eChapters

Objective

The poor quality of Plaster Of Paris makes the cast weak. For its strengthening, 4pieces of padded green bamboo splints are placed within POP cast along its four sides.

Requirements

4 green bamboo splints which are padded soft at both the ends

Aim

To know the portion of limb to be covered by P.O.P cast bandage for immobilization of fore limb (Fig 1a) & hind limb ( Fig 2a) bone fracture.

As per general rule, joint below and joint above should be covered.

Indication -To know the method of POP bandaging technique.

Method of preparation of POP bandage rolls-

A gauze bandage of 6" or 4" width is spread on a clean floor. Plaster of paris powder is spread uniformly over the entire length of bandage & is folded into roll bandage. In this way 4-6 bandage rolls are prepared.fig-1(a)&(b)

Method of preparation of pop bandage splints

The length of the prepared pop splint is determined by measuring the entire length of fractured bone along with the joint below and above the fractured site) are measured. This much of length of gauze is spread for splint preparation.

POP powder is impregnated upon gauze. The gauze is again spread over this much of length in this manner sprinkling of POP powder & overlapping gauze bandage upto 4-6 layer are continued [fig-1 (b)]

Fig. 1: Cotton Bandage

Aim

To know the various level of fracture & their appropriate method of immobilisation for large animal fracture.

Definition

Fracture is a disolution of bony continuity with or without displacement of the fragments.

Definition: A fracture is a dissolution of bony continuity with or without displacement of the fragments.

Different stages of fracture: Inflammatory phase, reparative phase, and remodelling phase.

Fundamental steps

Complete fracture- It is a fracture in which there is complete loss of bone continuity and the bone is divided into two or more fragments (Fig.1).

Green stick fracture- It is the fracture in which, the cortex opposite to the bending force fractures completely, while the cortex under the force remains in tact, commonly seen in immature animals, (Fig-2)

Overriding fracture-A fracture in which the fragments lie side by side, causing shortening of limb (Fig-3)

Transverse fracture-The fracture line here runs transverse to the long axis of bone. Such type of fracture is caused by bending forces (Fig-4).

Oblique fracture- In this the fracture line runs oblique to the long axis of the bone. Such type of fracture is caused by bending with axial compression (Fig-5).

Spiral fracture-Here the fracture line spirals along the long axis of bone. Such type of fracture is caused by torsion, twisting or rotational forces e.g. in humorous (Fig-6)

Comminuted fracture- In this fracture, at least three fracture lines inter connect each other at one point (Fig-7).

First Aid in Orthopaedic Patient

Immediately transfer the animal to a safety place.

The place should be well settled, well ventilated, neat and clean.

If the fracture site is limb and it is a simple fracture, immediately immobilize the animal with soft cotton padding and plastic scale placed at four sites.

If the fracture site is limb and it is a compound fracture, cover the fractured site v/ith th’ck padded clean cotton cloth and few bamboo splint placed on four sides to keep limb straight.

Control the bleeding, if bleeding occurs at time of covering of fractured site with thick padded clean cotton cloth.

If the fracture site is vertebral column, it is better not to lift the patient vigorously.

A patient with vertebral column fracture shouldn’t be allowed for standing.

M.mMedial malleolus

M.I., Lateral malleolus

T, Tibia

T. t., Tibial tarsal bone

T.f., Fibulartarsal bone

T.c. + 4, Fused central and fourth tarsal bones.

T.1, First tarsal bone

T.2+3, Fused second and third tarsal bones

Mt.2,Small, or second metatarsal bone

Mt.3+4, Large metatarsal or fused third or fourth metatarsal bon

FEMUR

The femur has a relatively small shaft, which is cylindrical in its middle. The trochanter minor has the form of a rough tuberosity.

The trochanteric ridge connects it with the trochanter major. The third trochanter is absent. The supracondyloid fossa is shallow. The proximal extremity is very wide.

The fovea capitis is a small depression on the middle of the heacKfor the attachment of the round ligament.

The trochanter major is very massive and is undivided; its lateral surface is very rough. The trochanteric fossa is deep. The ridges of the trochlea are less oblique.

ILIUM

The ilium are almost parallel to each other and form a much smaller angle with the horizontal plane than in the horse. They are relatively small. The gluteal line is prominent and is nearly parallel to the lateral border; it join the ischiatic spine. A rounded ridge separates the two parts of the pelvic surface. The surface for articulation with the sacrum is triangular. The tuber sacrale is truncated, does not extend so high as the vertebral spines, and is separated from the opposite angle by a wider interval than in the horse. The tuber coxae is relatively large and prominent; it is not so oblique as in the horse, and is wide in the middle, smaller at either end. The shaft is short and compressed from side to side.

The ilia are almost parallel to each other and form a much smaller angle with the horizontal plane than in the horses.they are relatively small. The glutei line is prominent and nearly parallel to the lateral border,it joins the ischiatic spine.A rounded ridge separates the two parts of pelvic surface.The surface for articulation with sacrum is triangular. The tuber coxae is relatively prominent and not so oblique as in horses, wide in middle,smaller at either end.Shaft is short and compressed from side to side.

Ischium is large.Its long axis is directed obliquely upward and downward forming an angle of 5o to 60 degree with horizontal plane.The transverse axis is obliquely downward and inward at similar angle so concave from side to side.Ventral surface has rough ridge for muscular attatchment. The ischiatic spine is high and thin and bears a series of vertical rough line. lschiuatic arch is narrow and deep.The tuber ischii is large and three sided bearing dorsal ,ventral, lateral tuberosities.The symphysis bears a ventral ridge which fades out at ischial arch.The acetabular branch of pubis is narrow and is directed laterally,and a little forward.The anterior border is marked by a transverse groove which ends below rough iliopectineal eminence. The symphyseal branch is wide and thin. The acetabulum is smaller than in horses. Rim is rounded and usually marked by two notches. One is directed to deep acetabular fossa and and converted to foramen. The other is anteromedial and small also replaced by foramen or absent.

DIGITS

Four digits are presents in the ox of these two the third and forth -are fully developed and have three phalanges and three sesamoid each.The second and fifth are vestiges.

FRIST PHALANX- (Fig.No.1)

The interdigital surface is flattened and its volor parts bears a prominence for the attachment of the interdigital ligaments.

The proximal extremity is relatively large and somewhat compressed from side to side.

The articular surface is concave from before backword and is divided by sagittal groove in two areas, of which the aboxial one is the larger and higher.

Behind tese are two facets for articulation with the sesamoid bones.

The distal extremity smaller than the proximal.

Fia.1. Left carous and adjacent bones of Ox: Front view:-

Ulna

Radius

Fused second and tliird carpals

Ulnar carpal

Radial carpal

Fourth carpal

Fused second and third carpals

Metacarpal tuberosity

Vascular groove

???????Intermediate carpal bone

The scapula is more regularly triangular than in horse, relatively, wider at the vertebral end and narrower at the distal end. The scapular index is about T.0.6. The spine is more prominent and is placed further forward, so that the supras- pinous fossa is narrow and does not extend to the lower part of the bone. The spine is sinuous, bent backward in its middle, forward below. Its free border is somewhat thickened in its middle, but bears no distinct tuber. Instead of little more prominent, and is prolonged by a pointed production, the acromion, from which part of the deltoid muscle arises. The sub scapular fossa is shallow. The areas for the attachment of the stratus muscle are not very distinct. The nutri- ent foramen is usually in the lower third of the posterior border. The glenoid cavity is almost circular and without any distinct notch. The tuberosity is small and close to the glenoid cavity. The coracoid process is short and rounded. The cartilage resembles that of the horse. The tuberosity unites with the rest.

LUMBAR VERTEBRAE (Fig. 1)

Lumbar vertebrae, six in number, are much longer than in the horse.

The body is much constricted in the middle, expanded at either end, and bears a rudimentary ventral crest.

The articular processes are large, and their facets are more strongly cun/ ed than in the horse.

The transeverse processes ail’curve foPA/ard, borders a.^e thin and irregular and often bear projections of variable size and form..

The spinous processes are relatively low wide, the last being the smallest; their summits are moderately thickened.

The cervical vertebrae are 7 in number.

The first and second cervical vertebrae are highly modified in conformity with the special function of support and movements of the head.

The third, fourth and fifth have the following characters:

The body is long. Ventral surface present a median ventral spine.

The dorsal surface has a flat central area which is narrow in the middle of the vertebrae, and wide at either end. On either side of this area there is a groove which lodges the longitudinal spinal vein.

The anterior extremity or head has an oval articular surface which faces forward and downward; it is strongly convex and wider above than below.

The posterior extremity is larger and has a nearly circular cotyloid cavity.

The arch is large and strong. It is perforated on either side by foramen which communicates with the foramen transverse hum. The vertebral notches are large.

The articular process are large. Their articular surface are extensive, oval in outline, and slightly concave.

This vertebra is decidedly atypical in form and structure. The body and spineous process are absent. It has the form of a strong ring, from which two curved plates, the wings, project laterally. The ring incloses a very large vertebral foramen and consistis of two lateral masses connected by dorsal and ventral arches.

The lateral masses (Massae laterales) present two deep oval anterior articular cavities (Foveae articulares craniales) which receive the occipital condyles; they are separated by a wide notch above and a narrow one below. The lateral margin is also notched, and a triangular non-articular depression cuts into the medial part of each cavity. The posterior articular surfaces (Facies articulares caudales) are somewhat saddle-shaped; they are confluent on the ventral arch, but are widely separated dorsally, and do not conform in shape to the corresponding surfaces of the axis.

The dorsal arch (Arcus dorsali,) presents a median dorsal tubercle (Tuberculum dorsale) and is concave ventrally. It is perforated on either side near its anterior margin by the inter vertebral foramen (Foramen invertebrale). The anterior border is deeply notched, and the posterior border is thin and concave.

The ventral arch (Arcus ventralis) is thicker, narrower, and less curved than the dorsal. In its lower surface is the ventral tubercle (Tuberculum ventrale), into which the terminal tendon of the longus colli muscle is inserted. The upper face has posteriorly a transversely- concave articular surface, the fovea dentis, on which the dens or odontoid process of the axis rests.

In front of this is a transverse rough excavation and a ridge for the attachment of the ligamentirm dentis.

Foramen magnum

Occipital condyle

Paramastoid process

Condyloid foramen

Foramen lacerum

Basilar part of occipital condyle

Basilar tubercles

Bulla tympanica

Foramen ovale(concealed by muscular process)

Meatus acusticus externus

The condition in the young subject is as follows:

The two parietals are united with each other and also with the interparietal and supraoccipital. The resulting mass is somewhat horse shoe shaped. Its occipital part (planum occipitale) forms the greater part of the posterior wall of the cranium and bears about its centre the tubersity for the attachment of the ligamentum nuche. From either side of this a line curves outward and divide the surface into an upper smooth area and a lower area which is rough for muscular technique. The upper borderjoins the frontal bone and concurs In the formation of the frontal eminence. The temperal part (Plana temporalla) are much smaller and are concave externally; they join the frontal above and the squamous temporal below. A median occipital crest extends ventrally from the external occipital protuberance.

1: extensor carpi radialis

2: m. extensor digiti III propr.

2: its tendon

3: m. extensor digiti communis

3: its tendon

4: m. extensor digiti IV. propr.

4’: its tendon :

5: m. ulnaris lateralis

1. Tubercoxae
2. Twelth thoracic vertebra
3. First lumbar vertebra
4. Last rib
5. First coccygeal vertebra
6. Sacrum
7. Tuber ischii
8. T rochanter major
9. Femur
10. Lateral condyle of Tibia
11. Tibia
12. Distal end of fibula
13. Tuber calcis
14. Tarsus
15. Metatarsus
16. Phalanges
17. Patella

Gait of ANormal Animal

This is a four - beat gait. Walking can be of various forms, but regardless of the form, it must be an even four beat gait.

When a regular sequence is lost, identified by four hoof beats at precise interyals, the cattle is no longer walking.

The walking sequence is lateral because both feet of one side hit the ground before the two feet of opposite side strike.

Propulsion primarily results from the hindlimbs, and the forelimbs simply follow.

The length of stride in the walk will usually vary between 5 1/2 and 6 ft. This distance is measured between successive imprints of the same foot.

The step will vary between 33 and 39 inches and is the measurement made between the imprints made by a pair of forefeet or the imprints made by a pair of hind feet.

The sequence of the hoof beats can be described according to this pattern: (1) near - hind, (2) near - fore, (3) off - hind, (4) off - fore.

This gait is sometimes described as beginning with a forelirnb as ; (1) off — fore, (2) near - hind, (3) near - fore, and (4) off - hind.

This description is not proper according to the way the cattle starts, but it is proper after it is in motion.

Centre of gravity

It is most commonly located is the middle of the rib cage, just caudal to the line separating the cranial and middle third of the body because the CG & located more cranially. The forelimbs bear 60-65% of body weight. This causes an increased stress of forelimb and increase incidence of lameness. The horse that is taller over the group than the wither has an additional disadvantage, because PTS CG is shifted further forwards.

1. Long backed horses may develop a swing in the gait that alters the movement of their limbs. Such horses are prone to speedy cutting. Cross firing & back problem due to muscle ligament strain.

2. Short backed horses may develop a swing in the gait that alters the movement of these limbs. Such horses are prone to speedy cutting, cross firing & back problem due to muscle and ligament strain.

Egg Formation Phenomenon

The chicken egg consists of a very small Reproductive cell or Germinal disc [orBlastoderm;which iscapable of developingintoanEmbryo, iffertilized by a Sperm]. This tiny cell is surrounded by :

• Yolk
= OVARYis responsible for its synthesis.

• Albumen, Shell membranes, Shell and Cuticle
= These are produced in the OVIDUCT.

[A] OVARY

Although there are two ovaries and two oviducts in the hen, but only the left ovary and left oviduct are functional [because, the right ones are atrophied during embryo development]. Before egg production, the ovary is a group of small follicles of different sizes containing ova.

Formation of Yolk

• The yolk is just a source of food material for the small Reproductive cell (Blastoderm).

• Major amounts of yolk material is produced in the liver and transported to ovarythrough blood.

• Two days afterthe formationof First yolk. Second yolkbegins to develop.

• It takes about ten days for a yolk to mature.

For economical ration -preparation, selection of cheap feed amongthe locally available sources, is an important point to ponder. For this purpose, a list of available feeds is prepared alongwith their latest costs on dry matter basis. The cost per kgof dry matter is divided by the amount of the nutrient (as a decimal), it will give us a good idea of the :

• Cost of Crude Protein in ??Protein supplements and,

• Cost of Energy in ??Energy feeds.

For example, if alpha alpha hay costs Rs 3.93 per kgof dry matter, the cost per kg of Crude Protein = 3.93/0.171 = Rs 22.98 per kg.

In this way, it is possible to prepare a list of protein sources in the order of “Ranking” from which feeds can be selected at lower costs.

Effect of Differences in Dry Matter

Feeds are purchased on the basis of Dry Matter due to variation of moisture content. For example :

A Corn of 89 % Dry Matter costs Rs 7 per kg,

Another type of corn of 75 % Dry Matter can’t be comparable on this cost This can be done as following 

Chemistry of Alkanes

In living plants, hydrocarbons are universally distributed in the waxy coatings on leaves and other plant organs. Alkane fraction is commonly a mixture of hydrocarbons of similar properties. The qualitative pattern is relatively similar from plant to plant, but there are considerable quantitative variation. Alkanes are saturated long chain hydrocarbons. They are usually present in the range of C to C carbon atoms. Examples are n-nonacosane, C H and n-hentriacontane, C C . In general, odd-numbered carbon chains occur predominantly in the cuticular wax of plants and are substantially indigestible.

How alkanes are “user friendly” !

Following are some points to ponder :

• Alkanes are long carbon chains found naturally in plants and each plant species has its unique compliment of these different alkanes which act like “fingerprints”. Forage intake can be estimated from ‘faecal grab samples’, if the ratio between these endogenous plant alkanes and exogenous alkanes delivered from “a rumen slow - release gelatin capsule” is calculated.

• Alkanes can also be used for determiningdigestibility and characterizing thespecies compositionof thediet, makingalkanes an extremelypowerful tool for dairy research.

• Anenexpensive, reliable and simpletechnique offers tremendous potential for research in the area of low cost dairy production from forages. Such data may be used by “slow–release marker” to estimate intake and digestibility.

• Alkanes offer a potentially simple technique for the animal scientist and it is feasible to estimate alkane concentrations using Near Infra-Red scanning [N.I.R.]. It is a rapid analytical method, thus making alkane technology an extremely ‘user friendly’ tool to be widely adopted on behalf of the dairy industry.

Historical Aspect

The primitive man during his long history as a hunter and food gatherer, used ruminants as food till about 6000 B.C. Later, he developed the arts of aerable -agriculture and animal husbandry. The ruminants played a major role as sources ofbothfoodandmechanicalwork. In turn, the new techniquesof foodproduction greatlyincreased the amount of food available and enabledthe establishment of settled communities.Theradicalnatureof thesedevelopments was clearlyshown by the fact that within a couple of millennia, manhad evolved from primitive to urbanized, civilized communities. Throughout the historical epochs, animal food - meat, milk and milk products continued to form an important fraction of the diet in most of the civilized societies. The favoured nature of these foods was well shown in the observation that, with increasing affluence, human -beings tended to increase the fraction of the diet provided by animal foods, especiallyfromruminants.

Since middle of twentieth century, evidences had been accumulating to indicate that the high intake of saturated fats from meat and ‘dairy products might play a role in the etiology of atherosclerosis. This concern had provided a stimulus to produce husbandrytechniquesleadingto the modification of the composition of ruminant fats as well as possibility of protecting dietary poly - unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) from ruminal biohydrogenation in 1951. Scientists all the world round, started studying ruiminant fats and ruminal lipid metabolism in this perspective. Different research groups developed various techniques of protectingdietary- PUFA, so as to make themavailable in the meat, milk and its products, but lacked the availability of sensitive techniques for confirmation. With the discovery of Gas Chromatoaraphy (GC) in 1954, a new beginning of resolution and detection of PUFA started with gradual precision. Later on, the GC was further equipped with mass - spectroscopy and subsequently with infra -red detector. The scientists were very much successful in protecting the dietary essential fatty acids (E.F.A.s) or even by - passing them from biohydrogenation in vitro.

The Codex alimentarius is a collection of standards, codes of practice, guidelines and other recommendations relative to food.

It is derived from latin word which means Food Code.

Codex alimentarius is about safe, good food for everyone - everywhere.

International food trade has existed for thousands of years but until not too long agofood wasmainlyproduced, soldand consumed locally. Over the last century theamount offoodtraded internationallyhas grownexponentially, and a quantity and variety of food never before possible travels the globe today.

The CODEX ALIMENTARIUS international food standards, guidelines and codes of practice contribute to thesafety, qualityandfairnessof this international food trade. Consumers can trust the safety and quality of the food products theybuyand importers can trust that the food theyordered will be in accordance with their specifications.

Public concerns about food safety issues are often placing Codex at the centre of global debates. Biotechnology, pesticides, food additives and contaminants are some of the issues discussed in Codex meetings. Codex standards are based on the best available science assisted by independent international risk assessment bodies or ad-hoc consultations organized by FAO and WHO.

Introduction

• Objective of animal diet formulations to provide a palatable ration at minimumcost to meet nutritional and energyrequirements of the animal.

• To achieve this objective, it is important to have knowledge about the requirementsof specific nutrient ingredients and the nutrient composition of feeds, which are used to formulate the animal diet.

• Diet formulation is an important aspect to meet production and financial goals in the most economical way.

• A dietis called balanced if it providesenergyto meet lactation, production and specific level of health requirement.

• Economic as well as nutritional aspects should be considered while optimisingnutrient ingredients.

• These three factors are so intimately related to each other that cannot be separated during the process of feed formulation.

Preliminary Stages

• The first step in diet formulation is to define the objective of diet formulation. Depending on the objective of diet formulation (such as reproduction, lactation, live-stocketc.), requirementsfor nutrient ingredients are established

• This step includes individual units and overall requirement for diet ingredients. After defining the objective of study and diet formulation, requirements of nutrient intake are defined to achieve that objective

• While definingtherequirement, socialenvironment, internal, external and economical conditions should be taken into consideration.Nutrient requirements can be established by the empirical method and factorial method.

• The empiricalmethodisbasedonexperimental studies whereas the factorial method identifies the various functions within the animal that defines the needs of nutrient ingredients.

Introduction

First feed mill was established in 1875 A.D. in the state of Illinois, U.S.A. for calf meal production.

First feed mill in India was established in Ludhiana, Punjab in 1969 A.D.

A mill is a device that breaks solid materials into smaller pieces by grinding, crushing, or cutting. Such communition is an important unit operation in many processes. There are manydifferent types of mills and manytypes of materials processed in them. Historically, mills were powered by hand (e.g., via hand cranks) working animals (horsemill), wind (wind mill) or water (watermill). Today they are usually powered by electricity and are controlled by computer (automatic mills).

The grinding of solid matters occurs under exposure of mechanical forces that trench the structure by overcoming of the interior bonding forces. After the grinding, thestate ofthesolid is changed:thegrain size, thegrain size disposition and the grain shape.

Milling also refers to the process of breaking down, separating, sizing, or classifyingaggregatematerial. For instance rock crushingor grindingto produce uniform aggregate size for construction purposes, or separation of rock, soil or aggregatematerialforthe purposesofstructural fillor land reclamationactivities. Aggregate milling processes are also used to remove or separate contamination or moisture from aggregate or soil and to produce “dry fills” prior to transport or structuralfilling.

Grinding may serve the following purposes in engineering: • Increase of the surface area of a solid

• Manufacturing of a solid with a desired grain size

This procedure allows us to mix two feed stuffs with different nutrient concentrations and come up with a mixture of the desired total concentration. For this square to work, the desired diet nutrient concentration must be between the nutrient concentrations of the two feed stuffs as well as in the same unit. The procedure can be used for Crude Protein, Energy, Minerals and so on and so forth.Also, in place of percentage, calories, parts per million/ billion / trillion and other units of measurement can be used.

Double Pearson Square Method

Sometimes, we might want to have the exact amounts of two major nutrients such as - Crude Protein and Energy.

For example, suppose we want a final mixture with 12 % Crude Protein (CP) and 74 % Total Digestible Nutrient (T.D.N.). We have :

A premixisa mixtureofvitamins, trace minerals, medicaments, feedsupplements and diluents either individually or in a combination. It is a value added solution for feeds with sustainable safety and quality.

The main objective of premixes is to deliver the micro-ingredients in a manner desired by customer. These blends of Micro-ingredients need to be carefully selected, analysed and homogenously manufactured in controlled conditions.

Good quality premixes are manufactured as per following four fundamental principles that determine premix quality and performance :

1. Understanding the chemical and physical attributes in the microingredient to be incorporated.

2. Testing to ensure that all microingredients meet specifications.

3. Controllingthe inclusionin fullproof and secure method.

4. Blending together in speciality mixers to achieve a homogenous mix.

Gas Chromatography (GC) was discovered in 1954, a verysensitive technique, whichpavedwaytothisworldfor the resolution ofthe sampleleadingtodetection … identification of the minutest quantity of the desired sample.

Fattyacids were usuallyconverted into correspondingmethyl esters (FAME) to improve volatility and to reduce peak tailing for GC. Usually, FAME could be conveniently prepared by heating lipids with a large excess of either acid- or base-catalyzed reagents. Whereas, acid-catalyzed reagents form FAME from both free fatty acids (FFA) and O-acyl lipids base-catalyzed reagents caused only transesterification, i.e. conversion of O-acyl lipids to FAME and do not usually form FAME from FFAs. A base-catalyzed reaction was a useful alternative to acid-catalyzedreactions whena lipid sample contained acid-labile FAs such as propenoids, present in seed oils from the Malvales order, such as cottonseedoil. To effect solublizationof nonpolarlipids such as triacylglycerols in methanol. the predominant solvent in derivatization reagents, benzene was frequentlyadded to the derivatizalion reaction mixture. However, due to health concerns, use of benzene was discouraged. To help solubilize nonpolar lipids, methylene chloride and tetrahydrofuran had been used in place of benzene.

Sincehundreds ofyears, Livestockanimals arean integralpart ofcrop–livestock system. In the life style of Indian people, livestock had always been given a special and respectful place and this will continue in the years to come. Despite considerable deficit of feeds, the above may be one of the reasons of steadily increasing livestock production in our country. Almost all assessments made during the past eight decades, have shown deficits of different orders in respect of following for the availability of :

• Dry fodders

• Green fodders and

• Concentrates

Such surprising phenomenon is inviting our attention for reviewing systems of assessment for finding out the status of consumption and the gap between the above. Production of milk, meat, fibre, chicken and eggis increasing, though. Therefore, there is gap between the availability and requirements of different feeds. Because India is facing shortage of both protein and energy rich animal feeds, a large number of agro – forest based unconventional by products have been used. Some of these feeds were found to be promising, while others affected the performance of the animals, due to presence of incriminatingfactors present in them. But after detoxification, these feeds were suitable for animal feeding. Some of these feeds are :

The bio-degradation process dates back to time immemorial when some wild ruminant animals were spotted feeding on the tree –woods in South Chile. The natives of this place called this feed as “Palo Podrido (Huempe)”, meaning – ‘animal feed’, as opined by F. Zadrazilof Germany. Later on, it was found that thiswood was actuallydegradedbycertaintypes offungi undernatural conditions and decomposed to Spent-wood, which turned out to be the animal feed. The scientists started working on these fungi as well as this type of process. Lately, the fungi were found to be belonging to higher basidiomycetes class, called: White-rot-fungi. They mainly degraded lignin of the wood, however cellulose and hemicelluloses to a limited extent only.

But, surprisingly it was found that the digestibility and crude protein content increased to a considerable extent. Later on, the scientists started working on spent-straws too. The cereal straws (lignocellulosics) constituted a staple-feed (basal) in the developingcountries for theseruminantanimals. But, thepresence of lignin (a biological plastic) limits the utilization of these cereal straws in the rumen eco-system. Thus, the concept of SolidState Fermentation (SSF) sparked into this type of investigation. Some examples of such white-rot-fungi were: Pleurotus ostreatus, Coprinus cineus, Sporotrichum thermophile, Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Polyporous berkeleyi, Neurospora crssa, Alternaria tenius to name a few. Some examples of substrates upon which such types of fungi grew for SSF were: wheat straw, paddy straw, paddy husks, ground nut shells, sugarcane bagasse, barleystraw, sunflower stalk, aspen wood, birch wood, saw dust etc. The resurgence of interest in the use of straw from cereal and grain crops as animal feed had been witnessed in early nineties to maintain the performance of animals. Following were some of the variations undertaken by different scientific groups:

Carnivore [Carnivora]

Members of this family are mostly flesh-eaters and share features that show hunting lifestyle.

Limbs: These are very powerful, agile quick moving, very active.

Forward-facing eyes: These help in judging distance accurately.

Teeth: All have very strong canine teeth for cutting.

These molars … pre-molars function like shears to slice through flesh (meat).

One exception is the Giant Panda, which is almost-entirely Herbivore, although, most other members of carnivora family would supplement their diet with Vegetation, when necessary.

Pinnipeds [Marine mammals]

In some systems of classification, Pinnipeds are considered as members of Carnivora, for example, marine mammal – Elephant Seal.

Most pinnipeds are collected fromisolated island rookeries, shoelines or seaice. Use of a so – called “Wally” net is the most efficient means of collecting large Seals, such as above Elephant seal. Large transport - cage carries such big animal to shore.

Feeding wild animals in captivity presents a fearful challenge. There arehundreds of species to consider, each representing millions of years of evolutionary adaptation to particular ecological system.

Natural foods range from Ants to Antelopes. (Antelope = African (deer like) ruminant, forexample-gazelles, gnus, kudus and impala) and Mouth structures varyfromEdentate (toothless)toCarnassial(specialized pre-molars and molars).

Stomach : These may be

a) Single

b) Quadruple.

Intestines: These may be

a) Tube likeor

b) Equipped with a caecal fermentation vat (vat = large vessel).

On the surface, the problem appears unsolvable, … it certainly is not easy. But the need persists to nourish all captive species as appropriately as possible … it is not feasible to wait until a DATABASE is developed comparable with that which exists for domestic animals.Actually domestic animal data can be very useful for the estimation of nutrient needs of wild counterparts.