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The concept of recurrent selection grew out of need to increase the number of superior genotypes that could be obtained from breeding stock of corn. This could have been possible by increasing the frequency of superior genes in the gene pool and by increasing the chances for genetic recombination to occur. Both can be achieved by recurrent selection which is defined as “a method of breeding designed to concentrate favourable genes scattered among a number of individuals by selecting in each generation among the progeny produced by mating inter se of the selected individuals (or their selfed progeny) of the previous generation.” The original idea behind recurrent selection was proposed first by Hayes and Gerber in 1919 and independently by East and Jones in 1920. Jenkins (1940) was the first to describe the method in detail and Hull (1945) proposed the name ‘recurrent selection’. Each cycle of recurrent selection requires (i) evaluation and selfing of selections and (ii) crossing of the progenies of superior selfed plants in all combinations and bulking of equal amount of seed from each cross. The selection of plants before selfing is possible for maturity, plant height, ear/head characters, kernel characteristics and resistance to diseases and insects. In general, these are the characters which have high heritability. It is clear that the selection of plants before selfing is more for morphological traits and these evaluations do not include yield. Yield evaluations are done on the top cross progenies (crossing of selected plants to a tester). Such top crosses will be grown in the second year of the cycle during which time the selfed seed is held over until the evaluations for yield are over. Or the selfed seed may be grown out as S₁ lines which in turn are selfed. After yield evaluation is over, the selfed seed of superior plants is grown out for crossing. Progenies of selfed plants are crossed in all possible combinations. This is done manually or by growing progenies together in an isolated block. In isolation planting, random mating should be ensured. After manual crossing or random mating in isolation, equal amounts of seed of each are bulked and this bulk seed is used to start the second cycle of selection, selfing and crossing.

Recurrent selection is a method of breeding applicable to cross-pollinated crops, designed to concentrate favourable genes scattered among a number of individuals by selecting in each generation among the progeny produced by mating inter se of the selected individuals (or their selfed progeny) of the previous generation. The concept of recurrent selection grew out of need to increase the number of superior genotypes that could be obtained from breeding stock of corn. This could have been possible by increasing the frequency of superior genes in the gene pool and by increasing the chances for genetic recombination to occur. The original idea behind recurrent selection was proposed first by Hayes and Gerber in 1919 and independently by East and Jones in 1920. Jenkins (1940) was the first to describe the method in detail and Hull (1945) proposed the name ‘recurrent selection’. Each cycle of recurrent selection requires:

1.1. FYM compost

Decomposed mixture of dung and urine of farm animals along with litter and left over materials from roughages or fodder fed to the cattle.

Farmyard manure contains 0.5% N, 0.2% P₂O₅ and 0.5% K₂O.

Urine contains one per cent nitrogen and 1.35% potassium.

10 to 20 t/ha is applied, but more than 20 t/ha is applied to fodder grasses and vegetables like potato, tomato, sweet potato, carrot, radish, onion etc., respond well to the farmyard manure.

Crops like sugarcane, rice, oranges, banana, mango and coconut respond good to FYM.

The term animal waste comprises, the fresh excrement, including both solid and liquid excreta and urine. * It also includes the bedding material, animal washings, feed waste and straw which are having considerable manorial value. * The characteristics of the livestock wastes depend on fractions of the digestibility, composition of feed ration and species of animals and their physiology. * The waste ruminants have different composition than obtained from swine and poultry, which is having high nutritive value.
For fodder production, the animal waste can be utilized in many ways, that is, as pesticide and that is, as non – conventional source of source energy as pesticides bio – fertilizer to improve soil fertility for sustainable agriculture. This livestock waste can be recycled in following ways: Organic mulch, As pesticides, In organic farming, Biogas production, Composting, Vermicomposting, Profitable manure management by livestock fish integration.

Crop residues are valuable natural resources that may be managed to maximize various input use efficiencies. These are a great source of organic materials for improving the soil structure, water holding capacity, the soil's ability to withstand pH variations, increasing the cation exchange capacity, reducing the phosphate fixation, as a storehouse for micronutrients and secondary nutrients especially in organic farming. Organic matter serves as a source of energy for soil fauna and microbes, which are the main agents controlling the decomposition and release of mineral nutrients in organic soil ecosystems. Crop leftovers are frequently burned by farmers, especially after harvest, which depletes the soil's nutrient content and microbial population and produces greenhouse gases. Each year, a sizable amount of crop residue is produced and if used efficiently, they may provide partial or full amount of the nutrient budget required under organic farming for the production of annual or perennial crops besides achieving resource conservation and environmental sustainability.

1. Introduction

Crop residues are the non-economic plant parts like straws, stubble, stover etc., that remain in the field after harvesting the economic product. Crop remains from threshing sheds such as groundnut shells, oil cakes, rice husks, corn and sorghum cobs or discarded during crop processing can also be utilized in organic farming. India produces 108.75 MT of wheat, 121.46 MT of rice seed, 30.24 MT of maize seeds, 49.66 MT of millets seeds (jowar, bajra, ragi, and small seed millets), 392.8 MT of sugarcane, 46.11 million bales of fibre crops (jute, mesta, cotton), 25.58 MT of pulses and 36.57 MT of oilseed (Agricultural statistics at a glance, 2021).

Abstract

Recycling of organic wastes by chemical amendments and bio-inoculants are the recent developments in the technology for composting to manage voluminous wastes with economic advantages as well as environmental and social perspectives. Various composting technologies such as vermicomposting, P-enriched vermicompost, phospho-sulpho-nitro compost, phosphocompost and microbial enriched compost have been developed utilizing agro-industrial wastes, municipal solid wastes, distillery effluents and press mud, amended with certain mining waste materials such as rock phosphate and pyrites for increasing the nutrient supplying potential of the compost. It was observed that matured enriched compost (after 110 days of composting) contains 3.2 to 4.2% P and 1.5 to 2.3% N. In vermicomposting, earth worms helps in accelerating the decomposition processes and bringing down the composting period from six to eight months to around 2-3 months. Thus, enriched compost helps to produce higher yields of crops and also improve soil physical, chemical and biological conditions, thereby, enhancing productivity and sustainability of agriculture.

14.1. Introduction

There is a tremendous need to change the way society produces, and consumes materials to manage the environmental effect in the growing scarcity of resources. To overcome this issue, recycling process could be a great possibility that reduce the uses of natural resources, maximizethe waste utilization and produce least environmental impact. Unfortunately, packaging materials contribute 40% of solid waste in Western Europe, and 33% in US. In fact, packaging waste is likely to increase in transitioning and developing countries. Recycling process consists of collection, sorting, recovery, and management of packaging materials. As per the report of “Eurostat statistics in 2018”,European Union (EU) generates 174.1 kg of packaging waste per inhabitant, Croatia contributes 67.8 kg per inhabitant and Germany produce 227.5 kg per inhabitant.

16.1 Conservative Technology

Recycling technology being practiced by ancient times by the people who used for municipal industrial effluent. In India the people in rural area, they collected cow dung in a pit. They applied a layer of soil on the cow dung to composting. After three to four months period, they used as manure for the agricultural fields. In a household waste, they collected as organic waste from a kitchen, store a pit allow it for decompose for conversion of compost. People who are residing in house constructed in a plot, they used to generate industrial effluent in a pit and cultivate a kitchen garden like vegetable crops and banana trees etc. in ancient times, the amount organic waste is limited and self purification is taken in small amount of organic waste therefore no organic pollution occurs in rural India.

According to Planning Commission Report (2014), India generates about 62 million tons of municipal solid wastes (MSW) every year from urban cities. There has been a significant increase in municipal solid waste generation in India in the last few decades. This is largely due to rapid population growth and economic development in the country (Annepu, 2012). Solid waste management (SWM) has become a major environmental issue because of serious environmental implications like global warming (through green house gases emission) and contamination of toxic pollutants (like heavy metals) in surface and groundwater bodies. Solid waste management is one of the essential services to be provided by municipal authorities in the country to keep urban areas clean. Out of total waste generated in India, only 12.45% waste is scientifically processed and rest is disposed in open dumps (CPCB Report, 2013). Although, incineration of solid wastes is being followed in many places for energy production, composting is considered most environment friendly method of SWM as it promotes recycling of nutrients in crop production.

Introduction

The process of recycling involves the conversion of waste materials into reusable products or materials and aims to reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, minimize energy use, and mitigate trash creation. The primary objective of recycling is to effectively preserve finite resources, safeguard the natural environment, and mitigate the volume of garbage deposited in landfills or subjected to incineration (Lienig et al., 2017). Recycling refers to the systematic transformation of discarded materials into fresh resources and tangible products. The aforementioned term often encompasses the process of extracting energy from waste materials. The recyclability of a material is contingent upon its capacity to regain the characteristics it has in its initial form. There exists an alternative approach to garbage disposal that has the potential to save resources and mitigate the release of greenhouse gases. Additionally, it can mitigate the waste of potentially valuable resources and diminish the use of pristine raw materials, therefore reducing energy consumption, air pollution resulting from incineration, and water pollution stemming from landfill practices. The promotion of environmental sustainability is achieved by the removal of raw material input and the redirection of waste output within the economic system. The increasing volumes of trash have given rise to several environmental challenges, including air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, and biodiversity loss. The emission of diverse greenhouse gases from solid waste landfills also contributes to the phenomenon of global warming. At now, the predominant techniques for solid waste disposal are open dumping and landfilling. Various alternative techniques, such as pyrolysis, gasification, anaerobic digestion, composting, and bio-methylation, are used to extract valuable resources from solid waste materials (Griffin et al., 2018).

I. FILL UPS

1. Redgram is commonly is known as _____.
2. _____ is the second most important pulse crop after chick pea.
3. Redgram, being a _____ capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen.
4. Pigeon pea contains_____% protein.
5. Isolation distance of redgram must be_____.
6. The spacing adopted for short duration red gram is _____.

11.1 INTRODUCTION

Citrus as a perennial crop occupies globally a place of prime importance amongst major fruit crops including India. The cultivation of citrus in India is dominated by three major cultivars viz., mandarin, sweet orange, limes and lemons occupying collectively an area of 9.23 lakh ha with a production of 86.08 lakh tonnes and productivity of 9.3 tonnes/ha. Nagpur mandarin in India is grown in 0.97 lakh ha area with total production of 8.81 lakh tonnes and productivity of 9.l tonnes/ha, respectively. The productivity of mandarins within the country is highly variable in space and time, the major constraint is inadequate and unbalanced fertilizer use. The commercial cultivation of Nagpur mandarin is extensively confined along the Satpuda foothills of central India comprising Chindwara region of Madhya Pradesh and Vidarbha region of Maharashtra. The nutrient demand is highly variable in space (due to heterogenous soils) and time (due to varying weather conditions). Therefore, determination of crop nutrient requirement is a subject of great complexity. Experiments have shown that soils initially rich in fertility developed a variety of nutrient constraints following the non-synchronisation in demand and supply of nutrients with the orchard age (Srivastava et al., 1998). For example when exchangeable K is not rapidly replenished, crops start drawing on the non-exchangeable K, resulting in soil mining and depletion in soil K reserve. A nutrient level sufficient for one particular productivity level may not hold sufficient for other higher productivity levels. An extensive survey of 18,000 ha area of Nagpur mandarin orchards of central India showed large scale deficiency of three nutrients viz., N, P and Zn, with most of the sites expressing multiple nutrient deficiencies (Srivastava and Singh 2002; 2005). Reduced longevity of commercial citrus orchards due to varying nutritional constraints is one of the major production related constraints highly responsible for poor orchard efficiency (Srivastava and Singh, 2008a; 2008b).

Pets provide companionship, emotional support, and numerous health benefits to their owners. However, they can also be carriers of zoonotic diseases— diseases that can be transmitted from animals to humans. Understanding these risks and implementing measures to reduce them is crucial for maintaining the health and safety of both pets and humans. This article explores common pet-associated zoonotic infections and offers strategies to minimize the risk of transmission.

Common Pet-Associated Zoonotic Infections

1. Rabies

• Cause: Rabies is caused by the rabies virus and is transmitted through the bite of an infected animal.

• Symptoms in Humans: Initial symptoms include fever and headache, progressing to neurological symptoms such as confusion, hallucinations, and paralysis. Rabies is almost always fatal once symptoms appear.

• Prevention: Vaccination of pets, avoiding contact with wild animals, and immediate medical attention after potential exposure.

Abstract
The growing global population has intensified farming practices, increasing the use of fossil fuels and agrochemicals. With limited land and the need to enhance food production, balancing environmental impact, especially carbon footprints, is crucial. Climate-smart mitigation options, with a prime emphasis on crop diversification, can help agriculture adapt to anomalous weather patterns and build resilience. Legumes offer a sustainable solution by reducing greenhouse gas emissions, as they produce 5-7 times less gases per unit area compared to other crops. They aid in carbon sequestration, with soil carbon estimates of 7.21 g kg-1 of dry matter, and save fossil energy by decreasing nitrogen fertilizer use, reducing CO2 emissions by 277 kg ha-1 per year. Legumes play a key role in low-emission farming systems due to their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, reducing dependence on energy-intensive synthetic fertilizers. They improve soil health, enhance soil structure, and support carbon sequestration. Integrating legumes into crop rotations reduces the need for chemical pesticides and fertilizers. Additionally, legumes can be used in food, feed, and biofuels, lowering reliance on more carbon-intensive resources. Embracing legumes in farming systems promotes sustainability improves soil health, and considerably reduces the overall environmentalimpact of agriculture.
Keywords: Carbon Footprint, Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Legumes Sustainability

Yield gap of a crop is the difference between the maximum yield under optimum management condition and the average yield achieved by the farmers. Yield under optimum management condition is otherwise known as potential yield of the crop. Because of concerns about global food security problem of malnutrition, there is necessary to minimize the yield gaps in order to enhance food production within limited resources. This will reduce vast majority of undernourished population residing in under-developed countries. Assessment of potential yield and the gap between potential and actual yield is very much necessary before any investment for improving crop production (Nanda and Sahoo 2010).

Chemicals have been in use to arrest the ill effects of plant diseases even in the prehistoric periods (1000 B.C.) (Ogawa et al. 1977), although the nature of the causative agent was not known at that time. A combination of chemicals was developed and demonstrated to be effective against the devasting downy mildew disease affecting grapevines by systematic investigations of Millardet (1882) in France. This mixture of copper sulphate and lime was named as Bordeaux mixture after the place where it was developed (Large 1940). Despite the development of hundreds of chemicals over the following decades, for the management of fungal diseases, Bordeaux mixture is still being used against certain diseases. Copper, sulphur - and mercury-based compounds were applied prior to the 1940s. After the end of World War II, several organic chemicals were released into the market to wage a losing war against the plant pathogens. The researchers and industry have now realized that microbial pathogens cannot be entirely suppressed or eliminated by chemicals or by any other means.

Methods of crop disease management are based on the principles of exclusion, eradication and immunization. Various methods of excluding the pathogens primarily through establishing plant quarantines and production of disease-free seeds and asexually propagated planting materials have been discussed earlier (Chapter 8). The pathogens that have been introduced and those that have established in a geographical location have to be eradicated by employing different methods for removal of infected plants, plant debris and alternate and alternative host plants for reducing pathogen inoculum and consequent reduction in disease incidence. Other methods may be broadly divided into two classes as chemical and nonchemical methods. The chemical methods involve the use of chemicals that may act indirectly by creating conditions unfavourable for the development of the disease (Chapter 9) or chemicals that have direct inhibitory activity on the pathogens (Chapter 11). Pathogen populations may be kept under check by adopting cultural practices either alone or in combination with chemical and nonchemical methods (Chapter 10). Biological agents have been employed for reducing pathogen inoculum or for inducing resistance in host plants resulting in different degrees of reduction in disease incidence. The methods involving the use of biological agents as a strategy of crop disease management are discussed in this chapter.

Biological control methods aim to reduce the pathogen inoculum or disease producing activity of a pathogen by employing live microorganisms or using products of biological origin. Use of antagonistic microorganisms, avirulent strains of pathogens, cross-protection induced by mild strains of pathogens in susceptible host plants and induction of resistance in the susceptible crop cultivars are some of the approaches made to reduce the adverse effects of infection by microbial pathogens.

Crop husbandry includes various cultural practices aimed at enhancing yields from a given unit of land. To achieve this aim, practices such as growing high yielding cultivars which are fertilizer responsive, high density planting and application of large quantities of different nutrients and frequent application of pesticides have been followed. Consequently these practices have been found to be responsible for some problems which were not associated with crops raised by adopting traditional agricultural practices. Thus the benefits of modern methods appeared to be lost, because of the unforeseen problems for which the effective solution have to be found out. Various methods that could be dovetailed with regular cultural practices have been shown to be useful in either reducing the existing pathogen inoculum or avoiding build up of inoculum in the field.

Physical and chemical techniques have been applied either alone or in combination with certain cultural practices to enhance the effectiveness of reducing pathogen inoculums and consequent reduction in disease incidence. Seeds and asexually propagated planting materials have been treated with physical and / or chemical methods in order to eliminate the pathogens from them and to build up disease-free stocks. Physical and chemical methods may be applied to reduce the inoculum present in plant debris as well as in the soil and water. Enough attention has not been bestowed to tackle the pathogens that may exist on fallen leaves or shoots from which infectible spores may be produced later.

Table 19.1: Reference Guide for Landscape Plants.

8.1. Introduction

Sometimes writing reference list could be so confusing since there are a lot of different rules. Each universities or even each faculty use different rule in writing reference list. The different rule of writing reference list is normal because they refer to different style guide. There are a lot of styles guide available. MLA (Modern Language Association of America) style; the Chicago Manual of Style; the Oxford Guide to Style are some examples of style guide. Difference reference of style guides chosen will result in totally different way of writing reference list. The most widely accepted style guides in social science is the APA (American Psychological Association) style. In some higher education journals (e.g. Journal of Studies in International Education, Higher Education) it is stated clearly that author must submit their paper according to APA style. Referencing in a general sense means to give credit to someone for using his or her own ideas or thoughts in a research activity. Referencing helps in gaining the originality of the ideas and thoughts used in the research activity. Failure to reference is treated as disrespect to the original author or writer and seen as a major misconduct in the area of academic research writing. Generally students made the mistake of not mentioning proper referencing at the end of their research projects, essays or any other piece of work. This may lead to cancellation of the written matter. If we do not reference properly the written matter is treated as if it is copied from somewhere. The research paper or material cannot be submitted for further research or reading purpose. We find a lot of data when we search for something.

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ABSTRACT

Pests and diseases cause serious economic losses in yield and quality of many cultivated crops. Detection and assessment of their damage symptoms is very crucial to initiate timely control interventions. The conventional scouting technique adopted for assessment of pest and disease in field crops is very laborious and time consuming. Remote sensing may provide a better means to objectively quantify disease stress than visual methods and it can be used to repeatedly collect sample measurements non-destructively and non-invasively. In this paper we report the changes in the reflectance spectra due to pest and disease incidence in three crops viz., groundnut, castor and rice. Canopy reflectance measurements were made with a hand held multispectral radiometer (MSR 16-R, CropScan Inc) which records incoming radiation and light reflectance with up looking and down looking sensors, respectively in 16 pass bands. Data of percent reflectance at each pass band were processed subsequently using the calibration and correlation constants through a mini computer connected to the sensor. A total of 10 samples were selected for each level of pest/disease. At each sampling, six measurements were recorded and the resulting data were averaged. The reflectance spectra varied for different biotic stresses in the three test crops. Higher absorption in the NIR region between 760-1240 nm was observed for healthy plants compared to the diseased plants in all the three crops tested. The spectral signatures from severely defoliated (by semilooper pest) castor crop showed that the percent reflectance in the visible region between 560-710 nm was higher in the defoliated crop compared to healthy and reverse is true in the NIR region between 810-1100 nm. In case of rice, spectral reflectance in the region between 760-1100 nm could differentiate the healthy and brown plant hopper affected plants. Decrease in reflectance in this region was proportion to the number of hoppers per plant. This could be due to collapse of leaf tissues by hopper damage. The higher reflectance in the visible region (560-710 nm) was observed only when the damage is very severe (hopper burn). Different spectral indices viz., SR (simple ratio), NDVI (normalized difference vegetation index), NPCI (normalized total pigment to chlorophyll index), DWSI (disease water stress index) and WBI (water band index) were compared to distinguish healthy and diseased plants. NDVI was found useful in distinguishing semilooper damaged (defoliated) castor crop from healthy castor. All the indices tested were useful to differentiate the rice plants damaged by sap-sucking pest, BPH at different levels of infestation. Incase of groundnut, the differences in the spectral indices between different disease incidence levels were not significant. Results of the present study demonstrated that by comparing the reflectance spectra generated using ground based high-resolution radiometer, it is possible to distinguish healthy and pest/disease affected crops.

Abstract

Coral reefs, the marine representatives of tropical forests, coupled with the sea grasses contribute considerably to the coastal productivity. Damages to these ecosystems will immediately affect the fishery productivity of the region. Due to this, the long-term ecological impact of the recent tsunami will be a serious set back to the local, national and regional economy than the immediate losses. Andaman and Nicobar reefs represent the second largest coral reef formation next to the Great Barrier Reef and are also comparable to the coral reefs of Indonesia and Philippines in terms of diversity of species and associated floral and faunal components. The recent mega – subduction of the Indian plate below the Burmese micro – plate in Andaman – Sumatra region has not only deepened the southern and uplifted the northern group of Andaman – Nicobar islands but also created a disastrous tsunami on Dec 26, 2004. While such tectonic changes are expected to cause longterm changes in the coral reefs of Andaman, Nicobar group of islands, the tsunami has damaged the coral reefs instantaneously. However, the coral reefs of the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay are not much affected by the tsunami by virtue of their geographic position in the shadow region of Sri Lanka.

Keywords: Indian coral reefs, Tsunami effect, Coral recovery

Abstract

The mangrove wetlands form dynamic ecotones between land and sea. Mangrove wetlands are unique in terms of environment, plant and animal communities and their distribution is restricted in tropical and subtropical coastlines. They perform a number of protective and productive functions, which ensures ecological and livelihood security to the coastal communities. The role of mangroves in mitigating the impact of cyclones and storm surges is well known but only limited information is available on their role in reducing the impact of tsunami. The Pichavaram mangroves, located on the southeast coast of India in Tamil Nadu, which was hit by the 26 December 2004 tsunami, provided opportunities to understand the contribution of it in tsunami mitigation. Through a systematic field study, a comparative analysis was made on the impact of tsunami in a set of villages, one was protected by mangroves and the other lacks any vegetation surrounding it. These villages are located at more or less equal distance from the sea and situated at about same elevation. Assessment carried out with well defined indicators such as loss of lives due to forceful entry of tsunami water, damages to houses and types of houses, etc., shows that loss of lives and damage to houses were much less in the village surrounded by Pichavaram mangroves. Thus, Pichavaram mangrove wetland, which was restored with the participation of the local community, Tamil Nadu Forest Department and M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) during 1993-2004 provided great dividend during tsunami. This underlines the importance of strengthening the ecological foundation of the coastal zone with mangroves and other vegetation as one of the strategies for mitigating the impact of natural disasters in the coastal areas.

Keywords: Mangroves, Natural Disasters, Tsunami, Impact Reduction and Pichavaram.

Introduction

The history and evolution of extension in India during the Pre- independence and Post- independence periods have been narrated in Chapter 2. The major breakthrough in Agricultural Extension was the introduction of the T&V system with WB support from 1977 to 1997. The system tried to establish a strong linkage between the research and extension. Technical messages received from research stations were transferred to the farmers through an organized extension system at fixed time intervals and obtained feedback from the farmers about the technologies. However, the system was constrained by structural problems at organizational level. The system adopted a classical top- down approach and the recommendations were suitable for irrigated areas bypassing the rain- fed areas. After the withdrawal of support from WB, the T&V system was constrained by the paucity of funds to manage the manpower created, and the unpaid farmers did not continue to work. After withdrawal, it was considered necessary to make the extension more demand- driven, participatory, group extension, and farmer- centric with possible convergence for which extension reform in India was necessary.

Extension reform in India

There are many countries where extension and advisory services reforms are occurring globally (Swanson and Rajalahti 2010; World Bank 2012). Since agro- ecological conditions and access to markets vary within most countries, decentralized extension system was needed. It was considered that decentralized and demand- driven extension allows farmers to participate in setting the agenda and demanding extension and research priorities. The extension reforms made the system reach the smallholders, resource- poor, and women, and also focused on sustainability. When the donor funds dry up or the pilot projects end, the farmers no longer have access to the extension services (Birner and Anderson 2007). Therefore the public extension needs to be sustainable in extension services delivery.

Introduction

The National Commission on Agriculture defined agricultural marketing as a process which starts with a decision to produce a saleable farm commodity and it involves all aspects of market structure of system, both functional and institutional, based on technical and economic considerations and includes pre and post- harvest operations, assembling, grading, storage, transportation and distribution. The Indian council of Agricultural Research defined involvement of three important functions, namely (a) assembling (concentration) (b) preparation for consumption (processing) and (c) distribution.

Abstract

Refractance Window (RW) drying is a relatively new drying technology. This method is carried out by spreading a thin film of food slurry on a conveyor belt made up of a transparent polyester material. The slurry is thermally heated as it moves along the conveyor belt, resulting in rapid drying of the product. RW drying is similar to Drum Drying, but conducted at lower temperatures (95–97^ºC) and without direct contact with the heat source. RW drying offers low operating costs with excellent retention of color, flavor and nutrients.

A refrigerant is heat transfer medium through which phase change occurs from liquid to vapour i.e. evaporation at low temperature and pressure in the evaporator and then the phase change occurs from gas to liquid i.e. condensation at high pressure and high temperature in the condenser. The cycle of phase change of refrigerant, continues in the refrigeration system.

Refrigeration mean cooling i.e. lower the temperature by artificial means. It is a process of attaining lower temperature of the space or product below the surrounding temperature. It further involves maintaining the lower temperature achieved.

1. The process of removing heat from a substances under controlled condition known as refrigeration.

2. A refrigerator is a revised heat engine.

3. Whenever a force acts on body and the body undergoes a displacement is known as work.

4. The rate of doing work-power.

5. Unit of work kgf, Nm, joule.

6. 1 HP-736 watts.

7. Energy defined as the capacity to do work.

8. 1 bar- 105N / (m ^ 2)

9. Absolute pressure gauge pressure + atmosphere pressure.

10. The degree of hotness or coolness is known as temperature.

11. The level of intensity of the body - heat.

It is well known that lowering the temperature of food stuffs reduces microbiological and biochemical spoilage and thus extending the shelf life of the product. In addition, it is generally agreed upon that the reaction rate is reduced by half by lowering the temperature by 10°C. Though low temperature preservation process has been recognized as a preservation technique for several hundred years, the major developments in its utilization have occurred only in the last century.

Q. 1 Unit of refrigeration is:-
(A) Quintal    (B) Gram
(C) kg            (D) Ton

1. Introduction

Refrigeration may be defined as the process of achieving and maintaining a temperature below that of the surroundings. The aim being to cool some product or space to the required temperature. Refrigerated system or a room system is maintained at a temperature which is lower than the atmospheric temperature. Due to higher temperature of atmosphere, heat enters the system. To keep the temperature of the system constant, heat must be removed continuously from the system. Heat removed must be equal to the heat transferred to the system. One of the most important applications of refrigeration has been the preservation of perishable food products by storing them at low temperatures. Refrigeration systems are also used extensively for providing thermal comfort to human beings by means of air conditioning.

The refrigerator (called a ‘fridge’ by most people) is a box like equipment which uses electricity to keep the temperature inside the box lower than the atmosphere outside. Food kept at such a low temperature thus does not spoil for a long time. The refrigerator also serves the purpose of giving us cold water and ice in summer. By preserving food in the refrigerator, one can delay the growth of bacteria, keep food items fresh and thus save time and energy of the homemaker in meal preparation.

Agriculture is increasingly being looked through the angle of environment and sustainability now. On global scale, the move is towards a balanced need for food production and ecological factors. Green revolution made a huge contribution for food security but now we face the following challenges.
1. Since the green revolution, land has witnessed an indiscriminate and prolonged use of chemicals and the strong need for moving away to more eco-friendly farming is felt.
2. We need to promote eco technologies which integrate the principles of ecology in technology development and dissemination. We also need to promote production and use of biological software for sustainable agriculture and food security.
Therefore, the terms like Regenerative Agriculture, Nature base solutions, Agro Ecology, Eco Agriculture, Conservation Agriculture, Organic Farming, Holistic Resource Management, Climate Smart Agriculture, Prakrutik Kheti etc etc have been gaining prominence in policy and funding spaces related to food systems. Global policy floors like the UN Food Systems Summit and the UN Climate and biodiversity conferences have used these terms as bywords for Sustainable Development. Different Names – Eco Agriculture Revolution Encompasses all ! Regenerative Agriculture is defined by many in ways that closely resemble Agro Ecology / Eco Agriculture. Broadly it describes farming, ranching and pastoral practices that stabilize our planet’s climate and carbon cycles by rehabilitating organic matter and microbial activity in the soil, thereby increasing carbon storage, retaining moisture and safeguarding bio diversity and living systems.

Soil regeneration is about bulding or making topsoil. It is a particular form of ecological regeneration within the field of restoration ecology is the act/idea of replenishingthe top soil with beneficial nutrients casing natural methods. Time required from inorganic to organic would be about 60 to 200 days depending upon the situation. Once the inorganic fertilization is stopped, following actions facilitate quick conversion:

• Apply Farm yard/Poultry manure available in the farm as a basal dressing.
• Sow 25 kg of multi varietal seeds (MVS) in one acre.
• Allow it to grow up to 60 days.
• Inoculate the soil with the bio-agents like Azospirillum, Phosphobacterium, Pseudomonas flouresens, Trichoderma viride on 30 days after sowing (DAS).
• Incorporate in situ 60 DAS (30 t ha^-1 biomass is generated on 60 DAS) green manures.

Historic Cities Of India: Description And Its Classification

At this stage it is vital to take a look at ‘historic’ cities of our country with a view of better understanding, it is important to understand the basic components that constitute a historic city. Can we arrive at the number of such cities presently in India.

In the absence of an official definition of a ‘historic city’, it is hazardous to answer the above question in terms of a specific number. The census of India does define ‘urban area’ but does not venture to define historic cities. Considering the long history of its culture, it may be said that a majority of the Indian cities are historic.

Review of literature revealed that Indian historic cities need to be addressed with a deeper concern than they have been so far. The general trends of transformations of historic cities including Indian historic cities exhibit a recognizable pattern and it is possible to identify Indian historic cities on the basis of at least two indisputable grounds

Introduction

Agricultural production system achieved a miracle by the way of green revolution which compactualized the potential of photoperiod and the thermo insensitive input responsive crop culture. The productive trends of food crops continued with increased fertilizer consumption, irrigation potential and improved agro-techniques. However science based intensive agriculture with intensive irrigation due to its inappropriate, inpropotional and ambitious approaches put the agriculture productivity on back foot. Because of these problems the arable land is facing the problem to sustain itself in terms of its capacity to produce desirable output. The scenario is further threatened with increase in climate change impact on various natural resources. The projected food crisis is on the card.

Regenerative agriculture is a transformative approach to farming that prioritizes soil health, biodiversity, and ecosystem services, while also increasing crop yields and promoting sustainable agricultural practices. This holistic method of farming is designed to regenerate the health of the entire ecosystem, rather than just focusing on maximizing food production alone. By adopting regenerative agriculture practices, farmers can improve soil fertility, enhance water quality, and promote biodiversity, ultimately leading to more resilient and productive farming systems. Regenerative agriculture involves being highly attentive to the needs of the soil, crops, and ecosystem as a whole. Alert farming requires farmers to be vigilant and responsive to changes in weather patterns, soil moisture levels, and crop health, making adjustments as needed to optimize crop yields and minimize environmental impact. This approach involves using advanced technologies, such as precision agriculture and data analytics, to monitor and manage farm operations in real-time, enabling farmers to make data-driven decisions and respond quickly to emerging challenges. The benefits of regenerative agriculture are numerous. Not only can it improve crop yields and promote sustainable agricultural practices, but it can also enhance ecosystem services, support biodiversity, and contribute to climate change mitigation efforts. By adopting regenerative agriculture practices, farmers can play a critical role in creating a more sustainable food system, one that prioritizes the health of both people and the planet .
4.1 Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) versus Regenerative Agriculture (RA)
Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) and Regenerative Agriculture (RA) are two approaches (Fig. 4.1) to sustainable agriculture that share some similarities, but also have distinct differences

Introduction

Soil fertility is a key factor in successful crop production measures the ability of the soil to supply nutrients to plants. Soil fertility and fertilisers are closely related concepts. Soil fertility acts as a "SOURCE" from which plants can absorb nutrients for maximum yield, while manure acts as a "SOURCE" from which we can continuously absorb various nutrients and also add to the soil. The importance of soil fertility and fertiliser management has been increasingly recognised in all countries to meet the demand for food and other agricultural commodities. Intensive use of fertilisers and cultivation of high yielding varieties has undoubtedly increased food production and reduced food scarcity, but it has also brought with it a host of problems related to soil fertility, soil and water pollution (Sow et al., 2023a). On the other hand, rapid depletion of nutrients due to overuse, widespread N, P, K, and S deficiency, along with micronutrient deficiencies, especially Zn and Boron, have been observed in many soils.

Abstract
Regional approaches to progressive agriculture involve tailored strategies and practices that address the unique agricultural needs and challenges of specific regions. This chapter explores the various regional strategies for advancing agriculture, focusing on how local conditions, cultures, and resources influence agricultural practices and innovations. It examines case studies from diverse regions to highlight successful approaches and adaptations in progressive agriculture. The chapter covers key areas such as climate adaptation, resource management, technology adoption, and policy frameworks. By analyzing regional successes and challenges, the chapter provides insights into how regional approaches can drive sustainable agricultural development and enhance food security globally.
Keywords: Regional agriculture, progressive agriculture, climate adaptation, resource management, technology adoption, policy frameworks, sustainable development, case studies, food security.

ABSTRACT

The upper Agniar and Vellar river basins principally consist of three major rock typesnamely pink granite, gneiss and charnockite. The major geochemical pattern of these igneous rocks when studied indicate that charnockites have a trend of low Mg2+ and high Ca2+ + Na O to high K+ end, whereas the same is vice – versa for hornblende biotite gneiss and also for granite gneiss. The pink granite has an intermediate trend between the charnockite and hornblende biotite gneiss. The value of SiO2 in all the rock types was found to increase with the increase of K2O, Na2O and Al2O3. Further, a decrease in the values of MgO, Fe2O3, TiO2 and CaO was noticed with an increase in SiO2. On the basis of the distribution pattern of these elements, the origin of the igneous suites in the above two basins was inferred.

South Asia, which includes countries like Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Pakistan, has a predominant focus on rice production. Rice is not only a staple food but also a critical part of the cultural and economic fabric of these nations. The climatic conditions and extensive river systems in this region provide ideal conditions for rice cultivation. For instance, in Bangladesh, rice accounts for nearly 70% of caloric intake and employs a significant portion of the rural labor force (FAO, 2023). In India, rice is grown across 44 million hectares, particularly in the eastern and southern belts (Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, India, 2022). Nepal relies heavily on monsoon-fed paddy farming, while Pakistan is a major exporter of basmati rice (Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, 2022). Diversification in Southeast Asia Southeast Asian countries such as Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, and Lao PDR are gradually diversifying their agricultural production. While rice remains

Expanding on the importance of understanding monsoons from a regional perspective, Chapter 4, “Regional Phenomena Exerting Influence on Monsoons in Different Regions,” takes a closer look at the unique fingerprints that specific geographical features and localized climate dynamics leave on these vital weather systems around the world. While Chapter 3 provided the grand narrative of globalscale influencers, this chapter delves into the intricate details of how monsoons are fine-tuned and often dramatically altered by the characteristics of the land and oceans they interact with on a regional level. Consider, for instance, the colossal impact of the Tibetan Plateau’s summer heating on the Indian Summer Monsoon. The intense solar radiation absorbed by this vast elevated landmass creates a powerful upper-level heat source, driving a strong low-pressure system that acts like a vacuum, pulling in the moistureladen winds from the Indian Ocean that deliver the life-sustaining rains to the subcontinent. Similarly, in North America, the development of the North American Monsoon Anticyclone, a large high-pressure system aloft, plays a crucial role in steering moisture from both the Pacific and the Gulf of Mexico into the arid Southwest, transforming parched landscapes into vibrant green during the summer months. We will also explore phenomena like the Saharan Heat Low, a thermal low-pressure system over the vast desert that is instrumental in drawing in the rain-bearing southwesterly winds from the Atlantic Ocean to fuel the West African Monsoon, a lifeline for numerous nations. Furthermore, the chapter will examine the regional oceanic influence of the Indian Ocean Dipole and how the temperature differences between the western and eastern parts of the Indian Ocean can significantly modulate the strength and distribution of rainfall during the Indian monsoon and in neighboring regions. Through a series of regional case studies, this chapter will illuminate the diverse ways in which local geography, land surface characteristics, and regional atmospheric and oceanic circulations act as critical modifiers of global monsoon patterns. This detailed exploration underscores the necessity of understanding these regional nuances for accurate forecasting, effective water resource management, and the development of tailored strategies to cope with the inherent variability of monsoons in different parts of our planet.

In Article IX of IPPC, it is stated that RPPOs shall

• Function as coordinating bodies in the areas covered by the IPPC (including information sharing)
• Cooperate with the IPPC Secretariat in achieving the objectives of the IPPC (including the development of ISPMs)
• Cooperate with other RPPOs and participate in the regular Technical Consultations for RPPOs that are convened by the IPPC Secretariat

At present, there are 10 RPPOs covering the different regions of the world. Each RPPO has its own independent statutes and conducts its own regional cooperation programme. RPPOs produce regional standards for their members. They cooperate with each other and with the IPPC Secretariat. In particular, they meet in Technical Consultations to promote the development and use of relevant ISPMs and to encourage inter-regional cooperation on phytosanitary measures for controlling quarantine pests and preventing their introduction and spread.