eChapters

Media for plant growth and seed germination has great significance in nursery business. It is the basic need of the propagation industry. The material for rooting and growing media may be used either alone or incorporated with one or more products in combination. The materials used for rooting media may be naturally occurring or may be manufactured artificially.

Characteristics of an ideal rooting medium: These are as follows.

1. The medium must be sufficiently firm and dense to hold the cuttings or seeds in place during rooting or germination.
2. It must retain sufficient water and air, allowing sufficient drainage.
3. It should be highly decomposed and stable.
4. It must be free from weed seeds, insect pests and diseases.
5. Acidity or alkalinity should be the optimum for different species.
6. Its volume must be fairly constant, when either wet or dry.
7. It must be capable of being sterilized.

Introduction

Multiplication of plants is termed as propagation. Nowadays, propagation practice has been totally modernized. Propagation practices have advanced from field to in-vitro. Starting from scion stick of 15 to 20 cm length, the plants are multiplied even using cell, tissue and embryo. In modern horticulture trade, plant propagation is a soaring business. It is highly profitable, employment generative, recreative and creative business.

Several improvements have been noticed over the period of time in the basic techniques of plant propagation, using either conventional or tissue culture approaches. The propagation under protected environment by creating artificial conditions such as light, temperature and humidity under controlled irrigation through drip irrigation and fertigation has enhanced the potential of plant propagation and has made it possible to propagate the plants around the year.

Abstract

Propagation in vitro using shoot tips / axillary buds has been applied successfully for production of  clonal apple rootstock  Malling 7 of EMLA series. For surface sterilization, HgCl₂ was found to be a good disinfectant as compared to sodium hypochlorite. Shoot tips were established best in MS medium supplemented with 2 mg/l  BA, 0.5 mg/l GA₃ and  0.1 mg/l IBA. Antioxidants were added to overcome phenol exudation. Shoot multiplication was influenced by cytokinin type and concentration. Of the cytokinins tested, BA (0.5 mg/l) was found superior to kinetin. Addition of phloroglucinol improved multiplication rate and shoot growth. Among the auxins tested, IBA was found better and roots were readily induced with 1 mg/l IBA. 90-95 per cent plantlets were established successfully in peat containing pots as well as in the field.

The propagation of plants has been one of the fundamental occupations of mankind since civilization begins. Most of the selected plant would have lost or could have attained undesirable forms if they were not propagated under strict environment conditions. Growth, in all nature, result from the division of cells to form more similar cells. Thus bacteria reproduce by simple division, in higher plants and animals, a new individual is genetically formed only when cell division fallows the fusion of two cells. This is known as sexual reproduction. There are thus two methods of producing new plants, sexual and asexual or vegetative reproduction.

I. Sexual Propagation

Raising of plants by means of seeds is called sexual propagation. There are many plants raised for our garden from seeds. The plants produced through seeds are called seedlings. In sexual method, the sex organs of flower are involved in process like pollination and fertilization, resulting the formation of seeds. eg rootstocks plants of many fruit crops are grown through seed propagation.

Plant propagation by means of seed is called ________ propagation.

A. Sexual          B. Parthenocarpy

C. Asexual        D. Apomixis

The woody perennial shrubs have been the integral part of the traditional agro forestry system in arid region since ancient times. Inhabitants of the region rely on these species for food, fodder, fuel wood and other day-today requirements since long. Among woody perennials arid shrubs also have a major role in stabilization of drifting sands in the arid ecosystem. Out of about 682 species of Indian arid Zone (Bhandari, 1990), shrubs constitute 70% of the total flora in the Indian desert, yet they cover over 70-80% of desert landscape. Thus shrubs are less in variety, they are ecologically more successful biotypes in the desert environment.

The propagation of plants has been a fundamental occupation of mankind since civilization begins. Agriculture started some 10,000 years back when ancient people learned plants and grow kind of plants that fulfilled nutritional needs for themselves and their animals (Hartman et al., 1981). As civilization advanced, people added to the variety of plants cultivating not only for additional food crops but also those that provided fibres, medicine, recreational opportunities and beauty. From the great diversity and variation in plant life, it has been possible to select kinds of plants particularly useful to the welfare of humans and their animals. Bio-diversity has attracted the world wide attention because of growing awareness of its importance on the one hand, and the anticipated awareness depletion on the other. About 20 per cent of all species are expected to be lost within 30 years and 50 per cent or more by the end of 21st Century (Myers, 1993). India is one of the 12 mega-diversity countries globally recognized for its rich diversity, since its geographic position extends from sea level to the highest mountain ranges in the world.

Propagation

Definition: Multiplication of plant is termed as propagation.

Types of propagation

There are mainly two types of propagation

1. Sexual propagation
2. Asexual propagation

Seed spices, an important group of horticultural crops, are defined as vegetable products or mixture thereof, free from extraneous matter, primarily used for flavouring, seasoning and imparting aroma of foods item and beverages. Besides food industry, the seed spices have medicinal properties and thus are used in various pharmaceutical preparations and cosmetics (Malhotra and Vashishtha, 2008).  India is known as the home of spices and produces a wide variety of seed spices- coriander, cumin, fennel, fenugreek, ajowan, dill, nigella, celery, anise and caraway. Over the years a good number of high yielding varieties have been developed under AICRP on Spices of ICAR by SAU’s and National Research Centre on Seed Spices. India enjoys the status of largest producer of seed spices in the world but the productivity in the country is very low and is 25-30 % of the total potential of the crop varieties.

Objectives

1. To know the propagation and its methods.
2. To know the propagation methods of various spices and condiments.

Propagation of plants

The process of increasing plant numbers is called propagation

Or

Multiplication of plants is known as propagation

Plants are propagated either by

1. Sexual (Seed) or
2. Asexual (vegetative) methods.

Abstract

The studies were conducted during the years 2002 and 2003, to standardize the best method and time for summer budding in walnut. Four methods of summer budding viz. chip, annular, patch and shield were performed at 10 days interval from 15th May to 24th July. The results revealed that among the four methods of summer budding, chip budding was found to be highly superior to other methods of budding and gave 92% bud take success on 25th May and 87 per cent on 15th May also. Annular budding performed on 14th June was found next superior method and time of budding for walnut propagation when it resulted in 81% bud take success. Chip budded plants attained maximum height and radial growth as compared to annular and patch budded plants. The period from mid of May to first week of June was considered as optimum time for chip budding and mid June to end of June for annular and patch budding for walnut propagation under mid hill conditions of North-western Himalayas.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Several propagation structures are helpful in propagation of horticultural crops. These structures are helpful for seed germination, rooting of cuttings, layering, grafting etc. and other hardening operations. The structures which facilitate propagation of plants are called propagation structures. Propagation structures are required for propagating plants by seed, cuttings and grafting.2.2

GREENHOUSE

Greenhouse is a structure covered with glass or polythene for protection against adverse climatic conditions as well as to provide optimum environment for growth of the plants. Greenhouse has been used long back by horticulturists as a means of forcing rapid growth of plants and extending the growing season particularly in colder areas. Plants are grown or cuttings are rooted in a greenhouse when the atmospheric condition does not permit for raising them in outdoor conditions. Modern greenhouses are equipped with regulatory mechanisms for controlling temperature, light intensity, air, humidity etc. Plants in green house are grown in the ground bed or bench type raised beds. The size of the greenhouses and dimensions of beds vary according to the need of propagators. Glass covered greenhouses are expensive but they have long life. However, for short-term benefits, plastic covered greenhouses can also be made. Plastic covered greenhouses are lighter than glass covered ones but there is increase in humidity is such houses, especially in winters, which results in undesirable water drops on the plants. It can however be overcome by making adequate ventilation. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) has also been used in construction of greenhouses but it tends to darken pre-maturely in sunlight. In India, construction of temporarily low-cost poly houses is in fashion for raising nursery of fruit plant in off-season. Such low-cost greenhouses are constructed either on wood or metal framework and are covered with polyethylene sheet of 0.10 to 0.15mm thickness, which is resistant to ultra-violet rays. These houses are equipped with thermostat, cooler or an air conditioner or humidifier etc for rigid control on temperature and humidity. Greenhouses made from fibre glass sheet are more durable than the polythene houses, but are quite expensive. In greenhouses, two types of beds are used for raising seedlings. In greenhouses, the beds may either be prepared on ground itself or raised beds or bench type beds are used. Greenhouse structures vary from elementary home constructed to elaborate commercial installations.

1. DEFINITIONS

Propagation : Propagation of plants may be defined as the controlled reproduction of plants by man to perpetuate selected individual or groups of individual plants which have specific value to him or it is the perpetuation of plants as independent units by means of seeds, bulbs, layers, cuttings, or grafts.

• Seed: A seed has been defined as a young plant packed ready to start growing when required.
• Apomixis: Development of seeds without the complete sexual process is known as apomixes and seed produced in this manner is called apomictic seeds.
• Seed dormancy: The embryo of the seed remains in inactive stage from the time of its development to the time it germinates. This failure of the embryo is termed as dormancy of the seed.
• After-ripening: Some seeds germinate fully when freshly harvested, but they germinate after a period of dry storage. The change taking place in such seeds are known as after- ripening.
• Embryo dormancy: Conditions existing within the embryo.
• After-ripening dormancy: Seeds fail to germinate when freshly harvested, but they germinate after a period of dry storage. Such seeds are known as after-ripening dormant seeds. This is due to the physiological changes taking place in embryo.

Plant propagation techniques refer to the methods by which the plants are multiplied and increased in number.

Methods of Propagation

i) Sexual Method of Propagation - Seeds are used as propagating material.

ii) Asexual Methods of Propagation - Plant parts, other than seeds are used for plant propagation.

Guava, Psidium guajava L., belongs to the family Myrtaceae, which comprises 3,000 species under 80 genera. It is well-distributed in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world, especially in South America, Asia and Australia. The genus Psidium has about 150 shrubs and P. guajava is wellknown and grown worldwide. The flower of guava is self-pollinated; cross pollination, however, is estimated to be around 35% and pollination mainly carried-out of by bees and other insects. Therefore, seed multiplication will result in genetic heterogeneity that can be observed in orchards and plants in the same orchard. Therefore, seed propagation in commercial orchards to increase productivity is not recommended. The methods of vegetative propagation have been studied for the purpose of the production chain. In addition to the propagation structure, the costs of new technologies must also be taken into account.
Progress in guava propagation has taken place in the last 100 years. It is important to know how to use the same methods of graftings and cutting. Detection of growth regulators, information on role of the juvenile stage in reproduction, advances in knowledge of chimeras, micro-propagation and application of vegetative propagation to prevent diseases caused by viruses and other pathogens. One can propagate guava by buddings, air layering, stoolings and inarching are not yet commercially feasible due to different success rates, the lack of a tap root system and burdensome processes. The purpose of this review is to discuss the diverse methods of propagating guava which are used commercially and the advancement made in recently.

Plant propagation is the science of generating new plants. Basically, in plant kingdom, the plants multiply themselves either asexually or by sexual means. In asexual propagation methods, plants use any of the vegetative part of the plant to produce offspring such as stem, root, buds, etc. The plants thus produced are having exactly the same genetic blueprint as that of the parent plant. However, in the sexual method of propagation, the specialized parts of the plants which have undergone meiosis takes parts such as pollen and ovule to produce seed which on germination produces the plants having characters encoded on its genome. Such plants may have a blend of characters of both the parents. The seed production is a complex phenomenon which takes place after fertilization (Bhatnagar and Johri, 1972).

Spices play important roles in daily life and India is a rich repository of spices. Various biotechnological approaches like micropropagation, somaclonal variation, in vitro conservation, synseed technology, protoplast fusion, production of flavor and coloring components, and development of novel transgenics have great significance in conservation, utilization and increasing the production and productivity of spices. Protocols for micropropagation and production of disease free planting materials are available for many spices. Efficient plant regeneration protocols are also available for exploiting somaclonal variation ,where the available natural variability is relatively low. Technologies for isolation and culture of protoplasts were reported in a few spices. Development of transgenics for disease resistance is gaining momentum. Synseed and Micro-rhizome technology are also available for many spices for safe propagation, conservation, movement, and exchange of germplasm. In vitro and cryo preservation technologies for conservation of spices germplasm are available for many spices.

Kewda is exclusively propagated through ground suckers and leaf bearing terminal cuttings. In kewda growing areas, predominantly the terminal shoot cuttings are used in commercial plantations. However, the seeds are also capable to germinate and give rise to plants, but it is not in practice due to hard mesocarp and seed coat (Bailey, 1950, Deshaprabhu, 1966, Mott, 1975, Maharana and Jagadev, 1993).

Seed propagation

In kewda, the flowers develop into berries, which fuse to form a multiple fruit. The receptacle and bracts are included in the fruit. The seeds are deep seated and very difficult to extract, hence seeds are sown along with the fibrous drupes. Each drupe contains 2-9 seeds. Seeds collected from ripe fruits are sown during spring. The seeds normally, take about 3 months for germination due to the hard seed coat and impervious fibrous covering. Experimentally, it was observed that one hour sulphuric acid scarification treatment of the drupes reduced the germination period by about one month increasing the germination percentage as compared to direct sowing, however, scarification for more than one hour was deterimental (Table 14) (Maharana and Jagadev, 1993). Bailey (1950) reported that seed soaking in tepid water for 24 hours would aid the germination. The seed propagated plants (Plate-27) take about 2-3 years more for flowering as compared to vegetatively propagated plants.

As stated by Murashige’s definition, artificial seed (or synthetic/synseed) technology was initially restricted to species in which somatic embryogenesis was possible. Later, Bapat and co-workers (1987) proposed to broaden the technology to the encapsulation of various in vitro-derived propagules, and they used axillary buds of Morus indica as a first example of this new application. The new concept paved the way for the encapsulation of explants other than somatic embryos, and to the formulation of a new definition of artificial seeds (Aitken-Christie et al. 1995) as “artificially encapsulated somatic embryos, shoots, or other tissues which can be used for sowing under in vitro or ex vitro conditions”. In other words, the “new” artificial seed, lost the original bond of containing an embryo (zygotic or somatic), can now contain any kind of explant from tissue culture (such as axillary buds, shoot tips, nodal segments, bulblets, protocorms, callus samples, cells) which, following ‘germination’, will evolve into a plantlet or a shoot (artificial seed conversion) or will produce new cell proliferation (artificial seed regrowth).

Realization of synthetic seed technology requires manipulation of in vitro culture system for large-scale production of viable materials for preparation of synthetic seed, subsequently conversion into complete plants under in vitro as well as in vivo conditions. Somatic and gametic embryogenesis that enhanced axillary bud proliferation are the efficient techniques for rapid and large-scale multiplication of desirable plant species. Plant tissues such as somatic embryos, apical shoot tips, axillary shoot buds, embryogenic calli, and protocom-like bodies are potential micropropagules that have been considered for creating synthetic seeds. Encapsulations of somatic embryos, apical and axillary shoot buds, and regeneration of whole plants from them have been reported for a number of plant species (Redenbaug et al., 1986; Mathur et al., 1989; Ganapathi et al., 1992; Lulsdorf et al., 1993).

General Instructions

The monitor of ultrasound machine should be placed at the eye-level. The daylight should not be too bright. The setting of the machine should be done to obtain best picture on the screen. There are various knobs on the machine to set contrast and brightness. There are three other knobs that are used to set near gain, far gain and overall gain. There is also a brightness bar (help-bar) on the screen with different brightness areas. These knobs should be turned clockwise or anti-clockwise, so that all the areas on the help bar (brightness bar) are visible.

Transrectal Procedure

In cattle, trans-rectal ultrasonography is done in a way, similar to rectal examination done for palpation of genital organs. Following steps are suggested for proper procedure

1. Properly restrain the animal.

2. Evacuate the feces from the rectum.

3. Select a transducer of proper frequency (the linear array transducer of 5.0 MHz frequency is useful for general purpose in bovines, however for detailed examination of early conceptus and small follicles, a transducer of 7.5 MHz can also be used. Some transducers have range of these frequencies in single-equipment. Such transducers of switch-able frequency are found more useful.

Plant nutrients are naturally components of the soil orchestrated by weathering processes and that the abundance of these metals in our soil environment now-a-days is due to numerous anthropogenic activities. In the environment, heavy metals are partitioned among the various environmental compartments such as water, soil, suspended solids and biota. Processes such as dilution, dispersion, sedimentation, adsorption and desorption govern their distribution. They also exist in colloidal ionic particulate and dissolved phases,  have a high affinity for humic acids, organic colloids and oxides coated with organic matter. The soluble forms are generally ions or unionised organo metallic chelates or complexes. The solubility of metals in soil and groundwater is predominantly controlled by pH, amount of metal, cation exchange capacity, organic carbon content, the oxidation state of the mineral components and the redox potential of the system.

Physical Properties of Soil

Physical properties of soil have many important roles in the crop production. The basic requirements for germination, seedling emergence and root development are adequate moisture and aeration, optimum temperature and absence of mechanical hindrance. After germination the further development of plant is also governed by physical conditions of soil. Soil texture, soil structure, soil density, soil consistence, soil water, soil air, soil temperature and soil colour are main physical properties of soils also affecting mechanical behaviour of soils. These are described here.

1. Soil Texture

The weathering divides larger particles of rocks and minerals in to the smaller ones. This process goes continuously. Thus, particles of different sizes ranging from large fragments of rocks to the very fine clay minerals are found in soil. However, for texture particles less than 2mm diameter is considered. The relative amount of these particles indicates the soil type also. Such as sandy soils contain more amounts of coarse particles i.e., sand and clayey soils are rich in fine particles. The rock and mineral particles having diameter less than 2.0 mm and come between specifies size are called as soil separates. International society of soil science (ISSS) and United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) systems are Generally, followed to classify the soil separates. This classification is given in table 3.1.

Strength

Carbon nanotubes are the strongest and stiffest materials yet discovered in terms of tensile strength and elastic modulus respectively. This strength results from the covalent sp² bonds formed between the individual carbon atoms. In 2000, a multi-walled carbon nanotube was tested to have a tensile strength of 63 gigapascals (GPa). (This, for illustration, translates into the ability to endure tension of 6300 kg on a cable with cross-section of 1 mm².) Since carbon nanotubes have a low density for a solid of 1.3 to 1.4 g·cm”³, its specific strength of up to 48,000 kN·m·kg”¹ is the best of known materials, compared to high-carbon steel’s 154 kN·m·kg”¹. Under excessive tensile strain, the tubes will undergo plastic deformation, which means the deformation is permanent. This deformation begins at strains of approximately 5% and can increase the maximum strain the tubes undergo before fracture by releasing strain energy.

Abstract

Herbal Burfi was development with various types of milk viz., Buffalo (6% Fat), Cow (4% Fat) and mixed milk (5% Fat) and different levels of sugar i.e. 20, 25, 30 and 35 per cent (weight basis of khoa). Each sample was fortified with 5g satavar and safed musli powder. Other minor ingredients like Almonds, Cardamoms, Cashew nuts, Pistachio nuts, etc were mixed thoroughly and after preparation herbal burfi was allowed to set at room temperature (20- 25_oC) for two hours. Physico-chemical (acidity, pH, fat, protein, lactose, sugar, ash and total solids), microbial (total plate count, coliform count, yeast and mould count) quality and sensory attributes of the herbal burfi were evaluated. The data of experiments were statistically analyzed to compare significance effects of various factors by applying factorial Randomized Block Design (fRBD) with the help of OPSTAT software and ANOVA.

Nano-material possess unique properties such as dimension, shape, specific surface area, surface mass ratio etc., that are highly influenced by the mechanical and physical properties. It is pertinent to understand the basic physical properties of nano-materials in order to apply them in a wide array of functions. In this context, this chapter is devoted to provide basic information on physical, mechanical and photo-luminescence properties of nano-materials.

Nano-materials are to be extensively studied and characterized prior to their application in material science, biological science, electrical and electronics. In addition to the basic physical properties of the nano-materials, other characteristics such as paramagnetism, ferromagnetism, supermagnetism, optical properties, quantum size effects and electrical properties have to be studied. With a view to provide the fundamental information on these aspects this chapter is dedicated.

1. Mechanical Properties of Nanomaterials

Scientific challenges in nanoscience and nanotechnology include the development of nanomaterials with novel mechanical properties. The need for scratch, mar and/or abrasion resistance is well established in various markets, including fingernail polishes, flooring, plastic glazing, headlamp covers and other automotive parts, transportation windows and optical lenses, where clear scratch-resistant coatings are used. Because the nanosize, many of their mechanical properties of the materials is modified, among others, hardness and elastic modulus, fracture toughness, scratch resistance, fatigue strength, and hardness. Energy dissipation, mechanical coupling within arrays of components, and mechanical nonlinearities are influenced by structuring components at the nanometer scale. This includes also the interpretation of unusual mechanical behavior (e.g., strengths approaching the theoretical limit) and the exploration of new ways to integrate diverse classes of mechanically functional materials on the nano-size.

Introduction

Sem (Dolichos) bean, Hyacinth bean or Field bean is one of the most ancient crops among cultivated plants. It is a bushy, semi-erect, perennial herb, showing no tendency to climb. It is mainly cultivated either as a pure crop or mixed with finger millet, groundnut, castor, corn, bajra or sorghum in Asia and Africa (Maass et al., 2010). It is a multipurpose crop grown for pulse, vegetable and forage. The crop is grown for its green pods, while dry as well as fresh green matured seeds are used in various vegetable food preparations, as most of the nutritive value is concentrated in the seeds. FAO website reports that Dolichos lablab (field bean) is a dual purpose legume. It is traditionally grown as a pulse crop for human consumption in south and south-east Asia and eastern Africa. Flowers and immature pods also used as a vegetable. It is also used as a fodder legume sown for grazing and conservation in broad acre agricultural systems in tropical environments with a summer rainfall. Also used as green manure, cover crop and in cut and carry systems and as a concentrate feed.

In India rice is cultivated under two land situations. In uplands, rice is grown under rainfed conditions and the yield is normally low. In medium or low land conditions rice is grown under wet condition where plenty of rain water or irrigation water is available. Here an intensive tillage is practiced in wet to create a soft puddle condition and then paddy is transplanted. Land submergence is thus an essential condition for successful rice cultivation.

Rice soils are not necessarily soils with water at or near the surface. Many soils have a fairly deep water table, but their surface is kept under submergence maintaining depth of 3-5 cm water. This condition is maintained either by puddling when wet or by having a compacted layer in the sub surface.

A rice soil is characterized by reducing conditions, when it is cropped with rice during wet season and oxidizing conditions during dry season, when the land remained fallow or planted with dry season crops if, irrigation water is available.

The atmosphere near Earth’s surface, often referred to as the boundary layer, exhibits unique properties influenced by the interaction between the surface and the atmosphere. These properties are crucial for understanding weather patterns, climate, and various environmental processes. Ancient Indians use to worship five natural elements i.e. earth, water, air, energy and the sky. Perhaps they were aware of the interactive effects and processes between these 5 elements that govern life on earth. In a sense, meteorology itself is a science based on interactive effects of these natural elements. Microclimatology is all about the effect of the interactions between these 5 elements on life over the earth. For a beginner of microclimatology, it is important to understand the properties of the atmosphere near the earth’s surface and get familiar with the concept and terminology used to describe/quantify the physical processes taking place between the lower layers of the atmosphere and the earth’s surface.
2.1. Energy
The major source of energy in the earth atmosphere system is solar energy (Fig.2.1). The outer surface of the sun is very hot and its temperature is estimated to be around 6000°Kelvin (symbol K).
The Kelvin is the base unit of temperature in the international system of units (SI). The Kelvin scale is the absolute temperature scale that begins at the lowest possible temperature that can be attained (absolute zero) taken as 0 degree K. The magnitude or value of each degree of temperature in the Centigrade scale and Kelvin scale is same. The temperature measured in centigrade scale can be converted to Kelvin scale by adding 273.15. The sun emits heat energy in the form of solar radiation. As the solar radiation passes through the atmosphere, it gets partly depleted before reaching the earth’s surface. The processes through which the solar radiation gets depleted in the

Wool, which is sourced from sheep, is a significant protein fibre categorized as an animal fibre. Its hygroscopic nature allows it to absorb moisture effectively. Composed mainly of keratin, a protein created by amino acids linked through peptide bonds, wool possesses unique characteristics due to its sulphur content, setting it apart from other animal fibres. The fibres of wool are crimped and elastic, growing in clusters. This crimping generates air pockets that provide insulation, while the outer surface features overlapping, serrated scales that enable the fibres to interlock and create felt. For thousands of years, wool has been utilized as a textile because of these distinctive attributes.
Properties of Wool Fiber: The properties of wool fibre include the following:
1. Composition of amino acids: Wool fibres consist of amino acids that form the protein keratin.
2. Absorbency: Wool exhibits high absorbency, which allows it to effectively take in moisture.
3. Moisture retention: Wool can hold a considerable amount of moisture in relation to its weight.
4. Thermal insulation: Wool fibres offer superior warmth compared to many other fibres due to their crimp and structure.
5. Chemical resistance: Wool fibres show limited resistance to alkalis (such as strong soaps or detergents) but are resistant to acids.

1. Introduction

Observing the right to property from the angle of human right, it could be perceived that it is an essential component of freedom and development (Narveson, 2010). In his literature Levy (1995) maintains that, free speech is of little value to a person who has no entitlement on property. He also holds the view that only property can enable the individual to make independent decisions and choices because he is not beholden to anyone and has no need to be subservient. Thus property ownership is basically grounded on considered and intrinsic values of human right. Strategically it assists economic human rights essential for development. Intrinsically it provides every one the right to preserve human dignity and in turn worth to protect human rights. Moreover, every individual should enjoy the legal protection that is perpetually required to preserve his or her human dignity. Access to use and control of productive resources including land are essential to ensure the equality and adequate standard of living among persons. The discussions on woman right to land are somehow interlinked with global food security and also sustainable development of the economy. The crucial obstacles on these rights are inadequate legal standard, ineffective implementation mechanism, and discriminatory cultural values.

In many capitalist societies women are still being vulnerable and subjected to exploitation which emerges from their exclusion from property ownership rights. Indeed the claim from women, for right to own property confirms the proposition laid down by Levy (1995) that the property rights relieves its owner to be subservient to others. However, the deteriorated rule of democracy obviously protect the discriminated and arbitral rules in almost every part of the world.

Introduction

Fisheries and aquaculture are important source of food, nutrition and livelihood for millions of people around the world. Aquaculture is the fastest growing food-production sector in the global aquaculture with production of 73.8 Million tonnes in 2014 (FAO, 2016) expanding into new directions, intensifying and diversifying. A persistent goal of global aquaculture is to maximize the efficiency of production to optimize profitability.

Infectious diseases pose of the most significant threats to successful aquaculture. Intensively cultured fish and shellfish are susceptible to infectious agents. The losses due to shrimp diseases in India is valued at Rs. 10, 221 million. Globally, the yield loss due to diseases in aquaculture is estimated to be $ 6 billion. A variety of antimicrobial and chemical treatments have been used for the control and treatment of bacterial diseases in aquaculture systems. The emergence of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria due to application of antibiotics in aquaculture and the toxic nature of chemicals led to the search for alternatives for the control of infection. Here, we discuss the several alternatives to antibiotics that have been successfully used in aquaculture.

Objectives

• To keep the laboratory animal house neat and clean
• To maintain healthy stock

The disease may be bacterial, viral, fungal or of parasitic origin. All the measures taken to reduce growth and also to control spread of pathogenic organism is a sanitary measure like ventilation, building without cracks crevices.

Important aspect of good sanitation is insect control or pest control. Most effective measure is to just chase them out. To achieve this :

Vaccination of cattle and prevention of diseases causing huge economic losses is very much essential for economic rearing of livestock as prophylactic and strategic vaccination helps in development of immunity against the vaccinated diseases thereby prevents the animals from developing such infections and consequent diseases. Animals should be vaccinated at specific age and at definite time intervals for optimal protection against the diseases.

Introduction

Aquaculture is given major thrust in many countries including India not only as a source of good quality food of animal origin but also because of economic gains it brings to aqua-farmers, creation of employment and export trade. It has emerged as one of the fastest growing food producing sector sowing to intensification and diversification of culture systems. However, the success of the intensive aquaculture system depends on several factors including species cultured, type of feed, water quality, management practices and strategies adopted to prevent/ control disease problems. Further, the intensive aquaculture operation results in accumulation of wastes leading to water quality deterioration, oxygen depletion, build-up of toxic metabolites such as hydrogen sulphide, methane, ammonia and nitrites that cause stress to culture animals leading to susceptibility to diseases. Among the several challenges that seriously affect the growth and sustainability of aquaculture, the incidence of microbial diseases are considered as major threat. Thus, keeping cultured aquatic animals in good health becomes major requirement for the success of aquaculture.

Though application of chemicals and drugs are often considered necessary to maintain water quality and animal health, use of these, in the long run are known to cause harmful effects both to the animal and the environment. Further, accumulation of drugs and chemicals in tissues, development of resistance to drugs by pathogens, pathogen build up, destruction of useful microorganisms, deterioration of pond environment and toxicity issues have limited their use in aquaculture system. Under these circumstances several alternative strategies have been proposed as viable option for the success of aquaculture in the form of prophylactic measuressuch as use of probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, immunostimulants and bacterial vaccines. The term prophylaxis refers to all preventive steps taken including better aquaculture management practices that are adopted during a hatchery and farming operation to improve growth, minimize the load of pathogens and prevent occurrence of diseases.

Introduction

The control of infectious diseases of bacterial etiology in food animals is often by using collective and simultaneous medication of a group, i.e. the so-called preventive uses prophylaxis and metaphylaxis. These uses are vigorously debated because they involve the mass consumption of antibiotics that is suspected to favour the emergence of resistant bacteria, especially in the gut flora, which is critical for the potential transfer of resistance to humans via the food chain. Metaphylaxis corresponds to the administration of antibiotics to animals experiencing any level of bacterial disease before overt disease occurs, with the time of intervention depending on the detection of disease outbreaks in a few animals in the group. Metaphylaxis is launched after (meta) pathogen contamination, with the goal of the bacteriological cure of infected animals, which subsequently warrants the final protection (phylaxis) against infection outbreaks. In this respect, metaphylaxis should be viewed as a curative treatment occurring early in the time scale of the infection, and should be compared to classical curative treatments of sick animals. The pathophysiological status of the animals and the size of the bacterial load at the infection site are specificities of metaphylaxis that could play an important role in antibiotic pharmacodynamics, including the reduction of resistance selection within the pathogenic inoculum. Recent advances have been made in evaluating the antibiotic doses required for clinical and bacteriological cures, depending on the size of bacterial load at the infection site. The observations that total doses were much lower for early treatments when bacterial loads were small, compared to later treatments of sick animals with higher bacterial loads, reinforces the in vivo relevance of the so called ‘inoculum effect’, whatever its underlying mechanisms.

1. Introduction Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum (L.) belongs to the grass family Paniceae. It is a perennial cropthat grows in summer each year as late-seeded summer crop (Figure 1). Its origin can be traced back to at least 2000 B.C. when it was said to be grown in the Central European regions. Proso millet plant thrives in dry areas such as Africa, Central Russia, Manchuria, Middle East and Northern India and North America’s Great Plains. Proso millet was introduced to Canada in the 17th century and used sparingly as a feed crop in the early 1900s (Rajasekaran and Francis, 2021). This is a low-demand crop and is utilised in organic farming systems across Europe and as an intercrop in the United States. Its shallow root system and resistance to atrazine residue make it a great intercrop between two crops that need a lot of water and pesticides. The last crop’s stubbles entrap more heat into the soil which promotes faster and earlier growth of millet. Hence, it can help to evade summer drought and achieve continual crop rotation (Kalinova and Moudry, 2006). It is an erect herbaceous annual crop with a lot of tillering. Its plant can reach a height of 45-100 centimetres. The stem is thin, with prominently enlarged nodes. The roots are thin and fibrous.

Plants have served as an important food source in the human diet since times immemorial. In recent times, available plant food sources are facing the threat of limitation due to many reasons viz., shrinking of agricultural land, changes in traditional lifestyles, population growth, rapid urbanization, changes in climate and a variety of plant diseases (Strange and Scott, 2005). Technological, development in agriculture and food processing are associated with both benefits and drawbacks impacting the human health globally with people suffering from chronic hunger, malnutrition to over-nutrition and nutritional imbalances.

1.1 Introduction Among the C4 grasses known as panicoids (subfamily: panicoideae), which also includes nutrient-rich cereals like millets and sorghum as well as commercially valuable crops like switchgrass, napier grass, and guinea grass, are bioenergy feedstocks like sugarcane and miscanthus. Among all, millets overpowered others in terms of biotic/abiotic stress resilience, resource sustainability as well as nutritional benefits. Minor millets, often known as nutritional cereals, are a type of small-seeded grains that are members of the Poaceae family. Up to 35 kinds of grass from 20 genera are well-known for being minor millets. Finger millet, foxtail, proso millet, barnyard millet, kodo millet, and little millet are the most significant small millets that are grown worldwide. India is the leading producer and consumer of millet crops and their products. The total area of small millets in India is around 1.63 m ha, with a production of 1.82 m tones during the year 2016- 17 (Annual progress report 2018-19, ICAR-AICRP on small millets).

ABSTRACT

Agriculture is an important component of Indian economy contributing over 14% to the National GDP and employment to about 52% of the workforce. The small farm families form the backbone of Indian agriculture. The sustainability of small farms needs to be continuously supported with appropriate technologies and also with promoting off farm employment opportunities in the rural sector. The role of KVKs’ in preparing the next generation farmers’ through imparting training to update their knowledge and skills in modern agricultural technologies related to technology assessment; refinement, demonstration and training of extension personnel to orient them in the frontier areas of technology development. Sh. Narender Singh s/o Sh. Jagdish Rai, Graduate, 42 years old youth from Dharania Village came in contact with KVK, Fatehabad in 2008 and got training from this centre. He was motivated to diversify his traditional system of agriculture with integrated farming system of Dairy Farming, Vegetable, Seed production, inter cropping of Guar in cotton. He also used neem cake and bio control agents in poly houses for management of root knot nematode. He is recycling cow dung from the dairy farm and producing bio gas for domestic consumption with the diversification of farming system. The total expenditure was Rs. 5,55,645 and gross return was Rs. 13,63,100. The farmer benefit cost ratio is 2:45.

SUMMARY

Green manuring is the practice of growing lush plants on the site into which organic matter directly incorporate to the soil while it is still fresh. Green manures, often known as cover crops, are plants which are grown to improve the structure and nutrient content of the soil. They are a cheap alternative to artificial fertilizers and an eco-friendly input for organic farming and can be used to complement animal manures. Growing a green manure is not the same as simply growing a legume crop, such as beans, in a rotation. Green manures are usually dug into the soil when the plants are still young, before they produce any crop and often before they flower. They are grown for their green leafy material which is high in nutrients and protects the soil. It is basically a holistic management system, which promotes and improves the health of the agro-ecosystem related to biodiversity, nutrient biocycles, soil microbial and biochemical activities.

Like other sectors of the economy food processing sector also suffers from certain constraints. The challenges for the food conservation, distribution and processing sectors are diverse and demanding, which need to be addressed to leverage the growth of agriculture and food processing sector. Following are the major challenges and strategies are suggested to overcome the challenges (Sakina, 2019).

6.1. Domestic Constraints in the Development of Food Processing Industry in India

Despite the significant economic potential of the FPI in India, it still faces massive domestic challenges, which include low level of processing, fragmented structure of the industry, consumer perception and lack of skilled manpower. Firstly, low level of processing means that at industrial level, less food is processed, as compared to household level. Most of the traditional food items like jams, jellies, pickles etc. are prepared at small manufacturing units or by households (Agarwal & Neogi, 2017).

Secondly, consumer perception with regard to processed food in India is not very optimistic and they consider that packaged food is not fresh, thus, leading to low consumption of processed food. Thirdly, food processing sector is still highly fragmented and unorganised. This led to the inefficacies in the sector and has failed to achieve the economies of scale (Agarwal & Neogi, 2017).

Introduction

Farmers have long used biorationals such as Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) in both crop production and crop protection. This understanding is the result of many generations of interaction within natural and physical environments (Rajasekaran et al., 1991 and Kolawole, 2001). ITK is the unique and local traditional knowledge that is specific to a particular culture or community and is passed down from one generation to the next and every individual has inherited this information from their ancestors. Except for a handful, ITKs are passed down from generation to generation verbally, with no validated written documents. Many definitions of ITK systems have been proposed, but all of them are incomplete because the notion is still relatively young and changing. The ITKs are environmentally friendly and compatible with pest management approaches (Deka et al., 2006). ITK was defined by Wang (1988) as “the whole body of knowledge and practices based on people’s cumulative experiences in resolving situations and issues in a variety of spheres of life and such information and practices are unique to a specific culture.” According to Haverkort, 1995, ITK is the actual knowledge of a given population that reflects the experiences based on tradition and includes more recent experiences with modern technologies. The phrase “indigenous technological knowledge” is frequently disguised with the idea that it is connected to upcoming events and the innovations developed by farmers to address certain issues. Among the associated terms are (i) Indigenous Knowledge (IK), which refers to the participant’s understanding of their social and temporal context. The term “indigenous knowledge” as used here refers to any identifiable community’s knowledge, not just which of indigenous peoples; (ii) The Indigenous Knowledge System (IKS) describes a conceptual framework for theories and perceptions of nature and culture. The physical, ecological, social, economic, and ideational surroundings are thus included, together with their definitions, categorizations, and concepts. The cognitive and empirical levels both have a role in IKS dynamics. IKS is evident in institutions, artifacts, and technology on an empirical level. ITK is expressed through stories, songs, folklore, proverbs, dances, myths, cultural values, beliefs, rituals, community regulations, local language and taxonomy, agricultural techniques, tools, materials, plant species, and animal breeds. ITK is stored in people’s memories and activities, and is expressed in the form of stories; ITK is shared and communicated orally, by specific examples, and through culture. An African proverb says “When an old knowledgeable person dies, a whole library dies” indicating the importance of ITKs. It serves as the foundation for local decisions in rural communities on agriculture, health care, food preparation, education, and a variety of other activities. Indigenous knowledge serves as a society’s information hub and helps in decision making and communication. Indigenous information systems are dynamic and constantly affected by both internal innovation and experimentation and interactions with outside systems. The phrase “indigenous technological knowledge” is frequently disguised with the notion that it is connected to upcoming events and the innovations produced by farmers to address certain issues.

7.1. Challenges in Milk Quality

Demand for milk and milk products in India is growing very rapidly, owing to urbanization, customer convenience, and the change from loose to packaged milk products. At present, the dairy sector is rising at about 10-12 per cent annually. Based on population growth projections and an increase in urbanization over the next four decades, India is projected to need approximately 600 million tonnes of milk per year to meet the demand for milk and milk products. This means that India’s milk production needs to grow at around 3.2 per cent CAGR for the next 40 years (FICCI, 2020).

Main reason of poor quantity of milk is due to unhygienic and poor condition of animal farms and dairies. Even due to high demand in foreign country we cannot export such poor quality of milk product. Many times, Indian milk products get rejected in foreign nations due to unhygienic milking milk contains high number of microbial counts. Reasons behind the quality affected in India are due to poor health of animal, polluted water and food and Unclean surrounding in farm. So, it is necessary to consider all this challenges in improving milk production. Currently most of the milking animals are not screened on regular interval of time. So, there is lots of chances that some diseases can transmitted to human beings. Farmers use antibiotics and chemical drugs to increase the production of milk this will also affect the quality of milk. These issues can be avoided by regular screening of animals in animal husbandry and also maintaining history records of health, feed etc. Quality of feed should be checked regularly. There must be pollution control in the feed and water used in cattle farms (Bhagyalaxmi, 2020).

Introduction

Persistent income from agriculture is most important for sustaining the farming sector. Conservation agriculture (CA) is a resource-saving agricultural production system that aims to achieve production intensification and high yields while enhancing the natural resource base through compliance with three interrelated principles, along with other good production practices of plant nutrition and pest management (Abrol and Sangar, 2006). Conservation agriculture is largely promoted as one of the few win–win technologies affordable to farmers, in the sense that potentially it improves farmers’ yields (in the long term) at the same time conserving the environment. CA is described by FAO (http://www.fao.org.ag/ca) as a concept for resource saving agricultural crop production which is based on enhancing the natural and biological processes above and below the ground. As per FAO definition CA is to a.) Achieve acceptable profits, b.) High and sustained production levels, and c.) Conserve the environment. It aims at reversing the process of degradation inherent to the conventional agricultural practices like intensive agriculture, burning/removal of crop residues. Shifting from tillage-based agriculture to no-tillage CA systems removes unsustainable elements in the current tillage based systems and replaces them with CA elements that make the production systems profitable and ecologically sustainable. Conservation agriculture offers an opportunity for arresting and reversing the downward spiral of resource degradation, decreasing cultivation costs and making agriculture more resource – use-efficient, competitive and sustainable.

Abstract
Milk, recognized globally as a complete food, is rich in essential nutrients like calcium, amino acids, and bioactive compounds, offering numerous health benefits such as antimicrobial, antihypertensive, and anti-carcinogenic properties. India, the world’s largest milk producer with 170 million tonnes annually (20% of global production), is witnessing rapid growth in its dairy industry, projected to reach a market value of Rs. 10 trillion by 2025. The sector, driven by modernization, cooperatives, and increasing consumer demand for value-added products like ghee, cheese, and probiotics, presents vast entrepreneurial opportunities in dairy farming, processing, retail, and machinery manufacturing. However, challenges such as poor hygiene, inadequate cold chains, and livestock health issues hinder quality and scalability. Emerging processing technologies and adherence to FSSAI regulations can enhance product quality and market potential, making dairy enterprises a cornerstone of India’s food industry and rural economy.
Keywords: Dairy Industry, Milk Production, Agri-preneurship, Value-Added Products, Food Safety, FSSAI Regulations, Livestock Management, Probiotics, Cold Chain, Sustainable Development

Introduction

Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy and helps the system as a whole for socio-economy development of the country. Despite 51 per cent of arable land of total geographical area and about 100 million hectares of potential irrigated area, the highest for any country in the world, unfortunately the contribution of agriculture to the grass domestic product is as low as 22 per cent. India is endowed with a wide spectrum of agro climatic conditions and a large variety of fruit crops ranging from tropical, sub­tropical and temperate are grown. In India, the area under fruit crops is 3.5 Mha with a production 45MT which accounts 9.6 % of total worlds production and ranks 2nd in fruit production (Anon., 2005). The country has become self-sufficient in food grains production, second largest producer of fruits and vegetables, but still the per capita consumption per day is hardly of the order of 70 g for fruits and 140 g for vegetables.

Since the dawn of civilization, the human species had an intimate association with fruits, roots, nuts and other vegetables that sustained them through the ages. This mutualism continued and flourished through domestication and organized culture of horticultural crops. Pretty long before, homestead gardening had been evolved in different parts of the globe independently to become a part of tradition in almost every society. Plant domestication by all likelihoods started around the human settlements. The obvious reasons for this were man’s need, better supply of water and organic household wastes and protection against destruction or grazing by animals, that’s why the prospective horticultural enterprise of homestead gardens all over the world is still the most enduring and sustainable form of family food production system and very important micro-units for conservation of plant genetic resources. The traditional and indigenous endeavour of the tribal people for conservation of land races also noteworthy contribution from one generation to the next. Though cereals are staples for most of the world population, there has been sustained emphasis on horticultural crops, particularly vegetables, all over the world during last few decades. The possible reasons are:

Introduction

Mango (Mangifera indica Linn.) is one of the most nutritious tropical fruits, native to Southern Asia and especially Eastern India. Mango belongs to Anacardiaceae family and it was disseminated all over the world in the beginning of sixteenth century, and there are currently around thousand known varieties of mango. It is the dominant tropical fruit variety produced worldwide, followed by pineapple, papaya and avocado, all of which are considered as major tropical fruits. Global production of mango in 2015-16 was estimated to be about 44 million tons, accounting for nearly 50% of world tropical fruit production.

Mango is the most important fruit of India and is known as “King of fruits”. Mango is cultivated in 2,312 thousand ha and the production is around 15.03 million tons, contributing 40.48% of the total world production. Main mango producing states in India are Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Bihar, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. Total export of mangoes from India is 59.22 thousand tons, valuing Rs. 162.92 crores during 2015-16. India exports mango to over 40 countries worldwide. Major importing countries during 2015-16 were UAE, Bangladesh, UK, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Bahrain. Important mango varieties are Dashehari, Langra, Mallika, Amrapali, Bombay Green, Banganapalli, Totapuri, Neelam etc.