eChapters

Introduction

The simultaneous cultivation of two or more crops in the same field is known as intercropping. Sustainable agriculture aims to at least build agricultural systems that are inspired by nature. Efficiency and the idea that there are no waste products in nature are key components of sustainable agriculture since nature incorporates plants and animals into a variety of landscapes. When domesticating crops replaced hunting and gathering, the landscape became altered. Due to humankind’s limited ability to produce a wide variety of agricultural plants and livestock, the amount of biological diversity throughout a large portion of the planet has significantly decreased. In nature, cooperation predominates over competition. Mutually beneficial interactions between species within groups are one example of cooperation. A few types of creatures may initially inhabit an abandoned agricultural field if it is left unattended and unplanted, but over several years, a complex community made up of numerous wild species emerges. When a community reaches a high level of variety, it becomes stable. Diverse communities are stable and have fewer swings in species abundance. Enterprise diversification, crop rotation, the use of windbreaks, the provision of more habitats for microorganisms, intercropping, and the integration of crop farming with animal production are methods that increase diversity and stability on the farm (Reddy and Willey,1981; Reddy et al., 1992). Each crop should have enough room while growing with another one or more to enhance cooperation and minimize competition. This is made possible by the elements of spatial layout, plant density, crop maturity dates, and plant architecture. The spatial arrangements are Row intercropping— Growing two or more crops together at the same time with at least one crop planted in rows; Strip intercropping— Growing two or more crops together in strips wide enough to separate crop production using machines, but close enough to interact; Mixed cropping— Growing two or more crops together in no distinct row arrangement; Relay intercropping— Plant a second crop into a standing crop at a time when the standing crop is at its reproductive stage but before harvesting.

Introduction

Nowadays, horticultural fields are expanding due to the increasing demand for various utilizations. Increased production is leading to an increase in exports. The global horticulture market value of about 20.77 billion USD was estimated in 2021 and targeted to attain 40.24 billion USD by 2026 (Global Market Estimates, 2021). From the production of horticultural foods, various factors are involved in the hazardous environmental appearance. Uncontrolled use of pesticides and residual effects of various chemicals initiate the primary threats to nature by creating a negative impact on soil, water, humans, animals, and wildlife species too (Sanchez-Bayo, 2011). Alone agricultural practices are not responsible for the production of horticultural wastes some other aspects are also included such as horticultural food processing industries as well as urban and peri-urban wastes. Food processing is an important sector of agriculture. Being highly perishable horticultural food processing became more necessary to increase the self-life as well as the value addition of these crops. But at the same time, these food processing industries where several processes such as production, processing, and preparation of food take place again result in the generation of huge quantities of waste material causing health hazards due to environmental pollution. The huge waste of food is due to a lack of control and ignorance of higher officials in this agro-economic sector. Another important source where waste management is equally important is Urban and peri-urban areas. Being a sink for horticultural produce (raw or processed) creates huge waste at the same time. The urban population is increasing between 3% and 3.5% per annum and the yearly increase in waste generation is around 5% annually (Agarwal et al., 2005).

Introduction

The goals and ideas of organic farming and regenerative agriculture are quite similar. Organic farming is a method of cultivating crops that prioritizes ecological sustainability by eschewing the use of artificial chemicals and genetically modified organisms in favor of more traditional practices. Producing residue- free food while also improving soil health, biodiversity, and ecological balance is the primary goal of this method. To restore and improve the health of the soil, ecosystems, and communities involved in agricultural systems, regenerative agriculture goes above and beyond organic farming. The ultimate goal is the development of resilient and sustainable agricultural systems that can deal with the effects of climate change.

Regenerative agriculture and organic farming share a common set of values, including an emphasis on the importance of good soils to successful and sustainable farming. Crop rotation, cover crops, and composting are some of the methods advocated by these people to improve soil fertility, structure, and biological activity. Preservation and promotion of a wide variety of plant and animal life on and around farms is an aim of both organic and regenerative farming practices. Pest and disease management, pollination, and ecosystem stability are all bolstered by biodiversity. Both methods encourage using less or no man- made chemicals, such as those found in pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers. Organic matter, compost, and biological pest management are just some of the natural inputs that these farmers rely on. Water, energy, and material resource conservation are fundamental to both organic farming and regenerative agriculture. To lessen agriculture’s impact on the environment, they advocate for methods including water management, efficient irrigation systems, and the use of renewable energy. Strong relationships and collaborations between farmers, customers, and local communities are prioritized by these methods. All along the agricultural supply chain, they are committed to fair trade, social equity, and transparency. Farmers may grow healthy, resilient, and sustainable farming systems by applying the holistic concepts of regenerative agriculture to conventional organic farming practices. In addition to strengthening the bond between agriculture and its natural surroundings, these methods also improve soil quality, lessen negative effects on the environment, increase biodiversity, and result in more nutritionally dense food.

Introduction

Farmers have long used biorationals such as Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) in both crop production and crop protection. This understanding is the result of many generations of interaction within natural and physical environments (Rajasekaran et al., 1991 and Kolawole, 2001). ITK is the unique and local traditional knowledge that is specific to a particular culture or community and is passed down from one generation to the next and every individual has inherited this information from their ancestors. Except for a handful, ITKs are passed down from generation to generation verbally, with no validated written documents. Many definitions of ITK systems have been proposed, but all of them are incomplete because the notion is still relatively young and changing. The ITKs are environmentally friendly and compatible with pest management approaches (Deka et al., 2006). ITK was defined by Wang (1988) as “the whole body of knowledge and practices based on people’s cumulative experiences in resolving situations and issues in a variety of spheres of life and such information and practices are unique to a specific culture.” According to Haverkort, 1995, ITK is the actual knowledge of a given population that reflects the experiences based on tradition and includes more recent experiences with modern technologies. The phrase “indigenous technological knowledge” is frequently disguised with the idea that it is connected to upcoming events and the innovations developed by farmers to address certain issues. Among the associated terms are (i) Indigenous Knowledge (IK), which refers to the participant’s understanding of their social and temporal context. The term “indigenous knowledge” as used here refers to any identifiable community’s knowledge, not just which of indigenous peoples; (ii) The Indigenous Knowledge System (IKS) describes a conceptual framework for theories and perceptions of nature and culture. The physical, ecological, social, economic, and ideational surroundings are thus included, together with their definitions, categorizations, and concepts. The cognitive and empirical levels both have a role in IKS dynamics. IKS is evident in institutions, artifacts, and technology on an empirical level. ITK is expressed through stories, songs, folklore, proverbs, dances, myths, cultural values, beliefs, rituals, community regulations, local language and taxonomy, agricultural techniques, tools, materials, plant species, and animal breeds. ITK is stored in people’s memories and activities, and is expressed in the form of stories; ITK is shared and communicated orally, by specific examples, and through culture. An African proverb says “When an old knowledgeable person dies, a whole library dies” indicating the importance of ITKs. It serves as the foundation for local decisions in rural communities on agriculture, health care, food preparation, education, and a variety of other activities. Indigenous knowledge serves as a society’s information hub and helps in decision making and communication. Indigenous information systems are dynamic and constantly affected by both internal innovation and experimentation and interactions with outside systems. The phrase “indigenous technological knowledge” is frequently disguised with the notion that it is connected to upcoming events and the innovations produced by farmers to address certain issues.

Introduction

For many years, it has been acknowledged that “augmentative” or “inundative” biological management can decrease arthropod pests (DeBach, 1964). The goal of increased biocontrol is to bring about behavioral and numerical changes in the natural enemies that live within agricultural environments. This tactic calls for the large production of natural enemies as well as their periodic release, to maximize their potential for reproduction during the growing season. For instance, the use of augmentative releases may be required if naturally occurring populations of parasitoids or pests are either nonexistent, do not successfully colonize fields or orchards, or colonize at a point in the season that is too late to provide effective pest control. The increase is being carried out to establish a population of natural enemies capable of keeping the number of pests at economically hazardous levels until harvesting time.

Biological Control

Controlling problems caused by things like mites, insects, weeds, and plant diseases with the help of other organisms is called biological control or biocontrol. It uses natural mechanisms like predation, parasitism, herbivory, and so on, but human intervention is almost always present.

Parasitoids

The term “parasitoid” refers to a group of insects, the larvae of which develop on or within the bodies of other insects, which the parasitoid kills eventually. The phenomenon is known as parasitism. The vast majority of parasitoids are classified as either wasps (Hymenoptera) or flies (Diptera). These insects are numerically quite abundant and play a significant role in almost every terrestrial environment.

Introduction

One of the most important concerns confronting both developed and developing nations in this age of rapid industrialization is how to deal with the ever-increasing volume of solid waste. One aspect of the environmental crisis that occurs alongside the development of the global economy is the rapid increase in waste volume (Zibres et al., 2011). The threat that organic waste poses to both the natural world and people’s health in today’s modern society makes it a primary topic of investigation in the modern community. The annual production of agricultural waste across the globe is greater than hundreds of megatons, and a significant portion of this waste is either improperly disposed of or burned directly, which contributes further to the acceleration of both global warming and air pollution (Zhang et al., 2016).

The compost that is produced through the biological process of composting can be used as an organic fertilizer in agriculture, vegetable gardens, and other types of gardens. Composting is a biological process that acts on the transformation of the organic matter that is present in the residues into material that is humidified (Antunes et al., 2021). In addition to having low production costs, this method is also environmentally friendly, making it a viable option for the long-term processing of this waste (Lopez-Gonzalez et al., 2015). Composting processes that are mediated by invertebrates from the soil fauna, such as vermicomposting and milli-composting, are proposed along with a variety of mixtures, practices, and management to improve the efficiency of composting as well as the quality of the compost produced. Traditional composting relies heavily on the activity of microorganisms. Vermicomposting and milli-composting are two examples of composting processes that use invertebrates from the soil fauna. Milli-composting is a relatively unknown biotechnology that uses diplopods, more commonly known as millipedes, to increase the biotransformation of vegetable wastes into stable organic matter. It not only aids in climate change mitigation but also aids in carbon sequestration, so milli-composting can be used as an alternative to modern composting as it is crucial for preventing pollution and promoting lush plant life.

Introduction

In the last two decades, sustainable agriculture has grown to become one of the most pressing issues in agriculture. Although there are numerous definitions of sustainable agriculture, most agree on three fundamental overlapping components: Ecological, economic, and social sustainability (Kaur 2013; Pilgeram 2013). Meanwhile, the prevalence of plant diseases is a major impediment to sustainable agricultural production systems worldwide, particularly in the tropics and subtropics. Farmers frequently apply agrochemicals (i.e., pesticides, insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, etc.) over their recommended dose to manage plant diseases, raising serious concerns about food safety, soil, environmental quality, and pesticide resistance (Dordas 2008; Kaur 2013).

Disease detection on plants is critical for sustainable agriculture, and manually monitoring plant diseases is difficult. It usually requires a significant amount of work, knowledge of plant diseases, and extended processing time. Early detection is the base for efficient plant disease prevention and control, and it is critical in agricultural production management and decision-making. Plant disease identification has become increasingly important in recent years (Li et al., 2021). Diseased plants usually have visible marks or lesions on their leaves, stems, flowers, or fruits. In general, each disease or pest condition has a distinct visible pattern that can be used to identify abnormalities. Typically, the leaves of plants are the primary source for identifying plant diseases, and most disease symptoms may first appear on the leaves (Ebrahimi et al., 2017). Rapid advances in biotechnology have resulted in the development of various molecular diagnostic tools over the last decade. These tools, which are based on the properties of nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) or proteins of the target agents, have improved the efficacy, accuracy, and speed of detecting and identifying disease-causing agents, as well as the characterization of a wide range of pathogens and pests. Various techniques are used in biotechnology for disease diagnosis and management, but molecular markers are used in particular for the detection, identification, quantification, and characterization of plant pathogens that cause diseases in plants (Kumar et al., 2015).

Introduction

Regenerative agriculture is an approach to farming and land management that focuses on restoring and improving the health of ecosystems and the soil (Latacz and Nuppenau. 2019). It goes beyond sustainable agriculture by actively seeking to regenerate and rejuvenate the natural resources utilized in agricultural practices (Lal, 2018). The goal of regenerative agriculture is to create a resilient and sustainable farming system that enhances biodiversity, improves soil health, sequesters carbon, and promotes overall ecosystem health (Paustian, et.al., 2018). Regenerative agriculture encompasses a range of practices and principles that vary depending on the specific context and agricultural systems (Smith et. al., 2015).

Regenerative Agriculture often include:

• Conservation tillage: Minimizing soil disturbance to maintain soil structure, prevent erosion, and preserve beneficial microorganisms.

• Cover cropping: Planting cover crops in between cash crops to protect the soil from erosion, improve nutrient cycling, and enhance soil fertility.

• Crop rotation and diversification: Alternating crops and incorporating diverse plant species to improve soil health, break pest cycles, and optimize nutrient use.

• Composting and organic matter management: Adding organic materials to the soil to improve its fertility, water-holding capacity, and nutrient availability.

• Managed grazing: Employing rotational grazing strategies to mimic natural grazing patterns, improve soil health, and promote plant growth.

• Agroforestry: Integrating trees, shrubs, or other perennial plants into agricultural systems to provide additional ecosystem services, such as shade, windbreaks, and habitat for beneficial organisms.

Introduction

The growing interest in agricultural production over the past few decades has resulted in more farming systems that rely on chemical pesticides or chemical fertilizers, which has seriously harmed the soil, water, air, and climate while paying little attention to quality or concern for the agricultural system’s negative effects on ecosystems. But as time went on, scientific research began to focus on sustainable agriculture, organic farming, clean agriculture, and other ideas that eventually evolved into agricultural systems that maintain the balance in all areas of the agricultural and production process, as well as consumer and environmental concerns. These agricultural approaches have attracted the attention of numerous farmers, and many large farms are now interested in organic farming in the context of sustainable agriculture. The idea of sustainable agriculture is simply the production of food, fiber, other plant products, or even animal products using agricultural techniques that protect the environment, public health, and human societies from the detrimental effects arising from carrying out that process using the standard format as well as technology that also takes into account animal welfare, such that this type of agriculture will enable us to produce healthy foods without compromise (Bahlai et al., 2010; Muller et al., 2017, and Palmgren et al., 2015).

The Future of Sustainable Agriculture

The adoption of sustainable agriculture was made to raise awareness of their significance and to support the governments of plantations and businesses that operate within the parameters of sustainability, in particular organic agriculture, which is clean and recently devoted a lot of studies and research as well as major scientific conferences on sustainable agriculture, as were a lot of major exhibitions for organic goods and food made from organic ingredients around the world. Specifically, the potential role that organic agriculture could play in reducing the adverse effects of climate change, reducing deforestation rates, maintaining biological risk, and also arranging the steady increase in the world’s population, attracted attention to the level of international policy.

Introduction

The soil is an invaluable resource that sustains life in innumerable ways. It provides a dynamic foundation for agriculture, supporting growing crops, and serving as a habitat for organisms. It plays a crucial role in maintaining biodiversity. Additionally, soil acts as a filter, purifying and storing water, and it reserves essential plant nutrients. however, soil resources face various threats that endanger their health and productivity. Soil erosion, the removal of the top layer of soil through natural or human-induced processes, poses a significant challenge. It not only leads to a loss of fertile soil but also causes widespread environmental degradation, and reduced agricultural productivity in response to this difficulty, soil conservation emerges as a principal priority. Soil conservation incorporates a range of practices and strategies to prevent soil erosion, and promote sustainable land use. By adopting and implementing effective soil conservation measures, we can safeguard this irreplaceable resource for future peers and ensure food security and environmental sustainability.

The main highlight of the study is to shed light on the causes and consequences of soil erosion, exploring different conservation practices and techniques; also to understand the vital processes and factors contributing to soil erosion, including wind and water erosion. Additionally, to study its impact on soil and crop production and strategies for different conservation practices to mitigate erosion, preserve soil fertility, and ensure the long-term sustainability of our agricultural systems and ecosystems.

Introduction

According to research released not too long ago by the United Nations, the population of the entire planet is expected to reach around 8 billion by the end of the year 2022. As a consequence, the future demand for the production and distribution of food must be satisfied to provide sustenance for the expanding population of the world and to alleviate human suffering. However, in countries like India, food is wasted at an alarmingly high rate every year because there are insufficient facilities for cooling and storing food once it has been harvested. The majority of the losses began on the farm level since the fresh produce, which requires fast refrigeration after harvest in large quantities, was unable to be given, which led to the spoilage of the food. It is especially vital to shorten the amount of time between harvesting and first cooling to slow down the rate at which newly harvested fruits and vegetables breathe out carbon dioxide and exhale it. When keeping fresh fruits and vegetables, the two most important controlling parameters are temperature and relative humidity. These two factors work together to minimize the amount of water that is lost and to keep the product quality from deteriorating. Following their preferred ranges of temperature and relative humidity, fruits and vegetables can be divided into the following categories: (Table 15.1). For the objectives of on-farm cooling, the majority of fresh fruits and vegetables that are classified as belonging to groups 1 and 2 need to be concentrated, which necessitates maintaining an ideal temperature of less than 10°C and a relative humidity of more than 90%.

Introduction

Landscaping is an expanse of scenery, a great way to add beauty, and curbs appeal to the place. The urban landscaping designs the outdoor and indoor places marveling the beauty of nature, i.e., the warmth, breeze, sunrays, shade, and the cool climate. Sustainable Landscaping can be defined as the designing of a garden considering the environmental issues at hand and landscaping in such a way that the designs, the planting materials, and the management are in balance with the locality with minimal resources. According to Loehrein (2013), organic gardening practices are integral to the design, construction, and maintenance of sustainable residential and commercial gardens.

Precision sustainable gardening, which involves applying specific amounts of care and resources to individual plants at precisely the right time and in the right place, is a form of precision farming. The local community, the environment, and the health of birds, bees, and other wildlife can all benefit immediately from a sustainably landscaped yard. Xeriscaping, grasscycling, erosion control, water conservation, carbon sequestration, habitat creation, mulching, and composting are all practices that contribute to more sustainable and climate-appropriate landscapes (Kamakshi, 2022).

Introduction

Seed technology improves seed genetics and physiology. Variety creation, release, seed production, processing, storage, and certification are included. (Feistritzer, 1975). Organic farming began in the early 20th century due to constantly changing farming practices. Over 50 million hectares of certified organic agriculture are in Australia. “That discipline of study having to do with seed production, maintenance, quality and preservation” is seed technology. Organic seeds are fully produced with organic matter practices made with proven organic function and natural seed production, including seeding plants, with a set of guidelines prohibiting the use of manufactured products or chemicals to be sold as such. They must be produced by an accredited institution by an authorized person government agency. Organic seed is created by a planted crop and organically raised at least one generation for annual crops and two generations for annual and perennial plants. Organic farming is sustainable and eco-friendly. Farming needs better norms and standards to achieve biological goals. It is usually cold and people need lots of vegetables but have few organic, clean supplies. Organic farming in India needs a certain space and high-yield vegetable crops in national marketplaces to produce high-quality products. Indian agriculture uses chemical fertilizers, which can be minimized. Experiments have shown that it works well in conjunction. Inorganic and biological fertilizers boost yields, soil quality, and productivity.

Introduction

The current science and technology is highly developed and everything is at our fingertips. The drudgery that was involved earlier while doing any kind of activity is so much reduced at present. The use of technology is so important nowadays that it has become unavoidable in all fields. With the tools and techniques, most of the problems can be solved and so technology has become a part of our lives thereby making our lives better. Some of the trending technologies are Artificial Intelligence (AI), robotic process automation, 5G, Information and Communication Technology (ICT), Machine Learning (ML), Virtual Reality (VR) etc. With the application of all these technologies, every discipline whether it is infrastructure, medical science, transport, communication, etc. has become stronger than ever. Even the field of agriculture has become so advanced with these technologies. The enhancement of agricultural activities has become so important with the depletion of natural resources, less human labor, and the changing climatic conditions. All over the world agricultural technologies are adopted, disseminated, and practiced to increase production and productivity, improve livelihood and alleviate poverty (Kilima et al., 2013). Similarly, the main reason for the growing demand for ICT in agriculture is for the farmers to get up-to-date knowledge and apply the tools and techniques to improve their livelihood. However, the ultimate aim is to adopt sustainability in agriculture. Through ICT, farmers can get updated information on the market prices, weather forecast, emergence of pest and diseases and their management practices, planting materials, varieties, etc. This knowledge not only gives the farmer an efficient method of farming for more production but also empowers them with modern agricultural ways. The use of ICT in combination with other techniques enables the farmer to save time, use resources efficiently, and produce better quality products.

Introduction

Water retention is an important soil hydraulic property that affects how soil operates in an ecosystem and how it is managed. Hydrology, agronomy, meteorology, ecology, environmental protection, and many other soil-related professions employ soil water retention data. Some soil survey programs measure water retention. A soil survey can estimate water retention from other soil properties. However, these measurements are problematic during project design and in large-scale implementations (Rawls et al., 1991; Wo sten et al., 2001) since agricultural land needs rise periodically. Agriculture is using dry land. Food self-sufficiency and becoming a world food barn by 2045 necessitate agricultural land expansion (Mulyani and Agus, 2017). Water concerns afflict farming in this agroecosystem (Syam et al., 1996; Mulyani and Agus, 2017). Because of soil composition, much water stays in the earth. Tang et al. (2022).

For plant growth, soil water retention variables indicate how well the soil holds water. The dirt provides most of the plant’s water. Water in root layer dirt pores is absorbed by plants. Thus, soil water retention is the key factor affecting plant development and productivity. Plants can take in the soil pores’ water between the field capacity and the point where they always wilt. Field capacity occurs when the matrix potential and gravitational potential match. The most significant component for plant growth is soil water (Tang et al., 2022, Deng et al., 2016, Su et al., 2020). The soil’s physical features determine plant water availability. The amount of water available depends on clay minerals, organic matter, absorbed cations, soil texture and structure, and water availability. Thus, to prevent plants from experiencing water or groundwater stress, soil physical attributes must be investigated to determine groundwater availability (Kirkham 2023). Infiltration is crucial to groundwater availability. The amount of water that can penetrate the soil depends on its physical features, such as soil texture, organic matter, bulk density, porosity, aggregate stability/stability, and water content. Thus, soil water availability depends on its physical qualities, particularly its ability to absorb and transfer water. The physical properties of saturated soil affect how water travels through it, which affects runoff and infiltration (Sauer and Logsdon 2002).

Introduction

The changing climate and its variability are a big concern for the human being. The recurrent droughts and floods, which are the results of this changing climate seriously hamper the livelihood of billions of people who depend on land for most of their needs. According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (UNFCC; 1992), “climate change is the change that can be attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods” The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC report, 2022) issued a cautionary statement regarding the imminent attainment of the 1.5oC threshold by the global climate system within the forthcoming 20-year period. It further emphasized that only implementing exceedingly stringent reductions in carbon emissions, commencing at present, would serve as a viable measure to avert an impending ecological catastrophe.

Droughts: A time in which circumstances are significantly drier than average is referred to as a drought.

Floods: A flood is an abnormally large outpouring of water (or, on very rare occasions, other fluids) that covers normally dry ground.

Livelihoods: The term “livelihood” refers to a collection of activities that are carried out during one’s lifetime and are considered necessary to one’s day-to day existence. Obtaining necessities such as water, food, fodder, medication, shelter, and clothing are examples of such activities.

Introduction

In the face of a growing global population and increasing pressures on natural resources, the quest for sustainable and efficient agricultural practices has become highly significant. The integration of livestock with cropping systems and grasslands stands out as a holistic approach that not only addresses these pressing challenges but also unlocks a myriad of economic benefits. This chapter delves into the profound significance of integrating livestock with cropping systems and grasslands in modern agriculture, exploring how this synergistic combination enhances resource utilization, promotes resilience, and fosters a thriving agricultural sector.

The roots of integrated farming practices can be traced back to ancient agricultural traditions, where farmers instinctively recognized the advantages of combining crop cultivation and animal husbandry (Devendra and Thomas, 2002). Over time, this integrated approach evolved and adapted to different cultural and geographical contexts. In traditional mixed farming systems, livestock provided essential services such as draft power (Gomiero et al., 2011), manure for fertilization, and protein-rich food. As agriculture progressed with technological advancements, there was a shift toward specialized monoculture and intensive livestock farming (Herrero et al., 2013). However, the unintended consequences of these systems, including soil degradation, environmental pollution, and declining rural livelihoods, paved the way for a resurgence of interest in integrated farming methods (FAO, 2020).

Introduction

The process of recycling involves the conversion of waste materials into reusable products or materials and aims to reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, minimize energy use, and mitigate trash creation. The primary objective of recycling is to effectively preserve finite resources, safeguard the natural environment, and mitigate the volume of garbage deposited in landfills or subjected to incineration (Lienig et al., 2017). Recycling refers to the systematic transformation of discarded materials into fresh resources and tangible products. The aforementioned term often encompasses the process of extracting energy from waste materials. The recyclability of a material is contingent upon its capacity to regain the characteristics it has in its initial form. There exists an alternative approach to garbage disposal that has the potential to save resources and mitigate the release of greenhouse gases. Additionally, it can mitigate the waste of potentially valuable resources and diminish the use of pristine raw materials, therefore reducing energy consumption, air pollution resulting from incineration, and water pollution stemming from landfill practices. The promotion of environmental sustainability is achieved by the removal of raw material input and the redirection of waste output within the economic system. The increasing volumes of trash have given rise to several environmental challenges, including air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, and biodiversity loss. The emission of diverse greenhouse gases from solid waste landfills also contributes to the phenomenon of global warming. At now, the predominant techniques for solid waste disposal are open dumping and landfilling. Various alternative techniques, such as pyrolysis, gasification, anaerobic digestion, composting, and bio-methylation, are used to extract valuable resources from solid waste materials (Griffin et al., 2018).

Introduction

Reviving the agricultural economy is a crucial endeavor with far-reaching implications for food security, economic prosperity, and sustainable development. Several key strategies can be adopted to achieve this goal. First, policymakers must prioritize agriculture by providing necessary f inancial support, infrastructure development, and research and development investments. Adequate credit facilities and subsidies can help farmers access essential resources and modern technology, boosting productivity and efficiency (Asian Development Bank, 2018). Promoting sustainable agricultural practices is vital to ensure long-term viability. Encouraging the adoption of eco-friendly methods such as organic farming, crop rotation, and water-efficient irrigation can enhance environmental resilience while safeguarding natural resources for future generations. Empowering farmers through training and education is essential. Equipping them with the latest knowledge and techniques enhances their capacity to adapt to changing conditions and make informed decisions about crop selection, pest control, and market opportunities. Furthermore, enhancing market linkages is critical to connect farmers with consumers and ensure fair prices for agricultural produce (African Development Bank, 2022). Developing efficient supply chains and reducing post-harvest losses can improve income prospects for farmers and attract more youth to the sector. Lastly, encouraging private sector involvement and investment in agriculture can accelerate growth and innovation. Public-private partnerships can create opportunities for technological advancements, value addition, and market expansion (Liu & Lee, 2018). Reviving the agricultural economy requires a collaborative effort involving governments, farmers, the private sector, and civil society. By addressing challenges, investing in modernization, and promoting sustainable practices, nations can create a thriving agricultural sector that contributes to food security, economic development, and environmental sustainability (Brown, 2021).

The term Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) encompasses a broad spectrum of electronic tools that converge to facilitate information processing, communication, transmission, and display. Scholars like Michiels and Van Crowder (2001) define ICTs as a constellation of electronic technologies capable of transforming organizations and reshaping social relations. In the context of agriculture, the integration of ICT holds significant promise, offering a myriad of advantages ranging from accelerating agricultural growth to empowering marginalized farming communities. This review examines the need, catalytic role, advantages, scope, and limitations of ICT in agricultural extension, elucidating its potential and challenges in promoting sustainable rural development.

Need for ICT in Agriculture Extension

1. Accelerating Agricultural Growth: ICTs play a pivotal role in catalyzing agricultural development by providing timely access to critical information, knowledge, and resources.

2. Expanding Knowledge Resources: ICTs serve as repositories of agricultural knowledge, enabling extension workers and farmers to access comprehensive information on best practices, innovations, and market trends.

3. Facilitating Information Services: ICTs enhance the dissemination of agricultural information and advisory services, enabling farmers to make informed decisions on crop management, pest control, and market opportunities.

Introduction

Extension is a form of education, and extension services provide information, advice, and education for rural development in many countries. It was used for sharing ideas, beliefs, knowledge, and information with rural people in an informal way. In the mid-nineteenth century, extension services were institutionalized, and public funding was spent for organized extension activity in rural areas.

Extension Education

The word ‘extension’ is derived from two Latin roots, namely ‘ex’ meaning ‘out’ and ‘tensio’ meaning ‘stretching.’ Hence, extension means stretching out Figure 1.1.

Extension does not have a universally recognized definition. According to Webster, education is a process of teaching to develop the knowledge, skills, and character of students. Sociologist Rodney Stark declares that “Education is the cheapest, most rapid and most reliable path to economic advancement under present conditions.” Education is a lifelong process, and it is necessary to transfer experience and knowledge to the next generation for political and socio-economic development.

University extension started at Cambridge University, London University, and Oxford University before the nineteenth century. The success of extension in Britain led to the initiation of extension education in the United States later. In India, university extension was introduced after the establishment of State Agricultural Universities in a similar pattern to Land Grant Colleges in the United States.

Extension as a form of education facilitates the learning or acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, and habits. As an education, it can be informal, formal or non- formal. It can also be categorized as child education, adult education, technical education, health education, social science and humanities, etc.

Formal education: It is an institutionalized, chronologically graded, and well- structured system of education that starts from schooling to higher education. Formal education is usually given in structured classrooms in schools and colleges with a fixed syllabus, course curriculum, and certificates awarded after examination. In formal education, only qualified teachers impart education to the students.

India faced a series of famines from 1857 to 1901, for which the government was forced to appoint some commissions. The Famine Commission of 1880 recommended the establishment of a separate Department of Agriculture at both the central and provincial levels. Based on such recommendations, the Agricultural Departments were established in 1981–1982, and some acts like the Land Improvement Act and Agricultural Loans Act, 1988 and Co- operative Act, 1904 were passed and development departments were established. As a protection measure, some irrigation projects were created. The Famine Commission (1901) also recommended for establishment of Agricultural Research Stations and Colleges. The Imperial Agricultural Research Institute along with an Agricultural College was established at Pusa Institute. As per the Government India Act of 1919, all departments connected with rural development to the major provinces and agricultural development became a State subject. Rural Development works were made provincial subjects from 1935. Various diversified efforts for rural reconstruction were made for the development of extension in India during the Pre- Independence and Post- Independence periods. These extension programs were launched in four stages as indicated below.

Stage I: Pre- Independence Extension

Stage II: Post- Independence Extension (1947–1953)

Stage III: Community Development and National Extension service (1953–1960)

Stage IV: Intensive Agricultural Development (1960 onwards)

Pre- independence extension in India

Between 1903 and 1946, eight important area- specific programs were implemented for rural development while the Grow More Food Campaign was implemented in the entire country to increase food grains production. The description of these programs/projects is given below in brief.

Introduction

Communication is a process for exchanging ideas, facts, feelings, or impressions between two or more individuals for a common understanding. Communication is required for transferring technology or obtaining farmer feedback to adopt technology in the field. Good communication is the essence of good teaching. Communication is a whole learning process in which the teacher sends a message through a channel to the receiver as a means of teaching. In traditional extension, there was direct contact between the extension worker and farmer to communicate research innovations and to obtain farmer feedback. In this system, only a few farmers had direct contact with the extension worker while the majority of farmers were contacted less frequently. Daniel Benor has tried to improve traditional extension through a “training and visit” (T & V) system designed to emphasize the organizational and training components of extension and improve communication with the farmers. In considering extension as a vehicle for communicating with large numbers of farmers without any discretion, the communication process and its role in extension need to be followed by the extension workers.

what is Communication?

Communication is a process of transferring a message from a source (communicator) through a channel to the receiver (communiqué). It is defined by different scientists in a different manner keeping the intent in view. However, it is accepted that communication is a process where a message is transferred from the source (communicator) to the receiver (communiqué). Some definitions of communication are indicated below.

• J. Paul Leagan (1961) defines communication as a process where two or more individuals exchange ideas, facts, and impressions for mutual gain and common understanding of the content and use of a message.

• “Communication is a purposeful process, which involves sources, messages, channels, and receivers.” – Andersch et al. (1969).

Van den Ban and Hawkins (1988) defined communication as the process of sending and receiving messages through channels that establish a common meaning between a source and receiver.

Introduction

A teacher uses different aids in addition to lectures for effective teaching. Similarly, a trainer uses different training methods to make learning effective. In Agricultural Extension the extension worker as a teacher has to design and use appropriate teaching methods depending upon the group to make the teaching effective. According to Leagans (1961) “extension teaching methods are the basic and proven devices used to create situations in which communication can take place between the instructor and the learner.” Extension methods are powerful tools for extension workers to effectively communicate certain messages. Some studies suggest that the adoption of innovations by the farmers requires different teaching methods at different stages of learning. These methods are required for imparting new knowledge and skills to the farmers to adopt new practices for their increased production and income. The choice of extension teaching methods depends on the target audience, location, and availability of time for teaching.

Classification of extension Teaching Methods

Extension teaching methods are classified according to use, form, and function as shown in Table 4.1.

Classification According to Use

The extension methods could be individual or interpersonal, group contact, or mass contact as shown in Figure 4.1.

Individual contact methods: Individual methods provide face- to- face contact with individuals. Those techniques are very effective in teaching new technologies and creating goodwill among farmers and extension people. When few people are to be contacted and they are at a close distance, the individual methods are effective. The extension worker contacts directly to an individual and gets his feedback through different means like personal visits, telephones, SMS, etc. The individual contact method is useful for rapport building and easy to obtain feedback. But the method is time- consuming and quite expensive.

Introduction

Innovation as a new idea, method, or object may be developed by research or by a farmer. Diffusion is a special type of communication on innovations. The proper use of innovation is called adoption. Communication is different from diffusion in the sense that communication covers all types of messages whereas diffusion is concerned with a message of new ideas. The extension workers need to understand the meaning of diffusion, adoption processes, innovation, etc. by which farmers accept new ideas. Adoption is a sequence of thoughts and actions which an individual goes through before s/he finally adopts a new idea. The adoption process is a mental process for passing the new idea to final adoption. In the diffusion process, the new idea spreads from its source of invention or creation to its ultimate users or adopters. Perception is an activity through which an individual becomes aware of objects around oneself and of events taking place.

Elements in the Diffusion of Innovations

The four main elements in the diffusion of innovations are innovation, communication channels, time, and social systems.

The Innovation

Innovation is a new idea expressed in terms of knowledge, persuasion of decision for adoption. The perceived attributes of innovations are relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability.

Relative advantage: The innovation should have a relative advantage over the existing ideas in terms of economic and social-prestige factors, convenience, and satisfaction. The advantage can be influenced by providing various incentives.

Compatibility: The innovation should be compatible with the socio-cultural values and beliefs of people.

Introduction

The history and evolution of extension in India during the Pre- independence and Post- independence periods have been narrated in Chapter 2. The major breakthrough in Agricultural Extension was the introduction of the T&V system with WB support from 1977 to 1997. The system tried to establish a strong linkage between the research and extension. Technical messages received from research stations were transferred to the farmers through an organized extension system at fixed time intervals and obtained feedback from the farmers about the technologies. However, the system was constrained by structural problems at organizational level. The system adopted a classical top- down approach and the recommendations were suitable for irrigated areas bypassing the rain- fed areas. After the withdrawal of support from WB, the T&V system was constrained by the paucity of funds to manage the manpower created, and the unpaid farmers did not continue to work. After withdrawal, it was considered necessary to make the extension more demand- driven, participatory, group extension, and farmer- centric with possible convergence for which extension reform in India was necessary.

Extension reform in India

There are many countries where extension and advisory services reforms are occurring globally (Swanson and Rajalahti 2010; World Bank 2012). Since agro- ecological conditions and access to markets vary within most countries, decentralized extension system was needed. It was considered that decentralized and demand- driven extension allows farmers to participate in setting the agenda and demanding extension and research priorities. The extension reforms made the system reach the smallholders, resource- poor, and women, and also focused on sustainability. When the donor funds dry up or the pilot projects end, the farmers no longer have access to the extension services (Birner and Anderson 2007). Therefore the public extension needs to be sustainable in extension services delivery.

Approaches in Extension

Agricultural extension services have gone through various stages over the years, from the individual farm visits approach to the T&V approach. All these approaches are characterized to a greater or lesser extent, by a “ top- down” planning. Extension approaches mostly determine the direction and nature of the system in terms of structure, leadership, program, methods and techniques, resources, and linkages. Extension approach is a style of action within a system which embodies the philosophy of the system. Although there are many approaches to agricultural extension, there is certain commonality in them. All approaches function through non- formal education and all have agricultural content for the development of rural people.

Ministry- based General Extension

Ministry of Agriculture was entrusted with agricultural extension in a top- down manner for planning for the adoption of technologies. An increase in national production is taken as the measure of success.

All persons engaged in agriculture are the clients of this public extension who are served by extension staff. Program formulation and implementation are guided by public interest. Ministry- based extension faces difficulty in serving the majority of potential clientele and financial constraints that force it to reduce the staff. Whereas extension demands location- specific technologies and flexible decisions, the university extension is mostly top- down in nature. As the approach lacks a two- way approach the messages are not location specific. Production alternatives are absent in this approach.

The Training and Visit Approach (T&V)

Extension Program

Planning an extension program involves decision- making about the work of the organization. Extension program planning covers a set of objectives to be achieved by various activities included in the planning. Extension organization needs to decide the goal it aims at, the target group, the content of extension message, its use, and organization of all activities. The program includes situation analysis, and an action plan for solving people’s problems which is drawn in advance. Extension workers have to decide the goals, target group, messages, extension methods, and media and organization of activities. While setting the goal, the perception of the present situation and the vision of the desired situation should be borne in mind. The target group is normally larger than the extension worker contacts directly or through mass media. The target group can be contacted indirectly. The extension content depends on the goal, the target group, and the extension strategy. The content should be so selected that it can be implemented with the resources available to the farmers locally. A combination of extension methods need to be used. The extension program needs to be flexible and can be easily implemented by the organization.

Extension Program Planning

Extension program planning indicates an account of the activities to be undertaken by the organization.

The essential phases of program planning in extension are analyzing the situation, setting goals and objectives, identifying problems and gaps, developing work plan, implementation, monitoring and evaluation, and reconsideration.

Concept of Community Development

A community is a group of people, who live in a geographical area and have interests in each other for the purpose of making a living. It is a form of social organization existing between the family and the state. Development connotes growth and implies gradual and sequential phases of change. A community development program means a program for gradual change in a group of people living in a geographical area and having an interest in each other for making a living. It involves the principles of sustainable development, empowerment, inclusivity, social justice, human rights, participative democracy, and equality. It is a collaborative and facilitative process of people who share a common purpose of building the capacity to have a positive impact on quality of life.

• Community development is a movement intended to promote better living for the whole community with the active participation and on the initiative of the community.

• It is a balanced program for stimulating the local potential for growth in every direction in both wealth and welfare by themselves with minimum outside help.

• It is technically aided and locally organized by self-help.

• Community development is adopted by many governments to reach village people and to make more effective use of local initiative and energy for increased production and better living standards.

• Community development is a process of social action in which the people of a community organize themselves define their needs and problems and plan for action.

Initially, rural development followed a top-down approach based on the information collected through the traditional survey method. It was soon noticed that the perception of the development professionals from the “top” was at variance with the perception of the rural masses. Visits were made and extractive surveys were carried out with the help of structured formats and questionnaires. These surveys had several biases such as spatial, season, person, caste, religion, project, education, etc. These limitations led to a search for a new method for understanding rural situations. New methods and approaches such as Farming System Research (FSR), Exploratory Survey and Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) were attempted during the 1970s to overcome the deficiencies of conventional survey methods. Moving away from extractive survey questionnaires, two families of approaches and methods, referred to as Rapid Rural Appraisal and Participatory Rural Appraisal evolved in the 1980s and 1990s.

Origin of PRA

Participatory Rural Appraisal is ‘an approach and methods for learning about rural life and conditions from, with and by rural people’. It is defined as a family of approaches and methods to enable rural people to share, enhance and analyse their knowledge of life and conditions, to plan and act.

According to Robert Chambers (1992), there are five main trends that decorate the principal method of PRA: Activist Participatory Research, Agro-ecosystem Analysis, Social Anthropology, Field Research on Farming Systems, and Rapid Rural Appraisal.

Introduction

Decentralization means the action or fact of reducing or undoing “centralization” or “concentration.” The dictionary meaning of decentralization is “The process of transferring the functions from the Central Government to the local units.” Decentralization is devolving power of decision–making with the lower level of organization. In a decentralization, delegation and devolution of power are given to the lower level. Devolution implies a situation in which lower ranking units acquire greater autonomy in respect of certain defined functions, including decision-making authority. Devolution of functions, powers, and responsibilities are normally granted through legislation.

Decentralized Planning in India

With the introduction of the Community Development Programme (CDP) and National Extension Service (NES) in 1952, increasing agricultural production had been on India’s agenda in different plan periods. The success of CDP and NES was reviewed by the Balawant Rai Committee in 1957 and the committee realized that community development can be achieved only when the community understands its problems, owns its responsibilities, exercises the necessary powers through its elected representatives, and maintains a constant and intelligent vigilance on local administration. The recommendation of the committee led to the preparation of plans at the level of state, district, block, towns, and Panchayats in the second plan period from 1957 to 1962. The Fourth Evaluation Report (Programme Evaluation Organization, Planning Commission) in 1959 recommended that organized and institutional participation by the public in development programs is bound to give better, more consistent, and more lasting results. In 1977, Ashok Meheta Committee suggested changing the concept of Panchayati Raj to a political institution. In 1981, the eminent economist Prof. M.L. Dantewala observed that the merit of decentralized planning is derived from its ability to discover dormant resources and skills and its endeavor to activate them. However, there was slow progress in decentralized planning up to the eighth plan (1992-97).

Gender Concepts

Gender is different from sex. Sex is the biological and physiological characteristics that define humans as female or male. Gender refers to the social attributes and opportunities associated with being female and male and to the relationships between women and men and girls and boys. Sex symbolizes biological differences between men and women whereas gender is recognized as a social characteristic that cuts across caste, class, occupation, age, and ethnicity. Gender identifies the social relations between men and women and gender differentiates the roles, responsibilities, resources, constraints, and opportunities of women and men. Gender roles are dynamic which change over time. In contrast, sex identifies the biological differences between men and women. The difference between gender and sex is indicated in Table 12.1.

Although women and men enjoy equal status in the law of the constitution, there exists a wide difference in how men and women are looked upon and handled by society. It is the society that has nurtured the ‘Gender gap’, as it is a socially constructed attribute of being male and female, by assigning roles and responsibilities with respect to one’s gender.

In order to address gender issues, it is imperative that we understand the different fundamental gender concepts to deal with them effectively.

Gender roles: Men and women have multiple roles. Women have productive, reproductive, and management of community assets roles whereas men have productive and other roles. Gender roles are learned behaviors in a given society/community, or other special group, that condition which activities, tasks, and responsibilities are perceived as male and female. Gender roles are affected by age, class, race, ethnicity, religion, and geographical, economic, and political environment. Some common terms relating to gender in use are indicated below.

Soil is a strange full of wisdom particularly in terms of biodiversity. Soil biota consists of the microbes (bacteria, fungi, archaea and algae), soil animals (protozoa, nematodes, mites, springtails, spiders, insects and earthworms) and plants, living all or part of their lives in or on the soil or pedosphere. Millions of species of soil organisms exist but only a fraction of them have been cultured and identified. Micro organisms (MOs) (fungi, archaea, bacteria, algae and cyanobacteria) are members of the soil biota but are not members of the soil fauna (Sachidanand et al., 2019). The soil fauna is the collection of all the microscopic and macroscopic animals in a given soil. The size of a soil organism can restrict its location in the soil habitat. Smaller members of the microfauna like nematodes are basically aquatic organisms that live in the thin water f ilms or capillary pores of aggregates preying or grazing on other aquatic microfauna such as amoebas. Soil has a direct effect on the environmental conditions, habitat and nutrient sources available to the soil biota. The term pedosphere is often used interchangeably with soil and captures the concept that the soil is a habitat where the integration of spheres occurs. These spheres include the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and the biosphere. Numerous biogeochemical processes regulated by soil biota occur in the pedosphere.

The physical structure, aeration, water holding capacity and availability of nutrients are determined by the mineral constituents of soil, which are formed by the weathering of rock and the degradative metabolic activities of the soil MOs. Soil microbiology is the study of organisms in soil, their functions, and how they affect soil properties. It is believed that between two and four billion years ago, the first ancient bacteria and MOs came about in earth’s oceans. These bacteria could fix N2 , in time multiplied and as a result released oxygen into the atmosphere. This led to more advanced MOs. Soil biology plays a vital role in determining many soil characteristics. The decomposition of organic matter by soil organisms has an immense influence on soil fertility, plant growth, soil structure, and C storage. As a relatively new science, much remains unknown about soil biology and their effects on soil ecosystems. The soil is home to a large proportion of the world’s biodiversity.

2.1 Roots and the Rhizosphere

The rhizosphere, the region of soil surrounding plant roots in which soil and microbes closely interact–plays an important role in soil carbon cycling. The rhizosphere is only about 1-2% of Earth’s soil volume but can store up to 30-40% of Earth’s total soil organic matter. Plants secrete organic compounds such as amino acids or enzymes known as root exudates, which are key in recruiting and selecting relevant beneficial microbes to colonize in the rhizosphere (Julie Bobyock, 2023). Studying these microbial-plant interactions is critical to better understand the relationship between plant growth and the role soils play in keeping carbon from the atmosphere. It is the region that is a few distances (2-80 mm) extended from the root system. Rhizosphere zone is the region of intense microbial activity, and it is isolated from the bulk soil that often called as Edaphosphere or Non-rhizosphere.

Plant growth results from interaction of roots and shoots with the environment. The environment for roots is the soil or planting medium, and its importance is often not appreciated beyond the physical and nutritional aspects. Roots do provide structural support for the plant, and they absorb water and nutrients, but they also produce plant growth-regulating substances, such as cytokinins. The cortex of the root is largely starch storage tissue, and represents a transition zone from the soil to the stele. The cortex also provides a niche to be occupied by mycorrhizal fungi. It is not as generally appreciated, however, that roots also support the growth and functions of a complex of microorganisms that can have a profound effect on the growth and survival of plants. These microbes interact in the soil around the root that is influenced by root exudates; this zone is called the rhizosphere. The effects of rhizosphere microorganisms on plant growth or health often are ignored unless the microbes weaken or kill the plant through disease. There are, however, beneficial interactions that can occur and be enhanced if actively managed by the grower. Establishment and maintenance of rhizosphere microbial populations is a dynamic process affected by age and kind of plant, nature and treatment of soil, environmental factors, foliar applications of chemicals, and interactions of microorganisms. It is important to remember that selective or preferential development of rhizosphere populations occurs in the early stages of plant growth and root development when root exudation is maximal but, thereafter, is altered and maintained at some microbial equilibrium by both microbial and plant activity, with both being influenced by edaphic and other environmental factors.

3.1 Soil Inhabiting Fungi

There’s a wild and wonderful world that remains hidden for most of us, at least most of the time. It’s an amazing ecosystem filled with fascinating creatures interacting with one another to create an intricate, dynamic web of life. It’s right under our feet: the soil ecosystem! Many organisms make up this ecosystem, and some of the most important ones are the fungi. Healthy soil is alive and teeming with an array of fungus species, each playing a vital role in its environment. Healthy soils are alive with an especially diverse array of fungal species, and many are essential to the health of the plants growing in that soil. In fact, a soil devoid of fungi is a dead soil, and is unlikely to support thriving plants. Some soil fungi are single-celled and visible only through a microscope. Others form large, underground networks of filaments that can cover an area the size of a football field or larger. Most of us are familiar with the above-ground parts of some soil fungi, the mushroom.

Fungi are one of the key microbial groups in terrestrial ecosystems that enabled colonization of land by plants and facilitated development of soil that supports most of the biota on Earth. The kingdom Fungi is one of the most diverse groups of life with an estimated 1.5–6 million species that represent heterotrophic mutualists, pathogens, and saprotrophs (Tedersoo et al., 2017). The 70,000–100,000 currently recognized species are distributed among 156 orders, 46 classes, and 12 phyla. Fungi have traditionally been identified and classified based on morphological characters of fruiting bodies and living cultures. Similar to bacteria and archaea, merely <1% of fungal species have been cultivated with established protocols, which renders large taxonomic groups undescribed and virtually unknown to science. Roughly 80% of all soil-inhabiting fungal taxa cannot be identified at the species level, and 20% cannot be reliably assigned to known orders.

Biological control is defined broadly as the “use of natural or modified organisms, genes, or gene products” to reduce the effects of pests and diseases. The many approaches to biological control can be categorized conventionally into regulation of the pest population (the classical approach); exclusionary systems of protection (a living barrier of microorganisms on the plant or animal that deters infection or pest attack) and systems of self-defense (resistance and immunization) (Anchal Sharma et al., 2013). The agents of biological control include the pest- or disease-agent itself (sterile males or a virulent strain of pathogens), antagonists or natural enemies, or the plant or animal managed or manipulated (immunized) to defend itself. Principles of plant health care are offered, know the production limits of the agro-ecosystem, rotate the crops, maintain soil organic master, use clean planting material, plant well-adapted, pest resistant cultivars, minimize environmental and nutritional stresses, maximize the effects of beneficial organisms and protect with pesticides as necessary.

Biological control is the control of one organism by another. This control may be expressed as either a longer population of the pest or as a restriction or prevention of the severity or incidence of pest damage without regard to the pest population (Cook and Baker, 1983). Biological control depends on knowledge of biological interactions at the ecosystem, organism, cellular, and molecular levers and often is more complicated to manage compared with physical and chemical methods. Biological control is also likely to be less spectacular than most physical or chemical controls but is usually also more stable and longer lasting. In spite of biological controls having been used in agriculture for centuries, as an industry biological control is still in its infancy. Biological control is now being considered for an increasing number of crops and managed ecosystems as the primary method of pest control. One reason for its growing popularity is its record of safety during the past 100 years considered as the era of modem biological control (Anchal Sharma et al., 2013). No microorganism or beneficial insect deliberately introduced or manipulated for biological control purposes has, itself, become a pest so far as can be determined, and there is no evidence so far of measurable or even negligible negative effects of biocontrol agents on the environment. The new tools of recombinant DNA technology, mathematical modeling, and computer technology combined with a continuation of the more classical approaches such as importation and release of natural enemies and improved germplasm, breeding, and field testing should quickly move bio-control research and technology into a new era.

5.1 Important Terms

i. Inoculum: The infective pathogen propagules coming in contact with the host constitutes the inoculum. The inoculum in the liquid state is a significant factor in anaerobic digestion in solid phase because it is very useful to convey the micro organisms, the water of recirculation. Depending on the particular inoculant formulation, the inocula can be used for seed coating, for dipping seedlings, direct application to the furrow, or as foliar application. An appropriate inoculum consists of copious amounts of active microbes having the potential to convert the organic matter to biogas and the S/I ratio is essential for the rate of degradation of a recalcitrant substrate since it governs not only the biogas composition, digestion period and reactor. Spread of inoculum may occur by wind, water, infected plant material, insects, animals, birds, and people. Plant diseases may have more than one source of inoculum. The infection cycle of some economically important soil-borne plant pathogens involves a combination of primary infection from particulate inoculum residing in the soil and secondary infection as disease is spread from infected to susceptible hosts.

The infectivity of inoculum can be quantified by the pathozone profile which measures changes in the probability of infection when inoculum occurs at different distances from the host. For instance, the germinability of inoculum, the growth of the mycelial colony and the infectivity of mycelium at the surface of the host combine to dictate the shape of the pathozone profile for Rhizoctonia solani on radish. The ultimate shape of the pathozone depended on inoculum type and was particularly sensitive to changes in the density and distribution of the mycelium in the fungal colony. Mycelium from an infected radish plant grew much further and at a higher density than that from particulate inoculum (mycelial discs). This results in pathozone profiles that differed in shape. For particulate inoculum the profile rise and fall with distance whilst for an infected plant the decay is sigmoidal.

6.1 Competition

Soil microorganisms in particular are perceived as active competitors that have evolved diverse strategies to facilitate resource acquisition. Activities including motility, coordinated behavior, and antibiotic production can tip the competitive balance, resulting in numerical dominance or local extinction of competing populations. Functional consequences of microbial social behaviors have been studied extensively and demonstrate the importance of factors such as relatedness, kin discrimination, enforcement of cooperation, and competition among relatives to microbial survival and f itness in the environment (Adil Essarioui et al., 2017). However, most investigations have focused on interactions among closely related taxa, often among species or genera. Yet, in natural environments, coexistence of individuals from diverse microbial phyla and kingdoms is common. In particular, bacteria and fungi commonly coexist in soil, but there has been relatively little study of the role of species interactions in mediating the dynamics of specific bacterial and fungal populations in soil. Moreover, we have little understanding of the extent to which the ecological context, and specifically plant host or plant community diversity, may influence bacterialfungal interactions in soil. Such studies are needed to begin to establish a more complete understanding of the ecological and coevolutionary dynamics of soil microbial populations.

Microbes have coevolved to engage in complex networks of interactions with coexisting kin and non-kin individuals in the soil and in association with plants. Microbial antagonism and resource competition within complex communities have been the focus of many studies that have explored the effects of diverse factors on the ecological outcomes of these interactions. However, the concurrent impacts on these processes of plant species richness and plant host, which jointly structure the environment within which rhizosphere microbes interact, have received far less attention. This is despite the fact that both plant community richness and plant species have been shown to impact microbial community composition and function in rhizosphere soil, with potential implications for microbial interactions and pathogen suppression in natural and agricultural habitats.

7.1 Conducive Soils

Without a conducive environment, plant disease does not occur. Soils that favour the disease/ and the pathogen are generally referred to as conducive soils. Inoculum of powdery scab is the either the spore ball (an aggregation of thick walled, tough, resting spores, comprising an average of 700 spores) or the swimming spore (zoospore) that each spore of the spore ball releases. Spore balls of powdery scab have been shown to persist for long periods (Brierley et al., 2008). Exactly, how long they can survive has not been fully determined, but experimentally and anecdotally, it is much longer than a typical rotation. Inoculum may be seed-borne or soil-borne and whatever the source spore balls are able to cause infection and disease. Seed tubers may carry spore balls within powdery scab lesions or may carry spore balls symptomlessly where they have been picked up from adjacent infected tubers or contaminated machinery (e.g. on grading lines). In addition, recently, it has been found that tubers may be latently infected. That is where tubers are infected but symptoms are not expressed. Latent infections may be associated with conditions that are unfavourable for disease development, such as sub-optimal temperatures.

i. Soil Moisture: A high soil moisture content both encourages swimming spore release and facilitates movement to the host. It is generally accepted that swimming spores are unable to move through the soil without free water within the soil matrix (i.e. soil saturation). Many studies confirm the importance of free water in soil as a requirement for infection. The occurrence of wet soil conditions prior to tuber initiation, enabling inoculum multiplication, has been cited as important for high levels of powdery scab. Alternatively, prolonged wet soil conditions after tuber initiation can lead to high levels. In experiments investigating soil moisture, there is disagreement over the importance of constant versus fluctuating soil moisture conditions in powdery scab development. However, it is difficult to make clear comparisons because soil moisture levels have not always been measured and factors that may affect disease development (e.g. soil type, initial inoculum level) will have differed from experiment to experiment. Some studies have shown that constant high soil moisture has suppressed powdery scab development possibly due to low oxygen/high carbon dioxide levels rendering swimming spores inactive.

Introduction

Entrepreneurial communication is an action intended to forge a relationship with the other party in order to affect their interest, attitude, and behavior. This is due to the fact that it is never done without considering how it would affect both qualitative and quantitative outcomes. A person can transmit or receive information about another person’s needs, wants, perceptions, knowledge, or emotional states through the act of communicating. In the context of entrepreneurship, communication refers to a set of procedures for exchanging knowledge and understandings between individuals who are engaged in a predetermined or novel situation.

Every interaction that takes place during communication involves a shift and is dynamic. Since it is dependent on interaction and a transaction between speakers, communication cannot be understood s a straightforward process of transmission. The planned actions and activities are not hindered because the emission and reception occur simultaneously, with h the transmitter acting as both a receiver and a transmitter. The process of sending and receiving signals as knowledge, feelings, emotions, skills, talents, attitudes, activities, etc. is known as entrepreneurial communication.

In terms of information sharing about events, situations, involvement, impact, adaptation, etc., it is built on interactions between business owners, educators, and educated youth.

Concept of Review of Literatures

The Review of literature is a systematic, explicit, and reproducible method for identifying, evaluating, and synthesizing the existing body of completed and recorded work produced by researchers, scholars, and practitioners. The Review of literature is also a resource paper, which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic. These are available mostly in academic and scholastic journals.

Review of literature provide the basics for research in nearly every academic f ield. The aim of review of literature is to highlight what has been done so far in the field of interest and how our findings are related to earlier research. The review of literature also indicates the following by providing referential inputs.

(i) Approaches

(ii) Methods

(iii) Variables used

(iv) Statistical procedure

(v) Expected results

(vi) Provides theoretical background to our study.

(vii) Helps justify how our findings are related to our body of knowledge in our field of research.

(viii) Establishes a link between what we propose to study and what has already been found. It helps us to refine our research methodology.

Entrepreneurship: the Concept and Definitions

Entrepreneurship is the capability to improve, arrange and continue a business enterprise, along with any of its uncertainties to make a profit. We can say an example of entrepreneurship is the starting of a new business, a new venture with some challenges and specific objectives.

Meaning of Entrepreneur

An entrepreneur is defined as one person who has the ability and desire to establish, administer and succeed in a startup venture along with the risk entitled to it, to make profits. The best example of entrepreneurship is the starting of a new business venture. Entrepreneurs are often known as a source of new ideas or innovators and bring new ideas in the market by replacing old ones with a new invention.

According to Cole (1949), an Entrepreneur represents an individual or a group of individuals, who conceive, initiate and maintain for a sufficiently long period a social institution which produces economic goods or to put it differently.

Communication: Communication is an act by which one person gives to or receives from another person, the information about the person’s need, desires and perceptions. Knowledge or affective states: Communication is an act by which one person gives to or receives from another person, the information about the person’s need, desires, and perceptions. Knowledge or affective states.

Entrepreneurial Communication: It should have some unique features. The way one teacher talk with a student, the way one official personnel talk with an individual, like them one entrepreneur should communicate with their customer to uplift of their enterprise. So this type of communication differs from the general communication.

In any social science research, it is hardly possible to conceptualize and perceive the data and interpret the data more accurately until and unless a clear understanding of the characteristics in the area and attitude or the behavior of people is at commending by the interpreter who intends to unveil an understanding of the implication and behavioral complexes of the individual who live in the area under reference and form a representative part of the larger community. The socio-demographic background of the local people in a rural setting has been critically administered in this section. A research setting is a surrounding in which input and elements of research are contextually imbibed, interactive and mutually contributive to the system performance. Research setting is immensely important in the sense because it is characterizing and influencing the interplays of different factors and components.

The physical, social, or experimental context in which research is carried out is referred to as the research setting. This context must be accurately described in a study publication because it may have a significant impact on the findings and how they are interpreted. For instance, in a paper describing the social behavior of chimpanzees, the authors may need to provide the following information about the research environment: where the chimpanzees were observed (in the wild or in captivity), the number of chimpanzees observed, and whether they belonged to the same social group, the geographic location, the time of study, the season/weather conditions, the availability of resources like food/water/shelter, and the presence of environmental factor.

Area of the Study

The present study was taken up in West Bengal. From West Bengal, District Uttar Diaper, Blocks Kaliyaganj, Villages Radhikapur was selected.

Research methodology is a detailed plan of investigation and the blue print of procedure for carrying out the research. In this chapter, discussion on the methodology has been made to understand the concepts, methods and techniques, which are utilized to design the study, collect information, analyzing data and interpreting the findings for revelation of truth and formulation of theories. The entire chapter has been broken up under following sub-heads for easy understanding:

1. Locale of research

2. Sampling design

3. Pilot study

4. Variables and their measurements

5. Methods of data collection

6. Statistical tools used for analysis of data

Locale of Research

The present study has been conducted in a INDIA-BANGLADESH cross border village named Radhikapur in the state West Bengal. Villages from Kaliyaganj block in Uttar Dinajpur District.

The characters and the factors under study have been well discernible to this area

• The researcher’s close familiarity with respect to area, people, officials and local dialects

• The highly cooperative and responsive respondents

• The profuse scope to get relevant information regarding entrepreneurship communication behavior, economical communication, information seeking & responding behavior, information flow in & flow out etc.

• The locale is located at the terminal point & beside the INDIA BANGLADESH border, so there is some cross border impact also.

Results and Discussion:

Concept Result is the outcome, consequences or conclusion of a problem, probe or experiment organized after a period of time. This conclusion can be one result, multiple results or no result as such. The length of time taken to find a result can vary from less than a second to many years. In this chapter the result of the Research has been elaborated and also discussed later.

The purpose of the discussion/revelation is to interpret and describe the significance of our findings in light of what was already known about the research problem being investigated, and to explain any new understanding or insights about the problem, after we have taken the findings into consideration. The discussion will always connect to the introduction by way of the research questions or hypothesis we posed and the literature we reviewed, but it does not simply repeat or rearrange the introduction and the discussion always explain how our study has moved towards the research problem.

This table presents the distribution of 19 independent variables(x1-x19) and 6 dependent variables (y1-y6) in terms of their Minimum, Maximum, Mean, Variance, Standard deviation, and Coefficient of variation.

Here, it is depicted that the average age (x1) of the respondents is 50.307. The C.V. value for the variable is 18.521. So, it indicates that the distribution of the variable is highly consistent.

From the table it is depicted that the average education (x2) of the respondents is 7.600. So, almost on an average the individual education is 8 for every respondent. The C.V. value for the variable is 41.553. So, it indicates that the distribution of the variable is fairly consistent.

Recommendations

Based on the empirical research, following recommendations can be made for this specific area of research:

(i) Land size based planning for business communication can help the growth and success of farm enterprise.

(ii) Rice based farming system, supported by irrigation is offering a unique opportunity for capacity building of the farmers of West Bengal.

(iii) Training, focusing on business communication, handling ICT tools and mobile telephony, can go a long way for making communication behavior more adaptive to present social ecology of agriculture and allied sectors of West Bengal.

(iv) Social capitals like, Schools, Panchayat, Credit organizations, Market linked institutions, are to be integrated for shaping up a new form of Entrepreneurial communication behavior.

Limitations: The most important limitations which have been observed in this research are as follows:

Future Scope of the Research

The present study has been conducted by driving the insights deeper into the nature, intensity and character of the problems creating barrier against the Entrepreneurial communication. Entrepreneurial communication nowadays is a need in these days of unemployment and stands to be both the means and method of sustaining life process in terms both assets and capital, it needs more comprehensive study. Attaining Entrepreneurial communication among the upcoming and motivating entrepreneurs, anywhere is an endless process by itself. The present study thus leaves behind the following domains to be researched out in future:

The study can be extrapolated to other domains of entrepreneurship.

1) Modeling of Entrepreneurial communication including the positive motivation, can be achieved through further studies.

2) The future study of this particular topic has a scope to include several contextual and realistic variables other than the variables included in this study.

3) The structure and the function of Entrepreneurial communication behavior and process, can well be understood from further study of the similar topic.

4) There is a scope of methodological innovation in future and application of artificial intelligence in this study

5) Policy research on Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurial communication as to monitor or rationalize the magnitude of rural entrepreneurship, for keeping the pace of growth unabated can be achieved.

The present research had been conducted to study the Entrepreneurial communication and the process, factors and impact in Agricultural enterprise and allied sectors of selected block of West Bengal and in the end the comparison is made. The study had been conducted at villages Radhikapur from blocks Kaliyaganj of West Bengal. A pilot study was conducted to understand the area, its people, institution, communication and extension system of these states.

An exhaustive list of respondents was prepared critically with the help of some villagers. From the list, 75 respondents from the village were selected for the study through Systematic Random sampling method. The primary data were collected with the help of structured interview schedule by following the personal interview method. The secondary data were collected from our departmental library, internet, Department of Agriculture, West Bengal, Bidhan Chandra krishi Viswavidyalaya, etc. for establishing the conceptual framework of the study.

The general objective of the study is to estimate and analyze the “Entrepreneurial communication: The process, factors and impact in Agricultural enterprise and allied sectors of selected block of West Bengal” and the specific objectives are:

1) To study the present status of the entrepreneurial communication.

2) To measure the unique features entrepreneurial communication over the general communication.

3) To generate micro level policy implementation based on the empirical research.

4) To estimate intra and inter level of interaction among dependent variable and independent variable.

5) To isolate factors impactions on Entrepreneurial behavior.

7.1: Summary

19 Independent variables and 6 Dependent variables were selected for the study respectively and measured with the help of exact scales developed by previous social science researchers or by modifying the developed scale by structured interview schedule for requirement of the study.

Independent variables selected for the study are, Age (x1), Education (x2), No. of enterprise (x3), Year of enterprise (x4), Family size (x5),Average Family education (x6), Material possessed (x7), Size of land holding (x8), Size of homestead land (x9) No. of fragments (x10), Crop yield (x11), Cropping intensity (x12), Annual Income (x13), Family expenditure (x14), Marketed surplus (x15), Marketable surplus (x16), Family labor (x17), No. of male workers (x18) and No. of female workers (x19). The Dependent variables selected for the study are, cosmopo lite Farm enterprise information (y1), localite Farm enterprise information (y2), Information seeking and responding behavior (y3), Entrepreneurial communication behavior (y4), Economical communication (y5) and Transportation cost (y6).

Indian agriculture now stands at a cross road. By 2050, Indian population will overtake that of China’s. The world population in the same year will be close to 9.5 billion. And to feed the human population of this planet, the agricultural production needs to be increased 60% over the present one by 2050. For India the target is 450 million tons by 2050.

This is a humongous task. This mammoth escalation of targeted food production has to be carried out with the constraints and barrier created by climate change, erosion of soil, bio-diversity, ecological disruption due to mindless anthropogenic action and wrong planning.

The production, productivity, income, livelihood, and ecological resilience in agriculture are not performing in perfect orchestration. They are in apparent contradiction. To produce 1 kilogram of rice, the equivalent water foot print is about 4000 litres. It is obvious that enhancing food productivity, there could be more disruption and stress on soil, water and bio-diversity. The ecological resilience is a subject of musical chaos and symphony amidst ecological function-stress-conservation-extraction-. Without depletion and disruption, it is simply impossible to initiate and foster agriculture production as well as productivity. But the question is what could be level of endurance? Wherein restoration and retention, ecological resilience will move in resonance and complementary manner.