identification
• Farmers, industry stakeholders, policymakers, and consumers are common target groups.
• Segment audiences based on their level of familiarity with the technology.
b. Communication Channels
• Traditional Media: Print media, radio, and television for rural and less tech-savvy groups.
• Digital Platforms: Social media, webinars, and email campaigns for urban and tech-savvy audiences.
• On-Ground Events: Demonstrations, workshops, and fairs to showcase the technology in action.
Example Image: A community workshop with experts explaining the use of modern farming tools to farmers.

Public relations (PR) is an essential tool that organizations use to manage their public image, build relationships with key stakeholders, and communicate effectively with diverse audiences. The field of public relations has evolved significantly, and several models provide a framework for understanding its various functions and practices. This chapter delves into the most influential public relations models, analyzing their development, characteristics, and applications. By understanding these models, readers can gain a deeper insight into the strategies and approaches that guide modern PR practices.
Introduction to Public Relations Models
The concept of public relations as a strategic communication process has grown in complexity over time, with different models emerging to explain how organizations interact with their publics. PR models serve as frameworks, enabling professionals to implement effective communication strategies. These models can be thought of as lenses through which PR practitioners view the interactions between organizations and their target audiences. Developed by scholars and practitioners, these models help PR professionals understand, design, and execute strategies that are aligned with the goals of their organizations.
Historically, the development of public relations models has paralleled changes in societal expectations, advances in technology, and shifts in media landscapes. PR models highlight how organizations adapt to these changes and how the purpose of PR—whether to persuade, inform, or build mutual understanding—shapes PR strategies. In this chapter, we explore the four primary PR models identified by James E. Grunig and Todd Hunt in the early 1980s: the Press Agentry/Publicity model, the Public Information model, the Two-Way Asymmetrical model, and the Two-Way Symmetrical model.

Introduction
Public speaking is an essential skill that has empowered individuals to communicate ideas, influence others, and effect change. Its roots trace back to ancient civilizations, where orators like Aristotle and Cicero in Greece and Rome set the foundations for what is now considered an art and science. Today, public speaking is valuable in various fields, from business and politics to education and social activism. This chapter will explore the need and purpose of public speaking, shedding light on its role in personal, professional, and societal contexts.
The Need for Public Speaking
Public speaking is an indispensable skill for various reasons, each of which relates to a fundamental aspect of communication in society. Below are some of the primary needs addressed by public speaking:
Enhancing Communication Skills
Public speaking helps individuals to express their ideas clearly and persuasively, a skill essential for effective communication in both professional and personal spheres. By honing these skills, speakers become better equipped to share their thoughts and influence others.
• Active Listening and Empathy: Effective public speakers are also active listeners, adapting their messages based on the audience’s feedback and emotional cues, fostering a sense of empathy and engagement (Lucas, 2014).

Public speaking is a powerful tool that has influenced the course of history, shaped public opinion, and inspired change. The ability to deliver an engaging and effective speech is a skill that distinguishes leaders, educators, politicians, and thought leaders. Public speaking is not just about conveying information; it’s an art that requires certain key characteristics to make the message impactful and memorable. This chapter explores the essential characteristics of effective public speaking, providing readers with a framework to enhance their speaking abilities.
Clarity
Clarity is one of the most essential characteristics of public speaking. A clear message allows the audience to understand the speaker’s intent without confusion. This involves:
• Articulate Speech: Pronunciation and enunciation should be precise to avoid misunderstandings. Articulate speech allows the audience to grasp complex ideas with ease.
• Simple Language: Avoiding jargon and using language that is easily understood by the audience ensures that the message is accessible to all.
• Structured Content: Organizing ideas in a logical sequence, with a clear introduction, body, and conclusion, helps the audience follow the argument or message effortlessly.
Confidence
Confidence can determine the overall impact of a speech. A confident speaker commands attention, instills trust, and appears knowledgeable. Key elements of confidence include:

Introduction
Public speaking is a powerful skill that enables individuals to convey ideas, influence others, and build lasting connections. Whether in a formal or informal setting, effective public speaking has the potential to enhance credibility, improve career prospects, and even inspire social change. In today’s interconnected world, public speaking has gained significance as more people are required to present ideas, deliver information, and interact with diverse audiences. This chapter will explore the importance of public speaking, its impact on various aspects of life, and the benefits it offers for personal and professional growth.
The Role of Public Speaking in Modern Society
Public speaking has been central to social and political discourse for centuries. Orators like Martin Luther King Jr., Mahatma Gandhi, and Winston Churchill used powerful rhetoric to shape public opinion and inspire action. In modern society, public speaking remains crucial in diverse fields such as business, education, media, and politics, where individuals use their voice to influence, inform, and connect with others. Research has shown that effective public speaking contributes significantly to leadership abilities, enhancing both personal influence and team performance (O’Hair et al., 2018).
Professional Growth and Career Advancement
Public speaking skills are highly valued in professional settings. Leaders, managers, and employees alike are often required to present ideas, provide feedback, and motivate teams. According to a survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE), communication skills are among the top qualities employers look for in job candidates. Professionals with strong public speaking skills are often perceived as more competent, confident, and credible, qualities that are advantageous for career progression (Andrews & Bodey, 2017).

Introduction
Public speaking is both an art and a science. It’s about effectively delivering a message to an audience in a way that is clear, engaging, and impactful. Successful public speaking requires not only a well-structured message but also a mastery of delivery methods. How a speaker delivers their message can significantly influence how it is received, understood, and remembered by the audience. This chapter will explore the various modes of delivery in public speaking and provide a checklist to guide speakers in enhancing their effectiveness.
Modes of Delivery in Public Speaking
Public speaking is commonly categorized into four primary modes of delivery, each suited to different contexts, audiences, and types of messages. Choosing the right mode is essential for maximizing engagement and ensuring clarity.
Manuscript Speaking
Manuscript speaking involves reading a written script word-for-word. This mode is typically used in formal situations where precision is critical, such as legal proceedings, political addresses, or scientific presentations.
Advantages
• Ensures accuracy and consistency in wording.
• Reduces the likelihood of errors in complex or sensitive topics.
Disadvantages
• Can lead to a lack of engagement if the speaker reads in a monotonous tone.
• Limits eye contact and interaction with the audience.
Best Used For
• Formal events where exact wording is essential (e.g., policy announcements).
• Speeches on technical or sensitive topics requiring precision.

Public speaking is an invaluable skill for anyone who wants to make an impact, inspire, and influence others. Whether presenting in a boardroom, at a conference, or during a class lecture, being able to communicate effectively is crucial. This chapter explores key techniques in public speaking that can help anyone enhance their effectiveness as a speaker, overcome the fear of public speaking, and connect with their audience in meaningful ways.
Understanding the Basics of Public Speaking
Public speaking isn’t merely about speaking loudly or confidently. It’s an art that combines clear communication, audience connection, and impactful delivery. The best speakers understand the needs of their audience, the purpose of their message, and the way to structure their talk to achieve the desired outcome.
1. Knowing Your Purpose: Before preparing your speech, define what you want to achieve. Is it to inform, inspire, persuade, or entertain? Having a clear objective provides direction and helps focus your content on what truly matters.
2. Audience Analysis: Effective speakers tailor their message to their audience. Analyze your audience’s demographics, interests, and level of knowledge on the topic. This insight will guide your tone, examples, and vocabulary, ensuring you address the audience in a way they find relatable and engaging.
3. Structure Your Speech: The classic structure includes an introduction, body, and conclusion:

Meaning – Points to be considered in public speaking – Effective public speaking: Group Discussion: Meaning – Procedure – Advantages – Limitations; Seminar Conferences: Definition and meaning – Steps in organizing seminar / conferences/ symposium / workshop

Definition

Public speaking is the process and act of speaking or giving a lecture to a group of people in a structured, deliberate manner intended to inform, influence, or entertain a listening audience. Public speaking is commonly understood as face-to-face speaking between individuals and an audience for the purpose of communication. It is closely allied to “presenting”, although the latter is more often associated with commercial activity. Most of the time, public speaking is to persuade the audience.

Public speaking can serve the purpose of transmitting information, telling a story, motivating people to act or some combination of those. This type of speech is deliberately structured with three general purposes: to inform, to persuade and to entertain. Knowing when public speaking is most effective and how it is done properly is a key part in understanding the importance of it.

Points to be considered in public speaking

1. Prepare to succeed

The single most important thing you can do to make your next presentation successful is to be prepared. That means make time for some serious practice. Experts suggest you spend 60% of your time to prepare your content and slides and 40% of your time to practice.

2. Say it correctly

Part of good preparation is double-checking the pronunciation of any tricky words—especially jargon. Your correct pronunciation and knowledge of industry terms lends credibility to your presentation.

1.0. Objectives

• To illustrate public speaking competence
• To impart the knowledge of making speech more effective
• To prepare learners able to make the balance between orator and audience
• To inculcate presentation skills in the learners

2.0. What is Public Speaking

Public speaking is a process of speaking to a group of people in a structured, deliberate manner intended to inform, influence, or entertain the listeners.

What so ever work you have done, it will not be recognized in the scientific world unless you publish it hence publishing the search work is of prime importance for a scientist. As it provides you recognition, you must pay greatest attention on quality of your research work which depends on the keenness of your observations. It is must to confirm and re-confirm your observations prior publishing them as once they are published, it will come in public domain with nothing you can do (except of publishing another paper to refute your earlier finding). As publishing the observations will form opinion about your scientific integrity and knowledge among the peers, the paper, if not cared and contained silly technical mistakes, will reflect ignorance of the workers on the subject.

The word PULSATILLA is derived from PULSATUS meaning to beat or to strike as it pulsates from the blowing winds.

The weathercock among remedies. The disposition and mental state are the chief guiding symptoms to the selection of Pulsatilla. It is pre-eminently a female remedy, especially for mild, gentle, yielding disposition. Sad crying readily; weeps when talking; changeable, contradictory. The patient seeks the open air; always feels better there, even though he is chilly. Mucous membranes are all affected. Discharges thick, bland, and yellowish green. Often indicated after abuse of Iron tonics, and after badly- managed measeals. Symptoms ever changing. Thirstless, peevish and chilly. When first serious impairment of health is referred to age of puberty. Great sensitiveness.

Pulsatilla cures chronic colds, fatty dyspepsia, and painful and scanty menstruation. One of the leading indications for the use of Pulsatilla is a thick, bland, yellowish or green discharge from mucous membranes in the body. Such discharges are to be found in nasal catarrh, in expectoration from the ears, the eyes, the lungs, ulcers, leucorrhoea and in gonorrhoea. In most such cases Pulsatilla leads to a cure. In the vagina, however, this discharge is excoriating and not bland.

Pulses are legumes whose grains are consumed as dal. Thus all legumes are not pulses, but all pulses are legumes. Legumes are characterized by presence of nodules in the root systems and papilionaceous form of flowers. Pigeon pea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millisp.], green gram [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczec.], black gram [Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper], cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.], horse gram[Macroyloma uniflorum [(Lam.) Verd.] and moth bean[Vigna acontilifolia (jacq.) Marechal] are the important kharif pulse crops grown in different parts of India. The common rabi pulses are chickpea(Cicer arietinum L.), lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.), pea (Pisum sativum L.), lathyrus (Lathyrus sativus L.) and frenchbean ( Phaseolus vulgaris ). All these have C₃ photosynthetic cycle. All form root nodules in association with symbiotic bacterium Rhizobium. Increase in concentration of green house gases, particularly carbon di-oxide, has led to global warming and climate change. The extreme weather events such as drought, excess moisture, untimely rain, cyclone, excess heat and hailstorm have become common. Crops respond differently to increase in CO₂ concentration. Both abiotic and biotic stresses due to global warming are likely to reduce productivity of pulses/pulse based cropping systems through adverse effects on crop growth and development. Birthalet al. (2014) reported higher decrease in grain yield of pulses(pigeonpea and chickpea) as compared to cereals (rice and wheat) due to rise in the minimum and the maximum temperature.

Abstract

Pulse combustors provide an advantageous superposition of unsteady gas flow and high intensity sound waves. Such a combination does not only accelerate drying rates because of increased heat and mass transfer but also allows processing of liquids, pastes and agglomerated solids in a dispersed state due to aerodynamic impact from the high intensity sound wave. Over last decades, applications of pulse combustion in drying have been exploited continuously and different pulse combustion dryers have been designed and fabricated. In pilot tests and technical reports on these dryers, short drying time, high energy efficiency and product quality are generally reported, which cause that pulse combustion drying is regarded as a technology of the future in convective drying.

This chapter attempt to introduce basic knowledge and state-of the art about this emerging technology and summarizes some recent studies in pulse combustion drying and equipment design. Following a concise description of pulse combustion and pulse combustor, the basic types of pulse-combustion dryers are presented, including spray dryers, fluidized bed dryers, impinging dryers, and dryers of special design. The existing commercial applications and pilot test projects are described and potential applications are identified.

1. Clean and wash the pulses, Mix the pulses with water, soak for 1 hour, 3 hours, 6hours, 9hours and overnight.
2. After soaking drain the water wash thoroughly and add fresh water keep it for boiling/cooking.
3. Study the effect of Acid and effect of Alkali on cooking time of pulses.

Pulses are edible seeds of the family Leguminosae, sub family papilionaceae, and are integral part of Indian diet. Indians consume 30 per cent of the world’s pulses, but domestic production of pulses has not kept pace with population growth. Pulses are called “poor man’s meat” as pulses are rich in protein, which is double the protein content of wheat and three times that of rice. Globally, 190 mha of pulses contributes to 5-7 mt of nitrogen in soils.

Pulse means

P = PEOPLE (major source of dietary protein)

U = UMBRELLA

L = LIVESTOCK (green nutritious fodder and feed)

S = SOIL (builder and restorer of soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation and green manuring). E = ENERGY.

It is an easy, non-invasive, bed side technique for continuous monitoring the saturation of oxygen bound to hemoglobin (SpO2). The technique was invented by Dr. Takuo Aoyagi in 1974 to measure oxygen saturation in the blood. During recent years it has shown great utility in patient care. The oxygen saturation of hemoglobin provides a measure of cardio-respiratory functioning. Pulse oximeters generally used in humans are not appropriate for the use in dogs and cats as these are designed to apply on fingers and programmed with the oxygen hemoglobin dissociation curve for humans.

Indications

Pulse oximetry is an important standard technique of patient care in cases of heart failure, respiratory failure, multiple organ failure, critical care, emergency, accident and during anesthesia.

Abstract

Consumers increased response to new products with high sensory, organoleptic and nutritional potentials has impelled a search for new substitutes to processing methods. For several years, thermal processing was the main technology for producing safe products with long shelf lives, although in most cases losses of fresh flavors, vitamins, and some physicochemical characteristics were the price of safety and long-term stability. Pulsed electric field (PEF) processing as a non- thermal technique has been proven to inactivate microorganisms with minimal losses of flavor and food quality, possibly making it the answer to present-day consumer demands. In addition, the low processing temperatures used in this non- thermal technology allow the process to be nutrient preserving, energy efficient, which translates into lower costs and fewer environmental impacts. In this chapter, the the configuration of various PEF equipment, their electric configuration and recent application of this technique in processing of foods have been discussed in detail.

6.1 Introduction

Consumer demand, regulatory guidelines and economic power of the consumer as well as ascertained profitability stimulated the need of novel food processing techniques. The concept of “fresh”, “natural”, or “organic” food also led to the development of environmentally sound and resource efficient food processing technologies. Thermal processes have been used for food preservation since a long time. These are not very energy efficient and can change the phase of food from fresh to cooked as well as it can alter the nutritional and sensory qualities. Thus, the quest for energy conservation by the manufacturers to reduce carbon footprint of the processes involved in food processing and preservation as well as to fulfill consumers’ requirement for fresh-like quality food have given rise to the development of innovative non-thermal food processing technologies i.e. ionizing radiation, high-intensity light pulses, high isobaric pressure, electric or oscillating magnetic fields, as well as pulsed electric fields (PEF).

Application of electric energy in food processing started in the early 1900s. In the beginning, electrical pasteurization inactivated microorganisms by increasing the temperature of samples by means of an electrical resistance (ohmic heating). Milk was the first electrically pasteurized product. In the late 1940s, electric fields were used to increase the permeability of fruits to facilitate the subsequent extraction of juices. The PEF technology as a non-thermal process is very effective for inactivation of microorganisms, increasing the pressing efficiency, enhancing the juice extraction, and for intensification of the food dehydration and drying process. The main effect of PEF technology is based on the phenomena that biological membranes are punctured under the influence of external electrical impulses. This process is often referred as non-thermal, since the structural damage to membranes is implemented at very low temperature compared to the conventional heating process. The PEF process is considered to be energy efficient because the electric energy is released in short pulses, thus total energy requirement is much lower than other continuous preservation technologies. The microbial inactivation can be achieved at ambient or moderately elevated temperatures by the application of short-bursts of high intensity electric fields to liquid foods flowing between two electrodes or to semi-solid/ solid food between some specialized electrode and treatment systems. Due to chemical/physical properties and presence of electrical charge, the liquid foods (e.g. milk or fruit juices) had different conductivity, which results in variable flux of electrical current through the food systems.

1. Introduction

Thermal processing treatments are the conventional methods that have been broadly employed in the food industry to guarantee the microbiological safety of food materials at a minimal cost. However, these thermal treatments cause undesirable changes in flavor, nutritive value, texture, or color of the finished product that impact food quality (Pan et al., 2017). Growing the modern consumer’s demand towards the minimally processed and “fresh-like” taste foods has challenged the food industry to develop novel non-thermal preservation techniques as an alternative to thermal processing. 

INTRODUCTION

Pulses are edible fruits or seeds of food bearing plants belonging to the family of the leguminosae. The major pulses which find important place in our diet are redgram dhal, bengal gram dhal, black gram dhal, green gram dhal and masoor dhal. Some are used as whole grams cow pea, rajmah and dry peas also belong to leguminous family.

Legumes not only have dietary values but also play an important role in maintaining or even improving soil fertility through their ability to fix atomospheric nitrogen.

1. Introduction

Conservation agriculture (CA) strategies and practices have been developed and promoted to reduce risk and improve natural resource conditions, as well as address the combination of low yields, production risks and poor natural resource conditions. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), CA is an approach to managing agro-ecosystems for improved and sustained productivity, increased profits and food security while preserving and enhancing the resource base and the environment. It is based on enhancing natural biological and ecological processes above and below ground. Interventions such as mechanical soil tillage are reduced to an absolute minimum, and the use of external inputs such as agrochemicals and nutrients of mineral or organic origin are applied at an optimum level and in a way and quantity that does not interfere with or disrupt biological processes (FAO, 2008). 

The relevance and need for an eco-friendly alternative farming system arose from the ill effects of the chemical farming practicesadopted worldwide during the second half of the last century. The methods of farming evolved and adopted by our forefathers for centuries were less injurious to the environment. People began to think of various alternative farmingsystemsbased on the protection of environment which in turn would increase the welfare of the humankind in various ways like clean and healthy foods, an ecology which is conducive to the survival of all the living and non-living things, low use of the non-renewable energy sources, etc. Many systems of farming evolved as an outcome of the efforts of many experts and laymen. However, organic farming is considered to be the best amongall of them because of its scientific approach and wider acceptance all over the world.

Organic farming means farming in the spirit of organic relationship. In nature, organic relationship is a pervasive phenomenon. Everythingis connectedwith everything else. Hence, organic farmingis not mere non-chemicalism in agriculture. Since, organic farmingmeans placingfarmingonintegral relationship, wehave to know therelationship between soil-water and plant; betweensoilandsoil microbes andwasteproducts;between the plant and animal kingdom of which the apex animal is the human being; between agriculture and forestry; between soil, water and atmosphere etc.It is the totality of the relationship that is the bedrock of organic farming. However, the understanding of this totality of relationship is not sufficient for success in organic farming. Understanding the local specificity in respect of each of these aspects of these multiple relationship is also important (Pal, 2006).

Introduction

Pulses are pivotal and integral component of Indian agriculture and are excellent crops for natural resources management, environment security, crop diversification consequently for viable agriculture. India contributes 25 percent of the global production but has to import pulses to the home to the tune of 3.5mt every year to meet domestic requirement. In spite of largest area for chickpea, pigeon pea, lentil, dry beans & total pulses in the world, India’s’position in average productivity has never been decent i.e.25^th rank in chickpea, 19^th in Pea & 98^th in total pulses. This indicates that except chick pea & pigeon pea, the average productivity of the country is significantly lower than average yield of the world. To make India self sufficient in pulse production, the productivity level has to increase more than1200 kg/ha. by 2020. This gigantic task needs rigorous development & promotional efforts to transfer agro-technology packages in crop improvement and crop management, which are capable of doubling the present level of productivity Nanda et al. (1999) and Nanda

Pulse legumes are considered to be the best choice for intensification of predominant cereal-based systems. The studies conducted in different agro-climatic zones under AICRP on cropping systems have revealed that the productivity of existing cropping-systems can be enhanced by the inclusion of legumes during summer or as catch crop, or in intercropping systems (Gangwar et al., 2009). Further, these food legumes also serve as a feed crop in many farming systems and fetch higher prices compared to cereals and are increasingly being grown to supplement farmers’ incomes (Gouda et al., 1999). Although pulse legumes have many desirable characteristics in terms of increasing system’s productivity, raising nutritional standards and environmental benefits, in most countries of the world they are considered secondary crops. Globally, the harvested area under pulse crops is about one-tenth of the harvested area under all cereal crops. In view of the important and diverse role played by pulses in the farming systems and in the diets of the poor population, this chapter presents the global trade scenario in pulses followed by pulses production and trade opportunities in India. An attempt is also made to highlight the major concerns and to meet the future challenges in production and trade of pulses in India.

In the post-green revolution period, the incessant rice-rice/wheat crop rotation has undoubtedly made the country surplus in cereal production but has marginalized pulses. This has raised serious concern about sustainability of the production system. Recognizing the importance of pulses for meeting dietary requirements of vast vegetarian population on one hand and their role in improving soil health and conserving natural resources on the other, the efforts were made to develop high yielding, short duration and disease resistant varieties of different pulse crops which can help in diversification and intensification of popular cropping systems. As a result, several new cropping systems have been designed, developed and advocated for rainfed and irrigated areas.

Introduction

Foods prepared by fermenting raw ingredients of plant or animal sources naturally or mixing it with the starter culture (s) containing functional micro flora is called fermented foods. The functional micro flora used in starter culture is responsible for biochemical and organoleptic alteration of the substrates into edible yields which are socially and culturally appropriate to consumers (Tamang et al., 2010a, Tamang et al., 2010b). Fermented food has its own characteristic microflora and this group of micro flora increases the nutritional value by increasing the levels of essential amino acids, vitamins, proteins, etc.

Fermented foods play a major role in meeting nutritional requirement and socio economic development of developing countries. They are important components of the diet as staples, adjuncts to staples, condiments and beverages. A wide variety of fermenting substrates are available such as cereals, pulses, soya beans, flowers, milk, fish, meat, etc. A wide majority of plants and their parts are often utilized in the preparation of starter culture (Deori et al., 2007, Deka and Sarma, 2010).

Pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima Duch.) is a well known and widely cultivated vegetable variety of the family Cucurbitaceae. The seed production can be done in summer season (February - March) and in rainy season (April - May). In Tamil Nadu, sowing during July – August is best for seed production.

Pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata) Duch. ex Poir. and summer squash (Cucurbita pepo) under the family Cucurbitaceae (Chromosome No. 2n = 2× = 40) are important tropical vegetable crops grown all around the world. The term “squash” is generally employed to designate the forms of C. pepo for immature fruits, all baking cultivars of C. maxima and the cushaw-type cultivars of C. mixta whose matured fruits are consumed. The term “pumpkin” is normally applied to the edible fruit of Cucurbita moschata, C. maxima and C. argyrosperma utilized when ripe as boiled or cooked vegetable or in pie. However, pumpkin is mostly associated with Cucurbita moschata Duch. ex Poir. Pumpkin cultivars are generally more tolerant to hot, humid weather than cultivars of C. maxima or C. pepo. It is extensively cultivated in India, Africa, Latin America, Southern Asia and United States. Among the five  domesticated cucurbita species, C. moschata, C. pepo and C. maxima are economically most important and among them summer squash, C. pepo is the most important in the world. However, of the different species of Cucurbita, pumpkin (C. moschata) is the most popular and grown throughout India.
Pumpkin fruits are rich in ß carotene, flavonoid, polyphenolic antioxidants such as lutein, xanthin and different minerals viz., calcium, potassium and magnesium. Pumpkins help in keeping the heartbeat regular and blood pressure low. The fibre in pumpkin can also play a part in lowering blood pressure as well as cholesterol. Pumpkin occupies a prominent place among the vegetables owing to its high productivity, nutritive value, good storability, long period of availability and better transport potentialities.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ vegetable is botanically called as a fruit.
2. Fruit of pumpkin is called _____.
3. The isolation distance for pumpkin foundation seed production is _____.
4. The isolation distance for pumpkin certified seed production is _____.

Pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata, 2n = 2x = 40, family Cucurbitaceae, monoecious, cross-pollinated, behaving like self-pollinated crop genetically) is grown globally throughout in the tropical, sub-tropical and temperate regions of both the New and Old World. The term pumpkin is normally applied to the edible fruit of any species of Cucurbita when ripe as a table vegetable or in pie (Whitaker and Robinson, 1986). Squash and pumpkin are the words quite often used interchangeably. However, the term squash or summer squash is commonly used for Cucurbita pepo which is eaten as immature fruit also. The term pumpkin is used generally for all kinds of five cultivated species under the genus Cucurbita but is quite commonly used for C. moschata. Besides C. pepo (summer squash) and C. moschata (winter or baking squash), the other three species under the genus Cucurbita are C. mixta (squash), C. maxima (winter or baking squash), and C. ficifolia (squash, fig-leaf gourd, Malabar gourd).

While compiling statistics FAO clubs squash and gourd together with pumpkin. In 2017, world production of pumpkins (including squash and gourds) was 27 million tons, with China (7.8 million tons from 0.4 million ha) and India (5.0 million tons from 0.5 million ha) accounting for 47% of the total production. Russia, Ukraine, and the United States each produced about one million ton. As per APEDA (The Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority), India produced 1.44 million tons of pumpkin which translates into 72000 ha area assuming a productivity of 20 tons/ha during 2015-16. The major states growing pumpkin in India are Orissa, UP, MP and Chhattisgarh. It is clarified that in context of India, pumpkin means C. moschata only although IIHR released a variety of C. maxima under the name Arka Suryamukhi in 1987 (Ram, 2012). However, now it is nowhere to be seen. Fruits of C. pepo (summer squash or zucchini) now can be seen in limited scale in superstores and limited scale cultivation is certainly happening under protected cultivation of this crop in India. Under this chapter, only C. moschata is being dealt with under the term pumpkin. Pumpkin is now becoming popular in India due to its high productivity, nutritive value, good storability, long period of availability and better transportability. It is rich in vitamins particularly precursor of vitamin A and minerals.

Pumpkin (2n = 40) is an important ‘pepo’ vegetable of the Cucurbitaceae family. Five domesticated species viz., C. maxima, C. moschata, C. pepo, C. argyrosperma and C. ficifolia are included in the Cucurbita genera (Schaffer and Paris, 2003). Owing to the presence of maximum genetic diversity in the neotropical regions and its ability to grow in varied agro-ecological conditions and its tolerance to hotter climatic conditions as compared to the other cultivated Cucurbita species, C. moschata is known as “tropical pumpkin” (Andres 2004). In terms of the average nutritive values, pumpkin (2.8) stands at a higher position when compared to many widely grown vegetables. The fruits are rich in carotenoid pigments. However, the proportion of beta carotene is higher than the others. Beta carotene shows strong anti oxidative and anti-cancer properties. While, it has relatively low content of other carotenoids like alpha-carotene, lutein, zeaxantin and violaxantin (Matus et al., 1993; Fraser and Bramley, 2004). Moreover, pumpkin fruits are also rich in mineral elements viz., potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron and selenium. The mature pumpkin seeds contain the essential unsaturated fatty acids and minerals like zinc. Pumpkin-rich diet has also shown to have a pharmacological effect on reducing blood glucose (Xiong and Cao, 2001; Cai et al. 2003). Further, water-extracted pumpkin polysaccharides showed better hypoglycemic (Zhang and Yao, 2002). As a result, pumpkin has emerged as a staple food in many developing countries (Ferriol and Pico, 2008).

Pulses play an important role in improving the soil health through biological nitrogen fixation. These crops also help to conserve natural resources and therefore help to conserve natural resources and sustain the agricultural productivity. With almost one-fourth population below the poverty line, the recent steep hike in prices has made the availability of pulses for this section of society even more difficult, thus, further jeopardizing both food and nutritional security.