eChapters

Introduction

Dr. C.L. Fortescue presented a paper in 1918 in which he proved that a system of several vectors or quantities may be resolved into equal different symmetrical groups or systems.

The method of symmetrical components is a general one applicable to any polyphase system.

Because of the widespread use of 3-phase systems and the greater familiarity which electrical engineers have with them, symmetrical component equations will be developed for three phases.

In the Analysis of Unsymmetrical Faults, the following assumptions will be made:

1. The generated emf system is of positive sequence only.

2. No current flows in the network other than due to fault i.e. load currents are neglected.

3. The impedance of the fault is zero.

4. Phase R shall be taken as the reference phase.

Introduction

A generator is subjected to electrical stresses imposed on the insulation of the machine, mechanical forces acting on the various parts of the machine, and temperature rise. These are the main factors which make protection necessary for the generator or alternator. Even when properly used, a machine in its perfect running condition does not only maintain its specified rated performance for many years, but it does also repeatedly withstand certain excess of overload.

Preventive measures must be taken against overloads and abnormal conditions of the machine so that it can serve safely. Even ensuring an efficient design, construction, operation, and preventive means of protection – the risk of a fault cannot be completely eliminated from any machine. The devices used in generator protection, ensure that when a fault arises, it is eliminated as quickly as possible.

Introduction

The insulating material (may be fluid or air) used in circuit breaker should serve two important functions. They are written as follows:

1. It should provide sufficient insulation between the contacts when circuit breaker opens.

2. It should extinguish the arc occurring between the contacts when circuit breaker opens.

The second point needs more explanation. To understand this point let us consider a situation if there is some fault or short circuit in the system, the relay provides desired signals to the circuit breaker so as to prevent system from ongoing fault. Now when circuit breaker opens its contacts, due to this an arc is drawn. The arc is interrupted by suitable insulator and technique.

Methods of Arc Interruption

Introduction

In normal working condition of electrical network, the current flows through the network is within the rated limit. If a fault occurs in the network mainly phase to phase short circuit fault or phase to ground fault, the network current crosses the rated limits. This high current may have a very high thermal effect which will cause permanent damage to the valuable pieces of equipment connected to the electrical network. So this high fault current should be interrupted as fast as possible. This is what an electrical fuse does. A fuse is a part of the circuit which consists of a conductor which melts easily and breaks the connection when current exceeds the predetermined value. An electrical fuse is the weakest part of an electrical circuit which breaks when more than predetermined current flows through it.

Inroduction

The process of connecting neutral point of 3-phase system to earth (i.e. soil) either directly or through some circuit element is called neutral grounding. Neutral grounding provides protection to personal and equipment. It is because during earth fault, the current path is completed through the earthed neutral and the protective devices (e.g. a fuse etc.) operate to isolate the faulty conductor from the rest of the system. This point is illustrated in Figure 10.1.

Figure 10.1 shows a 3-phase, star-connected system with neutral earthed. Suppose a single line to ground fault occurs in line R at point F. This will cause the current to flow through ground path as shown in Figure1. Note that current f lows from R phase to earth, then to neutral point N and back to R-phase. Since the impedance of the current path is low, a large current flow through this path. This large current will blow the fuse in R-phase and isolate the faulty line R. This will protect the system from the harmful effects of the fault. One important feature of grounded neutral is that the potential difference between the live conductor and ground will not exceed the phase voltage of the system i.e., it will remain nearly constant.

Solar Photovoltaic

A single solar cell cannot provide required useful output. Therefore, to increase output power level of a PV system, it is required to connect number of such PV solar cells. A solar module is normally series connected sufficient number of solar cells to provide required standard output voltage and power. One solar module can be rated from 3 watts to 300 watts. The solar modules or PV modules are commercially available basic building block of a solar electric power generation system.

Actually, a single solar PV cell generates very tiny amount that is around 0.1 watt to 2 watts. But it is not practical to use such low power unit as building block of a system. So required number of such cells are combined together to form a practical commercially available solar unit which is known as solar module or PV module.

Introduction

Strategy is to achieve a particular goal or set of goals through plan of action. Importance of strategy: Strategy helps organizations to focus on their longterm goals and objectives, and to allocate their resources in the most effectiveway to achieve those goals.

 Types of strategy: There are several types of strategies, including corporatestrategy, business-level strategy, functional-level strategy, and operationalstrategy.

 The strategy development process: The strategy development processtypically involves several steps, including analyzing the external and internalenvironment, setting objectives, formulating a strategy, implementing thestrategy, and evaluating the results.

 Organizational strategy tools and techniques: Numerous tools andtechniques exist for organizations to foster and execute their strategies. These encompass SWOT analysis, PESTLE analysis, Porter's Five Forces analysis, and the Balanced Scorecard.

 

Introduction

Strategy is a critical aspect of any organization, as it helps to align resources, capabilities, and competencies to achieve the goals and objectives of the organization.

Strategic Management Process: The strategic management process com prises four essential stages: analysis, formulation, implementation, and evaluation. Each stage plays a crucial role in attaining desired outcomes and maintaining the organization's competitiveness.

Analysis Stage: During the analysis stage, the organization thoroughly examines its internal and external environments. The internal analysis assesses the organization's strengths and weaknesses, while the external analysis explores the opportunities and threats present in the market.

Formulation Stage: The formulation stage involves developing strategies to achieve the goals and objectives of the organization. This stage involves selecting the most appropriate strategy based on the results of the analysis.

Introduction

Strategy in the global context requires a thorough understanding of the external environment, including economic, political, cultural, and technological factors that could impact an organization's operations. Organizations must also understand their internal strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats to develop effective strategies that align with their goals. A global strategy involves developing a standardized approach to business activities that can be applied across different countries and cultures, while also adapting to local Market Conditions. Companies that operate globally must consider the differences in legal and regulatory environments, cultural norms, and consumer preferences when developing their strategies. Global strategy requires collaboration across different regions and functions within an organization to achieve a shared vision and common goals. The use of technology and data analytics is crucial in developing and executing global strategies, as it can help organizations identify new market opportunities, monitor changes in the external environment, and make informed decisions. Companies achieving success in formulating and executing global strategies must demonstrate agility and rapid adaptability to external environmental shifts. Additionally, they should maintain a steadfast commitment to continuous improvement and innovation to maintain a competitive edge.

Introduction

External environmental analysis is a critical process that organizations undertake to assess and understand the various factors and forces that exist outside their immediate operational boundaries.

It involves examining the external environment in which a business operates to identify opportunities, threats, and potential influences that may impact its performance and strategic decisions.

External environmental analysis is the systematic evaluation of factors outside an organization's control that can significantly impact its operations, strategies, and overall success.

Purpose The aim of conducting an external environmental analysis is to acquire a deeper understanding of the opportunities and threats that exist within the external environment. By comprehending these elements, organizations can make informed choices and craft efficacious strategies to adjust and prosper in an ever-evolving business environment.

Factors to Analyze: Highlight the main factors that organizations typically analyze during external environmental analysis. These encompass the Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental, and Legal (PESTEL) factors.. Additionally, industry-specific factors such as competition, customer behavior, and market trends should also be considered.

Tools and Techniques: Briefly mention some common tools and techniques used in external environmental analysis. These methodologies may involve SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) analysis, the application of Porter's Five Forces framework, scenario planning, trend analysis, and market research.

Introduction to Competitive Analysis

Competitive analysis is a crucial component of strategic planning and business decision-making. It involves assessing and understanding the competitive landscape in which a company operates. Here are some key points to consider when introducing competitive analysis:

Competitive analysis is the process of evaluating and analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of current and potential competitors in a specific market or industry.

Purpose: The primary purpose of competitive analysis is to gain insights into competitors' strategies, capabilities, and market positioning. It assists businesses in pinpointing opportunities, mitigating risks, and formulating effective strategies to surpass their competitors.

Information sources: Competitive analysis relies on gathering information from various sources. These include publicly available data, industry reports, competitor websites, customer reviews, social media, and market research.

Introduction to Internal Environment Analysis

Internal environment analysis is a critical component of strategic management that focuses on evaluating an organization's internal factors and resources. It involves assessing the internal strengths and weaknesses to gain insights into the organization's capabilities and competitive advantage. Here are some key points to highlight when discussing the introduction to internal environment analysis:

Internal environment analysis refers to the process of examining and evaluating an organization's internal factors, including its resources, capabilities, and core competencies. It helps identify strengths and weaknesses that can influence the organization's performance and competitiveness.

Purpose: The primary purpose of internal environment analysis is to understand the organization's internal dynamics and uncover key areas where it has a competitive advantage or faces challenges. It enables organizations to identify their core competencies and allocate resources effectively to achieve strategic goals.

Introduction

It refers to action which are taken with an aim to provide value to customers developing a competitive advantage by encashing upon the strength areas. In case of business Organisation with multiple business, where each business is considered as Strategic Business Unit (SBU).

• It address the following issues

 • Satisfying the Customer needs

 • Achieving an edge over its competitors

 • Avoidance of competitive disadvantage

Michal Porter Generic Competitive Strategy aim to develop position in long run to outperform the competitors. The three strategies includes:

• Cost Leadership: Providing quality product at low cost

• Differentiation: Providing unique goods and services

• Focus: Cost and differentiation focus

Introduction

It includes different levels of competitive strategy and how generic competitive strategies can be formulated. The organisation need to understand how to tackle the competitors and what specific decisions to be taken while formulating a competitive strategy. Each type of industry has to plan its own competitive strategy either to grow or to come out in bad situation. Michal Porter described generic competitive strategies to cope with five competitive forces. These strategies help organisation in different situation to develop appropriate competitive strategy that can be implemented effectively.

Competitive strategies are the methods and approaches used by companies to gain a competitive edge in the market and surpass their rivals. These strategies involve making deliberate choices about how to position the company, allocate resources, and respond to market conditions. Here are some key points to consider when introducing competitive strategies.

Introduction to Corporate Level Strategy

Corporate level strategy pertains to the choices and initiatives undertaken by a company's senior management to define the overarching direction and breadth of the organization. It entails making decisions regarding which industries or markets to engage in and how to distribute resources among various business units.

Scope of Decision-Making: Corporate level strategy concentrates on the entirety of the organization rather than individual business units or functional areas. It involves strategic decisions related to diversification, vertical integration, mergers and acquisitions, strategic alliances & resource allocation.

Purpose: The primary goal of corporate level strategy is to create value for shareholders by achieving a sustainable competitive advantage and maximizing the overall performance and profitability of the organization. It involves assessing the external business environment, identifying opportunities and threats, and leveraging internal capabilities to gain a competitive edge.

Diversification: One key aspect of corporate level strategy is deciding whether to pursue a strategy of diversification. Diversification can be either related (expanding into industries or markets related to the company's current business) or unrelated (entering completely new industries). The decision to diversify involves assessing the potential benefits, risks, and synergies associated with entering new markets.

Introduction to strategy implementation involves translating strategic plans into actions and achieving desired outcomes. While many organizations focus on the technical aspects of implementation, it is crucial to consider the behavioral dimensions as well. Behavioral dimensions encompass the attitudes, behaviors, and actions of individuals within an organization that impact the success of strategy implementation. Here are some key points to consider regarding the behavioral dimensions of strategy implementation:

Organizational culture: The culture of an organization plays a significant role in strategy implementation. It comprises shared values, norms, beliefs, and practices that influence employee behavior. An accommodating and flexible culture fosters employee engagement, commitment, and alignment with strategic goals.

Leadership and Communication: Effective leadership is essential for successful strategy implementation. Leaders must articulate the strategy clearly, provide guidance, and motivate employees towards the desired outcomes. Communication channels ought to be open, transparent, and promote a culture of collaboration and feedback.

Employee Involvement and Empowerment: Involving employees in the strategy implementation process increases their commitment and ownership. Empowering employees through delegation of authority and decision-making cultivates a sense of responsibility and accountability, leading to enhanced performance and innovation.

Introduction to Corporate Governance

Corporate governance encompasses the framework of rules, practices, and processes that guide the direction, control, and management of a company. It involves the interactions among various stakeholders, including shareholders, management, the board of directors, employees, customers, suppliers, and the community. Successful corporate governance is vital for a company's long term success and sustainability. It helps establish a framework for responsible decision-making, accountability, and transparency, which enhances investor confidence and protects the interests of stakeholders.

 

Introduction

The strategic control process is an essential component of strategic management that helps organizations monitor and evaluate their strategic plans and initiatives. It involves a systematic approach to assess the progress performance, and effectiveness of strategic objectives and make necessary adjustments to ensure alignment with organizational goals. Here are some key points on the introduction to the strategic control process. Strategic control refers to the ongoing monitoring, evaluation, and adjustment of an organization's strategic activities to ensure they are in line with the desired outcomes and objectives. It The significance of strategic control lies in several key reasons. helps organizations track their progress, identify deviations from the intended course, and take corrective actions. It also enables managers to assess the effectiveness of strategies, make informed decisions, and enhance organizational performance.

Introduction to Evaluation in Strategic Management Process

Strategic management is the process of formulating and implementing strategies to achieve an organization's goals and objectives. It entails making decisions and taking actions that align the organization with both its external environment and internal capabilities. Evaluation is a crucial component of the strategic management process as it helps assess the effectiveness and efficiency of the strategies implemented. It involves the systematic and objective assessment of various aspects of the organization's performance, including its strategy, resources, operations, and outcomes. The primary purpose of evaluation in strategic management is to determine whether the strategies are yielding the desired results and to identify areas for improvement. It offers valuable insights into the organization's strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats, enabling informed decision-making and adjustments to strategies as necessary.

1. Indian Major carps belongs to which family?

 a) Cobitidae

c) Ariidae

b) Cyprinidae

 d) Clupeidae

2. Body of carps is covered by which scales?

 a) Placoid

b) Ganoid

 c) Cycloid

3. Family cyprinidae includes......

 a) Catla catla

c) Cirrhina mrigala

d) Ctenoid

 b) Labeo rohita

 d) All of these

4. Selection criteria for cultivable fish includes .........

 a) It should have a fast growth rate

 b) It should be a hardy and resistant to disease

 c) Its flesh should be tasteful and with high nutritive value

 d) All of these

5. Why carps are suitable for culture?

 a) They can tolerate low oxygen content

 b) They have fast growth rate

 c) They feed on plankton,decaying weeds and debris

 d) All of these

1. To which family freshwater prawn belong?

 a) Arthropoda b) Crustacea

 c) Palaemonidae d) Malacostraca

 2. Scientifc name of freshwater prawn is .........

 a) Penaeus monodon b) Scylla serrata

 c) Macrobrachium rosenbergii d) Metapenaeus monoceros

 3. Freshwater prawn is also known as .........

 a) Giant river prawn b) Scampi

 c) Banana prawn d) Both a & b

 4. Identification features of freshwater prawn are .........

 a) Presence of grey and longitudinal streaks of light and dark colour

 b) The largest pereiopod of adult male is dark blue.

 c) The eggs of berried female are yellow in colour

 d) All of these

1. The word aquarium for the first time was used by ..........

 a) Philip Henry Gosse   b) Anne Thynne

 c) Philip Rottz   d) Britz Carles

 2. Who built the first stable marine aquarium in 1846?

 a) P.H.Gosse       b) Philip Rottz

  c) Britz Carles      d) Anne Thynne

 3. In 1853,the first large public aquarium was opened in .........

  a) Roman empire         b) London zoo

    c) Victoria era       d) None of these

4. Taraporewala aquarium came into existence in .........

 a) Year 1951       b) Year1945

   c) Year 1974        d) Year 1981

1. Live feed is also known as .........

 a) Natural food b) Fish food organisms

 c) Both a & b d) Algae

 2. Live feed are organisms used as food by .........

 a) Prawns b) Carps

 c) Oysters d) All of these

 3. The common phytoplankton used as live feed are…………

 a) Eudorina b) Volvox

 c) Pediastrum d) All of these

 4. The common  zooplankton used as live feed are .........

 a) Vorticella b) Artemia

 c) Cyclops d) All of these

1. Which of the following is an example of freshwater mussel?

 a) Lamellidens marginalis b) Lamellidens corrianus

 c) Pictada fucata d) Both a & b

 2. ......... is secreted by the mantle of the pearl oyster as a protection against foreign objects.

 a) Pearl b) Swarm

 c) Prismatic layer d) Nacreous layer

 3. Shell of pearl oyster is composed of ......... layers.

 a) Two b) Three

 c) Four d) Five

 4. Which is the outermost layer of shell?

 a) Prismatic layer b) Nacreous layer

 c) Periostracum layer d) None of these

 5. ......... is the outermost, greenish-brown, thin, translucent layer made up of conchiolin.

 a) Nacreous layer  b) Mantle

 c) Periostracum d) Perismatic layer

1. Corals are .........

 a) Animals b) Plants

 c) Diatoms d) Plankton

 2. Corals belongs to which phylum?

 a) Protozoa b) Echinodermata

 c) Cnidaria

 3. The corals consists of a sac-like structure called .........

 a) Septa b) Polyp

 c) Haloclone d) Nephris

 4. ......... build reefs found in shallow tropical seas.

 a) Hermatypic corals b) Ahermatypes corals

 c) Both a & b d) None of these

 5. ......... per cent of the corals are located in the Indian ocean,Red sea and Persian Gulf.

 a) 30% b) 5%

 c) 10% d) 70%

1. Which period is known as the ‘operation flood era’?

  a) 1971 and 1996     b) 1978 and 1999

  c) 1969 and 1974    d) 1974 and 1978

 2. In which year Indian government launched ‘operation flood program’?

   a) 1970     b) 1950

 c) 1960   d) 1972

 3. Which is the largest milk producer in the world?

   a) China   b) Germany

 c) Russia   d) India

 4.  ‘White Revolution’ in concerned with .........

   a) Egg production   b) Meat production

 c) Grain production  d) Milk production

1. Rearing of fowls for eggs and flesh is known as  ….

 a) Poultry keeping b) Husbandry   

 c) Sericulture d) Apiculture

 2. The types of poultry birds are  ….

 a) Broilers b) Layers  

 c) General purpose birds d)  All of these

 3. The layers are reared mainly for  ….

 a) Flesh b) Eggs  

 c) For both d) None of these

 4. Which of the following are layers?

 a) Anconas  b) Australorp   

 c) White leghorn d) All of these

 5. Broilers are reared for  ….

 a) Flesh b) Fish  

 c) Ornamental purpose d) All of these

1. ‘Apis’ means …. . .

 a) Waxf b)   Bee      

 c)  Honey d) All of these

 2. Apiculture is also known as …. . .

 a) Bee-keeping b) Wax preparation                

 c) Both a & b d) None of these

 3. Importance of bee-keeping …. . .

 a) It provides honey      

 b) It provides bee wax             

 c) Honey bees are excellent pollinating agents, thus increasing agricultural

 d) All of these

 4. Species of honey bee is …. . .

 a) Apis dorsata b) Apis indica             

 c) Apis florae d) All of these

1. …. . involves rearing of silkworms.

 a) Lac culture b) Sericulture  

 c) Apiculture d) Pisciculture

 2. ‘Silk Samagra’ scheme was launched by …. . .

 a) Government of Karnataka b) Government of Tamil Nadu  

 c) Government of Punjab  d) Government of India

 3. Match the pairs

 a) Mulberry silkworm          1. Antheraea paphia

 b) Tasar silkworm                  2.  Attacus ricinii

 c) Muga silkworm                 3.  Antheraea pernyi

 d) Eri silkworm                        4.  Attacus altas

 e) Oak silkworm                     5.  Bombyx mori

 f) Giant silkworm                  6.  Antheraea assama

 a) a=5, b=2,c=3,d=4,e=1, f=6 b) a=5, b=1, c=6, d=2, e=3, f=4

 c) a=2, b=4, c=3, d=1, e=6, f=5 d) a=2, b=3, c=2, d=1, e=4, f=6

 4. ‘Silk Samagra’ scheme was launched for period of …. . .

 a) 2017-2020 b) 2016-2019 

 c) 2014-2017 d) 2021-2024

1. The rearing of earthworms for composting wastes into valuable nutrients

is known as …. . .

 a) Organic farming b) Organic manuring

 c) Vermitechnology d) Sustainable technology

 2. Vermitechnology provide …. . .

 a) Vermiwash b) Vermicompost

 c) Organic fertilizer d) All of these

 3. Vermicompost improves …. . . property of soil.

 a) Physical b) Chemical

 c) Biological d) All of these

 4. In class oligochaeta …. . .

 a) Parapodia  absent b) Clitellum present

 c) Pharynx without jaws d) All of these

 5. In which order earthworm is placed?

 a) Oilgochaeta b) Frrantia

 c) Neooligochaeta d) Sedentaria

1. The first scientific account of the lac insect was given by …. . . .

 a) J. Kerr (1782) b) W.Kritz (1882)   

 c) Pamella Britz (1888) d) None of these

 2. The scientific name of lac insect is …. . . .

 a) Tachardia lacca b) Tachardia indica   

 c) Tachardia suzi d) Tachardia essart

 3. Lac is secreted by insects for …. . . .

 a) Feeding b) Reproduction  

 c) Protection from predators d) Both a & b

 4. The life cycle of lac insect takes about …. . . months.

 a) Two months b) Six months   

 c) Ten months d) Twelve months

 5. The life cycle of lac insect consists of …. . . .

 a) Nymph instar b) Pupa   

 c) Adult  d) All of these

1.0 General

 The design of canal involves following three major aspects:

 A Irrigation and drainage canal network planning.

 B Determination of discharge / capacities of  canals and drainages.

 C Determination of shape and size i.e. geometrical dimensions of the proposed canal section, generally

 known as design of canal section. More appropriately it can be called as design of internal section

 of canal. It can be further divided in three following parts viz.

 i. Design of unlined canals:

 ii. Design of lined canals: or a canal may be partly lined and partly unlined.

 iii. Choice between the unlined and lined canals. This aspect should be distinguished from the selection of type of lining. However, the scope of choice of lining may include both the aspects.

 The design of canal section remains incomplete without the design of its embankments, either in lined or unlined canal, so the next aspect is

 iv. Design of canal embankments. Still to complete the design of a canal one more aspect is required i.e.

 v. Canal aesthetics and canal arboriculture.

Theoritical aspects of design has been discussed in chapter 1. Discharging capacity of canal is

 computed by Manning Equation (1)and continuity Equation (2) (Para 1.4).

 In the Manning's equation  V  =   R2/3  S1/2 / N (Eq. 1, Para 1.4);  N and R play most important role.

 The effect of  R has been discussed in para 1.4.1, Chapter 1. In this chapter the complexities of Manning's n (or N, also known as Manning's rougosity coefficient

 or simply rougosity coefficient) and some practical aspects of composite sections and velocity in best

 Mehboob, trapezoidal or rectangular sectioned channels are discussed.

2.0 Manning's Rugosity Coefficient (n)

Value of N depends upon a number of factors such as , surface roughness, vegetation, obstructions, type of lining, age of lining, erosion and damages in lining, curves, discharging capacity , perimeters, depth of flow, velocity etc. These are discussed below and commonly adopted values of n are given in tables 2.1 to 2.3.

 

A canal of approximate discharge of less than 80 cumecs (3000 cusecs) discharge may be called a medium or low capacity canal).

3.1 Mehboob Section

A Mehboob Section is only a modification of best trapezoidal section by making its complete bottom circular as shown in figure 3.1. Also see figure 1.6 and para 1.7. That is why these canals are also known as canals of zero bed width, or trapezoidal canals with curved bottom, or cup shaped canals.

But these cannot be called as triangular canals with curves, as often spoken. In fact it is a truncated triangle circumscribing the semi circle. Trapezium is also a truncated triangle circum scribing a circle.

More accurately it can be said as a combination of semi circular and best trapezoidal section so as to take full advantage of their hydraulic efficiency and practicability.

This is such a beautiful section that the designer can never commit a mistake, even if he wants to commit a mistake. The dimensions are so geometrically fixed that no one can play with any dimension.

The value of this section was realised for the first time by Er S I Mehboob (1943) in his Punjab Irrigation Branch Paper No.260" Lining of Canals". There after this canal section became well known as Mehboob Section after his name. He also stated that the most economical section i.e. the maximum area for the minimum perimeter is when the centre of the arc is at the full supply line of the section. This is also evident in figure 1.6. This is also the condition for all best hydraulic sections. This section is also useful to a higher silt carrying capacity than a wide shallow one..

 

 

A canal of more than 80 cumecs (3000 cusecs) approximetly may be called as a high capacity canal.

It has already been pointed out in chapter 1, that for the best section of any shape, R is always equal to d/2 only, and such depth is the most optimum depth. But such channels are not always practical or most economical due to many other practical reasons, (see para 4.1 and 6.3) and many times shallower depth then this depth is adopted. Typical examples are lining of existing earthen channels, given in para 6.3.

All the best sections have fixed ratio of dimensions very near to the semi circle. For large discharges, radius of semi circle increases that, means depth of canal as well as velocity increases. But higher velocity is not permissible with every type of lining (see table 2.1 and para 2.3). Similarly depth also has limitation of construction, maintenance, stability of slopes, etc. see example–4.2.

Because of limiting velocities and depth, deeper canal section are not practically feasible/possible. Therefore for large discharges, say more than 100 cumecs, Mehboob or best trapizodal sections are just not possible/practical, and recourse has to be taken to trapezoidal section with increased bed width then depth. This section is hydraulically inefficient or uneconomical. Larger the B/D ratio, larger is the inefficiency and section is more costly. (For Mehboob Section, B:D ratio is zero and for best trapizodal section it is much less than 1, see para 3.1, table 3.1 para 3.5 and table 3.4).

A. Rectangular Canals

5.1 Design of Best Rectangular Canals

After the Mehboob and Trapezoidal canals, next best section is rectangle. This section is also generally adopted for small discharges say upto 10 cumecs (350 cusecs). This section ranks at No. 4. Yet, this is the only section most commonly adopted for flumes of discharges upto140 cumecs (5000 cusecs). Typical example is Orsang acqueduct, 1 km. long for 1140 cumecs (40000 cusecs) in ractangular sections on Narmada Canal Project, Gujrat, India, built in the years from 1990 – 2000. Such sections are common in power house canals due to limitation of space and very sharp curves. It is free from the effect of change of side slopes as in the trapezoidal canals (see para 3.3) Still some small side slope (batter) is adopted in thick masonry / concrete lining. It adds to structural stability with economy in thickness of wall and as well as hydraulic efficiency. It may still be called as rectangular section.

Details of its hydraulic efficiency in comparison to semi circle, Mehboob and trapeziodal sections are discussed in chapter 1, para 1.8

6.0 General

No lessons can be drawn without the experiences of the past. In fact, much of engineering, rather all sciences have developed in bits and pieces from the experiences of the past. The engineers by and large have never become wiser in one day. They have become wiser slowly and slowly with their own experiences and from the experiences of past engineering works. Wisdom lies to gain wisdom from experiences/draw lessons from the marvellous engineering works constructed so far. It helps us in a direction for further development of technological skills.

Here an effort is made to draw lessons from experiences of the canals constructed in the past.

 There are several aspects of such experiences. A few important aspects of studies are:

 (i) Internal hydraulic sections of the canal with respect to discharge, topography, stability of side slopes, type of lining, operation and maintenance problems and their solutions etc.

 (ii) Design of canals banks (embankment) with respect to discharge, depth of flow, depth of cutting /filling, below/above natural ground level, type of soil, topography, operation and maintenance, drainage of banks etc.

 (iii) Canals aesthetics and arboriculture

 (iv) Other utility/service of canal such as multi-objectives of hydropower, irrigation, drinking/industrial water supply, social needs of recreation, forests etc.

A brief description of IGMC is given in Para 6.6 with details of the canal sections. Here an attempt is made to review the hydraulic performance of the Main Canal.

7B.1 Study of Flow Characteristic of the Main Canal

The main canal is designed for a maximum discharge of 524 m3/s at head i.e. at Km. 0. Large of number of branches, distributaries and minors off take from the main canal at different location all along the canal. These are shown in the L- section, Figure 7B.1 and a statement off taking canals is given Table 7B.1. Many distributaries such as lift canals have been planned subsequently. Also discharges of few off taking channels have been changed. A clear and updated data are not readily available. So data available are indicated in the Table and plotted in the L - section. A half bottom plan of the canal is also shown in Figure 7B.2

8.1 Design of Canal Embankments

 There are two aspects of canal embankment design.

 (i) The general requirement, such as free board, dowel, service/inspection road, drainage of banks etc. The aspect of free board is discussed in Para

8.2 to 8.3 and that of service/ inspection road in Para

 8.4 and drainage of banks in Para 8.5 in this chapter.

 (ii) Safe design of embankment i.e. Hydraulic and structural requirement.

It includes stability of inner and outer slopes, Structural safe design of inner cut slopes in deep cuttings in different types of soils/rocks of varying nature and ground water conditions. Stability of slopes may include drainage, so as to prevent rock falls/debris in canal. For outer slopes in embankment (filling sections) hydraulic gradient/pharetic line, toe drains etc, similar to the earthen dams, on different types of soil/rock foundation with respect to varying ground water level conditions are important.

The canal embankments in filling may even fail through its foundations by sloughing or liquefactions. All these aspects of canal embankments are discussed in this chapter in Para 8.4 to 8.9.

So far much have been talked about the best hydraulic sections, as these appeared to be most economical sections. But as it appears may not be always true and there are exceptions to each individual site conditions.

9.1 Suitable and Economical Cross Section

Best hydraulic sections are most economical in lined and unlined canals. In lined canal this section is economical as long as the cost of earth work (excavation and embankment) is less than the cost of lining per unit length of channel and this is the most usual case. These sections, besides having least area and perimeter also have minimum top width. Therefore land width required is also minimum, in comparison to other wide sections. But if the cost of earth work / excavation is more, such as in rocks, or in very heavy cutting/filling, best hydraulic section do not remain most economical, and recourse to alternative section must be worked out.

Even in unlined channels in deep excavation or in deep filling recourse must be taken to narrower and deeper sections as far as possible.

Also the type of lining in the bed may be cheaper than the lining on sides and in such cases, lining of best section is no more most economical and cost economics of various alternatives including increase in bed width has to be worked out, see para 4.1 and 6.3.

Introduction

An integrated approach to understanding the changing dynamics in water resources involves taking into account various factors that influence the management of water resources under changing climatic conditions (Pahl-Wostl, 2007). It is a holistic approach that combines different disciplines, including hydrology, climatology, ecology, geography, and social sciences, to develop a comprehensive understanding of water resources. The integrated approach is essential for several reasons, including addressing climate change impacts, sustainable management of water resources, enhancing water security, addressing water quality issues, and promoting collaboration among stakeholders. Climate change is causing alterations in precipitation patterns, melting glaciers, and changes in river flows, affecting water availability and quality. An integrated approach helps in understanding the climate change impacts on water resources and developing adaptation strategies (Asif et al., 2023).

Introduction

R language is a popular and versatile tool for hydrological data analysis and visualization, offering several powerful packages for handling and analyzing hydrological parameters such as river flow, precipitation, groundwater levels, and water quality parameters. R language provides a wide range of statistical functions for hydrological parameter analysis, including time-series analysis, frequency analysis, trend analysis, and regression analysis. Moreover, R’s powerful graphics capabilities make it possible to create high-quality and customizable visualizations of hydrological data. In addition to its statistical and graphical capabilities, R also offers a wide range of packages for data manipulation and cleaning, making it a powerful tool for preprocessing hydrological data. R’s ability to handle and analyze large datasets also makes it well-suited for processing and analyzing large hydrological datasets. Furthermore, R has a strong community of developers and users who regularly contribute new packages and tools, providing a constantly evolving stage for hydrological analysis. Overall, R is a versatile and powerful tool for hydrological data analysis and visualization, offering numerous capabilities and resources for informed decision-making in water resources management and related fields.

Introduction

Hydrological data visualization plays a crucial role in analyzing and understanding the behavior and characteristics of water resources. By visualizing hydrological data, we can gain insight into the distribution, variability, and trends of different hydrological variables such as river flow, precipitation, groundwater levels, and water quality parameters. This information can help decision-making in areas such as water resources management, flood forecasting, and climate adaptation.

R Language is a popular and versatile tool for hydrological data visualization, offering several powerful packages for data analysis and visualization. Each of these packages has its own strengths and limitations, which can be leveraged depending on the specific needs of a given analysis. For example, ggplot2 is an extensively used package for creating publication-quality static plots that are customizable and visually appealing. This package is based on the grammar of graphics, which provides a new plotting system that combines the benefits of both base and lattice graphics. ggplot2 can be used to create a wide range of plot types, including time-series plots, spatial maps, and scatterplots. It provides several options for customizing plot elements such as axis labels, legends, and plot themes. On the other hand plotly offers interactive and dynamic plots that can be easily shared and embedded in web applications. With plotly, we can create plots that allow for zooming, panning, and hovering over data points to display additional information. This package is mainly useful for exploring relationships between hydrological variables. In addition to these packages, hydroTSM provides functions for reading, manipulating, and plotting time-series data. hydroTSM can help us create time-series plots of variables such as river f low, precipitation, and temperature, with options for adding trend lines error bars, and annotations.

Introduction

Evapotranspiration is a vital process in the Earth’s water cycle, and it involves two main processes—evaporation and transpiration. Evaporation refers to the conversion of water from its liquid state to its gaseous state, which occurs primarily from the surface of bodies of water, wet vegetation, and soils. This process requires energy, which is typically provided by direct solar radiation and ambient air temperature. Transpiration, on the other hand, is the process by which plants release water vapor through small openings in their leaves called stomata. This process is essential for plant growth and function as it helps regulate the plant’s temperature and allows for nutrient uptake and water transport. Like evaporation, transpiration also requires energy, with factors like vapor pressure gradient and wind speed influencing the rate at which water is released.

To accurately measure evapotranspiration, it is necessary to consider a range of factors such as temperature, radiation, wind speed, and humidity. Plant parameters, such as the presence of a cuticle or the size and number of stomata, can also greatly influence the transpiration rate. Other factors that may impact evapotranspiration include the season, time of day, and soil properties such as water holding capacity and root depth. Evapotranspiration is a complex concept that has been studied by various scientists and organizations over time. Three main evapotranspiration (ET) concepts have been developed: Reference ET, ET under standard conditions, and ET under nonstandard conditions. The goal of determining potential or reference evapotranspiration is to exclude crop-specific variations from the evapotranspiration process. The potential evapotranspiration concept, introduced in the late 1940s and 50s by Penman, assumes constant crop conditions and defines it as “the amount of water transpired in a given time by a short green crop, completely shading the ground, of uniform height and with adequate water status in the soil profile.” ETo, which is a climatic parameter, represents the evaporating power of the atmosphere at a certain location and time of the year and is computed from weather data. It does not take into account crop characteristics or soil conditions, and the only factors affecting it are climatic parameters. The range of ETo varies from 1–2 mm/day in humid and subhumid temperate regions to 6–9 mm/day in warm arid and semi-arid temperate regions and from 2–3 in cool humid and subhumid tropics to 6–8 mm/day in warm arid and semi-arid tropics. Actual ET is the amount of water on a large area of grass that is actively growing and covering the entire soil surface it actually uses. The amount of water that is actually evacuated from a surface as a result of the processes E and T is known as ETa. Crop water needs can be calculated by the following equation.

Introduction

Droughts are considered to be a significant environmental disaster and have captured the attention of various experts, including environmentalists, ecologists, hydrologists, meteorologists, geologists, and agricultural scientists. These natural calamities are known to occur in almost all climatic zones, regardless of whether they are high- or low-rainfall areas. Generally a decrease in the amount of precipitation received over an extended period such as a season or a year, is the primary cause of droughts. However, other factors such as high temperatures, strong winds, low relative humidity, and characteristics of rainfall (e.g., intensity, duration, onset, and termination) also play a crucial role in their occurrence. It’s important to distinguish a drought from aridity, which is a permanent feature of a climate and is limited to low rainfall areas (Wilhite, 1992). A drought is a temporary phenomenon and can last from a few months to several years. Some people often mistake droughts for heat waves, but Chang and Wallace (1987) highlighted the fundamental difference between these two events. A heat wave typically lasts for a week, while a drought can extend for several months or even years. When a heat wave and a drought coincide, it can lead to dire socio-economic consequences.

Introduction

In recent decades, severe weather and climatic occurrences have become more frequent, affecting human populations across the globe. These changes are caused, in part, by anthropogenic climate change. Vulnerable communities are particularly affected by these rapidly changing patterns, which can have catastrophic consequences. To mitigate the impact of climate change, communities must have access to accurate and up-to-date climate information. Weather predictions, from short-term forecasts to long-term scenarios based on data from previous decades and centuries, can provide valuable information to socioeconomic sectors that are vulnerable to climate change. Climate services offer scientifically-based data and forecasts that can assist decision-makers in managing the risks of climate variability and change. Globally accepted indices generated from daily temperature and precipitation data can indicate the more severe features of climate change. These indices are developed and analyzed by the CCI/WCRP/JCOMM Expert Team on Climate Change Detection and Indices (ETCCDI) and have made a significant contribution to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Assessment Reports.

Introduction

The hydrological cycle transfers water and energy between the land and atmosphere, but its regional characteristics make accurate modeling challenging. Hydrological models aim to predict hydrological events and processes, but there are uncertainties in their output due to the complex nature of the system and assumptions made. Empirical models use statistical or mathematical relationships, while process-based models use equations to represent physical processes.

Hydrological modeling involves various steps, leading to uncertainties that can affect the accuracy of model predictions. The four main types of uncertainties commonly encountered are data, model, parameter, and climate uncertainty. Data uncertainty arises due to errors or gaps in the input data, model uncertainty stems from limitations in the model structure or assumptions used, parameter uncertainty arises due to uncertainties in the values allocated to various model parameters, and climate uncertainty refers to uncertainties in the future climate projections used as inputs.

Introduction

Time Series Analysis (TSA)

TSA is a crucial tool in the study of climate change, as it allows researchers to carefully examine patterns and changes in weather parameters over time. By analyzing time series data for temperature, precipitation, and other weather variables, scientists can identify trends and develop models that accurately describe the underlying structure of the series. These models can then be used to make predictions about future changes in weather patterns and the potential impacts of climate change on the environment and human society. The accurate forecasting of climate change using TSA can inform policy decisions and facilitate adaptation strategies to mitigate the effects of a changing climate.

Components of Time Series

When analyzing a time series, we often want to separate the different components that contribute to its overall behavior. The classical decomposition method is a widely used technique that breaks down a time series into four components: trend, seasonal, cyclical, and irregular.

Introduction

Time series analysis is a powerful tool for detecting and describing sequential processes, and it has become increasingly important in water resource management, especially in the context of global warming and climate change. Statistical methods have been widely used for analyzing climatological time series, such as precipitation, air temperature, and evapotranspiration, and hydrological time series, such as streamflow and surface water quality. However, most of the linear time series models depend on strict assumptions, such as homogeneity, trend-freeness, stationarity, non-periodicity, and lack of persistence, which are often violated in real-world datasets. Therefore, there is a need to develop new models that are more flexible and can accommodate different types of data (Machiwal & Jha, 2006).

One of the most popular and widely used classical time series models is the Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) model, which has linear statistical properties and can be built using the Box-Jenkins methodology (Box and Jenkins, 1970). This model adoption is important for hydrological analysis because it can help in accurately characterizing and predicting the behavior of hydrological time series data. ARIMA models can capture complex patterns and trends in the data and can be used to forecast future values of the time series. This can help in better understanding the underlying processes that drive hydrological variability, such as changes in precipitation patterns or land use. Furthermore, hydrological data often exhibit seasonality and long-term trends, which can be accounted for in ARIMA modeling. ARIMA models can also be used for anomaly detection, identifying unusual events that may have significant impacts on water resources. Overall, ARIMA modeling provides a f lexible and powerful framework for analyzing and forecasting hydrological time series, which is essential for effective water resource management in the face of changing environmental conditions.