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The name Lepidoptera derived from the Greek words “lepido” meaning Scale and “ptera” meaning wings refers to the flattened hairs (Scales) that cover the body and wings of most adults. Lepidoptera (Moths and Butterflies) is the second largest order (1.10 lakh sp.) in the class insecta, characterized by the body, wings and appendages being generally covered densely with pigmented scales which provide the colour pattern of the characteristic of the species and play an important role in courtship and intraspecific recognition.

Adults

• Head: Hypognathus and relatively small.

• Compound eyes are large and set well apart. Ocelli two in number in moths or reduced to Chaetosoma in butterfly.

• Mouthparts form a coiled tube (Proboscis) beneath the head.

• Antennal type:

• Butterflies: Clubbed, clavate, capitate.

• Moths: Pectinate (Uni/Bi).

• Adults have siphoning type mouthparts except in micropterygidae (Mandibulate mouthparts). Front wings large, triangular, hindwings large, fan shaped.

• Body and wings covered with small, overlapping scale.

• Thoracic segments are fused and metathorax is the largest and most prominent.

• Wings covered with scales. Androconia (Plumules) on upper surface of wings in some males serves as outlet for odouriferous glands. are fringed distally with each tip finely divided. • Wing coupling apparatus variable (generally Frenulum and retinaculum or Amplexiform type)

Introduction

Fruit crops have been cultivated for centuries, both commercially and in amateur gardens, and many species covering a wide range of trees, shrubs, and non-woody perennials.Fruit crop species have certain common characteristics: they are long-lived, usually highly heterozygous, and clonally propagated from an elite mother plant. Fruits are increasingly recognized as an important component of a healthy diet, and consumption of temperate fruit and fruit products, especially juices and dairy derivatives, has risen sharply over the past decade.China is the largest producer of fruit crops with approximately.

• India ranks the second in fruit production.

• India has witnessed increase in horticulture production over the last few years. Significant progress has been made in area expansion resulting in higher production.

• Over the last decade, the area under horticulture grew by 2.6% per annum and annual production increased by 4.8%.

• Production of fruit crops has increased from 50.9 Million Tonnes to 97.35 Million Tonnes since 2004-05 to 2017-18.

• Total production of fruits is highest in case of Andhra Pradesh followed by Maharashtra.

Introduction

• The green revolution of the 1960s and 1970s ended chronic food deficits and while cereals still command the attention of policy makers, fruit production has surged impressively, making India the second largest global producer behind China.

• Annual growth in horticulture has seen fruit production grow at faster rate and constitute the larger segment of agriculture. • No doubt, there has been manifold increase in area, production and productivity but when we compare the productivity of various major fruit crops with other developed countries, our productivity is very low.

• This may be mainly attributed by non-availability of quality planting material and seeds, existence of old unproductive seedling orchards, small and unirrigated land holdings, use of inferior genetic stocks/ varieties/hybrids, poor management and non-adoption of package of practices, high incidence of pest and diseases, heavy pre and post harvest losses and lack of trained human resource.

• To meet increasing demand the productivity per unit area per unit time and per unit investment has to be increased from limited land resources, where production and supply of quality planting material of elite varieties is one such important factor that can bring tremendous improvement in production, productivity and higher economic returns to farmers.

• This may be mainly attributed by non-availability of quality planting material and seeds, existence of old unproductive seedling orchards, small and unirrigated land holdings, use of inferior genetic stocks/ varieties/hybrids, poor management and non-adoption of package of practices, high incidence of pest and diseases, heavy pre and post harvest losses and lack of trained human resource.

Introduction

• At present, horticulture is recognized as a potential sector to enhance agricultural production, improve house hold nutritional security and income generation through diversification and employment, value addition and export.

• Inspite of the enormous success achieved in horticulture sector, several constraints still exist.

• Besides new emerging challenges, poor productivity per unit area continues to be a concern in most of the horticultural crops with climate change impacting the productivity further.

3.1 Role of root stock in fruit crops

• The role of rootstocks and its use in different fruit crops has significant impact on fruit crop production by influencing canopy architecture, nutritional uptake, flowering, yield and fruit quality.

• Besides, it can also confront biotic and abiotic stresses such as soil pathogens, thermal stress, salinity and nutritional stress.

• Due to limited availability of arable land and high market demand for fruit crops, they are frequently cultivated under unfavorable soil and environmental conditions like thermal stress, drought, flooding, salinity and contamination of organic pollutants.

• One way to substantiate or reduce these losses in production would be the use of appropriate rootstocks, which are capable of reducing the effect of external stresses on the scion.

• Rootstocks have a primary role in determining orchard efficiency.

• They are responsible for water and mineral uptake and provide anchorage for the tree.

4.1.1 Vertical row planting pattern

1. Square system: In this system, trees are planted on each comer of a square whatever may be the planting distance. This is the most commonly followed system and is very easy to layout. The central place between four trees may be advantageously used to raise short lived filler trees. This system permits inter cropping and cultivation in two directions.

2. Rectangular system: In this system, trees are planted on each corner of a rectangle. As the distance between any two rows is more than the distance between any two trees in a row, there is no equal distribution of space per tree. The wider alley spaces available between rows of trees permit easy intercultural operations and even the use of mechanical operations.

4.1.2 Alternate row planting pattern

3. Hexagonal system

• In this method, the trees are planted in each comer of an equilateral triangle.

• This way six trees form a hexagon with the seventh tree in the centre.

• Therefore, this system is also called as 'septule' as a seventh tree is accommodated in the centre of hexagon.

• This system provides equal spacing but it is difficult to layout.

• The perpendicular distance between any two adjacent rows is equal to the product of 0.866 x the distance between any two trees.

• This system accommodates 15% more trees than the square system. The limitations of this system are that it is difficult to layout and the cultivation is not so easily done as in the square system.

5.1 Crop modelling

• Crop model

• “Schematic representation of the system’’i.e. a model as defined by De Wit 1970.

• Such a model can be based on statistics applied to a set of experimental data or on physical laws (Guyot, 1997).e.g. Irrigation is able to satisfy a crop’s water needs provided its management relies on the measurement or estimation of evapotranspiration. The manager can either invest in equipment to monitor changes in water content in the soil or fluxes of water into the plant or the atmosphere, or rely on a ‘‘schematic representation of the system’’, i.e. a model.

• In very simple terms we can define a crop model as “a well-thought out plan of activities to grow the desired crop to get maximum possible yields of high-quality produce with the given resources. It can be a mental or a written exercise (a “schematic representation of the system”) that a farmer or a farm manager prepares for a crop or for an individual crop”.

• In other words, we can also say that a model is “an attempt to describe a certain process or system through the use of a simplified representation, preferably a quantitative mathematical expression, that focuses on a relatively a few key variables that control the process or system”.

• It is clear that in finalizing a crop model we have to assume some mean or standard values (based on the past record, experience, expert judgment, etc.) of the variables which we may not be taking explicitly in our model.

6.1 Scenario in precision farming

• India’s population is around 1366 million by 2020 which requires food grain production of 350 million tones.

• Considering the current food grain production levels, India needs to raise food grain production levels by not less than 4.00 per cent per year. As the availability of land has decreased, application of fertilizers and pesticides become necessary to increase food production.Indiscriminate use of inputs coupled with improper management practices over a long period has resulted in decline in soil productivity.

• Agriculture production system is outcome of interaction of various agro inputs. Therefore, judicious management of these inputs is necessary for the sustainability of these inputs.

• In our agriculture systems, spatial variability over the landscape is ignored and fertilizers, herbicide, pesticides, fungicides etc. are applied at uniform rate over the whole field.

• It has been recognized that crops and soils are not uniform within a given field. The management of in-field variability in soil fertility and crop conditions for improving crop production and minimizing the environmental impact is the crux of precision farming.

• Definitions • It is defined as the application of technologies and principles to manage spatial and temporal variability associated with all aspects of agricultural production (Pierce and Nowak, 1999).

• It is an integrated information and production-based farming system that is designed to increase long term, site specific and whole farm production efficiency, productivity and profitability while minimizing unintended impacts on environment.

Introduction

• India is the second largest producer of fruits in the world after China

• India is rich in fruit diversity starting from tropical, subtropical to temperate region.

• Some of the fruits like Guava, pomegranate, lemon, mandarin etc., if left without any treatment, give several light harvests of the variable quantities and qualities from the various flowering flushes throughout the year.

• Some of the fruit crops bloom throughout the year without any resting period and produces two or three crops (bahar) in a year but yield and quality is not so good in all crop harvest. So, it is very essential to understand the flowering and fruiting behavior of crops and which bahar will give good crop with considering all the factors associated with a particular bahar.

7.1 What is crop regulation?

• Crop regulation means to force the tree for its rest and to produce blossom and fruits during any one of two or three flushes”

• Crops in which flowering is continuous throughout the year; economic yield cannot be achieved in any of the season.

• Therefore, by analyzing market demand flowering can be forced in particular one season, which gives the economic yield.

• Through various techniques like cultural practices and chemical treatments, trees are thrown to rest prior to flowering and then practices are done to trigger flowering.

• Thus, crop regulation is a method to regulate flowering by altering natural tendency of the tree by artificial means.

8.1 What is stress?

• Physics:Mechanical force per unit area applied to an object.

• Biology:Stress is any adverse environmental factor or condition that affects normal metabolic or physiological processes. It may be :

• Biotic stress (living) • Abiotic stress (non-living) 8.2 Abiotic stress

• Abiotic stress is defined as:“The negative impact of non-living factors on the living organisms in a specific environment”

• Only 10% of the world arable land may be categorized as free from stress.

8.2.1 Type of abiotic stress

8.2.1.1 Temperature stress

• Temperature is one of the most important components of climate. It plays vital role in the production of horticultural crops.

• The different activities of plant like growth and development, respiration, photosynthesis, transpiration, uptake of nutrients and water and reproduction (Such as pollen viability, blossom fertilization fruit set etc.), carbohydrate and growth regulators balance, rate of maturation and senescence, and quality, yield and shelf life of the edible products.

• The above function of the plant should be well when the temperature at the optimum range.During high temperature plant does not perform proper functions of growth, where in low temperature physiological activities of the plant are stopped.

Introduction

• Successful horticultural production is not possible without sufficient moisture regimes and for that, the appropriate techniques should be adopted.

• In the total cultivated land of India, 75 % of land contributed as a rainfed area or dry land area in which 60% with semi-arid and 19.3 % of area with arid zone.

• The irrigation facilities are covered only 38 % of the total cultivated land of the country.

• The moisture is always the limiting factor in arid area.

• So, conservation of soil moisture or water management is the most important task for arid fruit production.

• Out of total cultivated area of Horticultural production, l lakh ha is under arid or semi-arid.

• In arid area, some fruit crops with specials features are adapted for their production. So, in this area, the soil moisture conservation or the water harvesting techniques is the prime important tools for crop production with best management systems.

10.1 What is nutrient management?

• Nutrient management is an important component in orchard management for high efficiency and high fruit quality. Fruit trees are perennial woody plants which can store nutrients and then release them for growth.

• Therefore, the nutrient uptake of fruit trees includes the total nutrients of the fruits, leaves, new branches, and time increments of storage. Nutrient uptake is different under different yield levels. For example, the N uptake of apple trees was 100–120, 110– 130,120–140, and 130 150kg/ha under yield levels of 30, 45, 60, and 75t/ha, respectively.

• Basal fertilization is considered to be important for high-quality fruit production by providing nutrients for tree growth and also improving soil structure which promotes better root development. It is usually recommended and immediately applied during the dormant season up to autumn, after fruit harvest.

• Top dressing applications are usually chemical fertilizers which are applied two to four times before bud break or prior to or after blooming and at the fruit enlargement stage, depending on the requirements of each type of fruit tree.

• Using this INM method, the total nutrient demand is calculated according to target fruit yield level and NPK fertilizers are recommended based on soil fertility index (High, Moderate, and Low soil fertility) and nutrient demand with different stages. For moderate apply trees, most of N fertilizer is applied in autumn after picking to add N storage and renew tree vigor, and most of the P fertilizer is applied in spring with flowing stage to improve flower bud quality, and most of the K fertilizer is applied in summer fruiting period to improve fruit quality. Management of high yielding fruits using suitable pruning, and irrigation, are combined in this INM

11.1 Quality

• Quality of fruit or any other commodity is combination of attributes, properties or characteristics like appearance, texture, flavor and nutritive value that determine their value to the consumer.

• Keeping quality is also an important quality attributes in all fruits.

• Quality parameters • Appearance (size, shape, color and freedom from defects)

• Texture (firmness and juiciness)

• Flavors (swetness, sourness, bitterness, astringency, aroma and off f lavour)

• Nutritional (vitamins and minerals)

• Quality management Quality management is a method of ensuring the effectiveness of all the factors those implemented to improve and maintain the quality in acceptance form at consumer’s level.

11.2 Pre-harvest management of quality

11.2.1 Genotype and rootstock management

INTRODUCTION

Ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation are well recognized as essential to human well-being and have become a policy priority. India is gifted with a large coastline and vast stretches of coastal wetlands. The estuaries and back waters which may include mangroves, mud flats, bays etc. extend over a large part of the Indian coasts. The mangrove ecosystem functions as a habitat for nurseries, thus benefiting fishers in the food chain (Mumby et al., 2004; Venkatachalam et al., 2018). Mangrove habitats increase the survival ratio of young fish that migrate to other offshore habitats when they mature, resulting in the enrichment of fish biomass in adjacent mangrove areas (Mumby et al., 2004; Aburto-Oropeza et al., 2008). Mangroves enhance fish production by providing food and shelter to fishery resources. Mangrove forests are highly productive, with average primary productivity level similar to that of tropical terrestrial forests (Alongi, 2009). Therefore, mangrove loss could have a devastating effect on fishery outcomes. The estimated fish catch is up to 70% higher in mangrove areas than in non-mangrove areas (Das, 2017).

NATURE OF MANGROVE FORESTS

Mangroves are amongst the most productive marine ecosystems on the Earth, providing a unique habitat opportunity for many species and key goods and significant services for human beings. They are salt tolerant plants, and are found distributed growing in estuaries, lagoons, backwaters and bays at the land-sea interface in tropical and subtropical areas of the world. Mangroves thrive on low-oxygen through the breathing roots or pneumatophores that are used for respiration. They need freshwater for their growth and so they live at the sea edge, they must remove the salts from the water that is taken in by the roots.

INTRODUCTION

Biodiversity can be useful as an ecosystem indicator for conservation and monitoring, through continuous assessment of its main properties including stability, primary productivity, exploitation tolerance and even global environmental changes (Douglas et al., 2012). Crustaceans are found one of the most morphologically diverse taxonomic groups on the planet (Martin and Davis, 2001). Among them, decapods are the most studied taxon, mainly on account of the commercial interest of some species and their great diversity (Isarch and Munoz, 2015). Decapods are chiefly composed of marine species that live in waters depths ranging from shallow to deeper than 5000 m. Isarch and Munoz (2015) described the importance of this group lies in several factors such as the great biomass they represent, their significant role in marine food webs and the commercial interest of many decapod species. Order Decapoda comprises the commercially important shrimps, crabs and lobsters. Out of 649 species of marine crabs so far recorded from Indian waters, only 12 species of edible crabs namely Portunus sanguinolentus, P. plagicus, Charybdis feriatus, C. lucifera, C. annulata, C. natator, Scylla serrata, S. tranquebarica, Matuta lunaris, Sesarma tetragonum and Varuna litterata, which inhabit the coastal waters and adjoining brackishwater environments, support commercial fisheries (Menon and Pillai, 1996). However substantial quantities of crabs are landed every year as by-catches of shrimp trawlers and indigenous fishing units throughout the county.

India represents one of the major contributors to the world production of marine crustaceans. Shrimps constitute as the main seafood export industry for the major foreign exchange earner as well as a source of livelihood for millions of fish workers. As shrimps are targeted for fishing, information on the present status of the fishery is critical for implementation of proper management. Some of the important penaeid shrimps that support commercial fisheries along the Indian seas are Fenneropenaeus indicus, P.semisulcatus P.monodon, P.merguiensis, P.japonicus, P.penicillatus, Metapenaeus dobsoni, M.monoceros, M. affinis, M. kutchensis , M. brevicornis, Parapenaeopsis stylifera, P.hardwickii, P.sculptilis, P.maxillipedo, P.uncta, Trachypenaeus curvirostris, Metapenaeopsis stridulans, Parapenaeus longipes, Solenocera crassicornis and S.choprai (Mohan Joseph and Jayaprakash, 2003). Rajkumar et al. (2015) carried out molecular identification of shrimp species, Penaeus semisulcatus, Metapenaeus dobsoni, Metapenaeus brevicornis, Fenneropenaeus indicus, Parapenaeopsis stylifera and Solenocera crassicornis from Tamil Nadu, India.

INTRODUCTION

Species of the Clupeiformes (Teleostei), commonly known as herrings, shads, menhadens, sardines, anchovies, and their relatives, are a major component of forage fishes in coastal ecosystems and dominate worldwide forage fish landings (Tacon and Metian, 2009a; FAO, 2020). Clupeiformes are globally distributed fishes with having nearly 419 marine, freshwater, and diadromous species (Bloom and Egan, 2018) and they are filter-feeding fishes that form large schools having a diverse group of trophic guilds and habitats (Bloom and Egan, 2018). Additional to providing ecological and economic support, clupeiforms contribute to global food security given their abundance, easy access, and exceptionally high nutrient content (FAO, 2018). In some human communities, clupeiforms comprise the major or the sole protein source (Alder et al., 2008; Mohanty et al., 2019). Historically, clupeiform presence has been associated with persistent human settlement, growth, and survival (Thornton et al., 2010; Levin et al., 2016).

Clupeiform fishes are ecologically diverse and span all aquatic habitats, including coastal and open marine environments, oceanic islands, estuaries, and freshwater rivers and lakes (Whitehead, 1985; Lavoue et al., 2013). Species can be restricted to marine, estuarine, or fresh waters, or they can be euryhaline, where a subset exhibit diadromy (Whitehead, 1985). Strictly marine clupeiforms (33.7% of all species) are distributed in every ocean, except for the Southern Ocean (Whitehead, 1985), while strictly freshwater species (17.8% of all species) are found on every continent except for Antarctica (Bloom and Egan, 2018). Major threats to clupeiforms are similar to those found for other groups of fishes (e.g., Roberts and Hawkins, 1999; Reynolds et al., 2005), with overexploitation as the leading threat for all clupeiforms in all habitats. While overexploitation may be the most prolific threat by impacting the highest number of clupeiforms, pollution may be the most detrimental, as it affects greater numbers of CR species. When compared to other economically and ecologically important fish groups globally assessed using the IUCN Red List methodology, clupeiforms have the lowest estimated percentage of threatened and NT species overall. Using the midpoint of species evaluated as elevated concern, roughly 11% are currently at high risk compared to approximately 22% of tunas and billfishes (Collette et al., 2011), 19% of sparids (Comeros Raynal et al., 2016), and 19% of groupers (Sadovy de Mitcheson et al., 2020).

INTRODUCTION

Coral reefs are fragile and most diverse and valuable ecosystems on earth. The stony corals are formed from the tiny, soft colonial organisms called polyps. They provide enormous ecological, economic services, and cultural value to hundreds of millions of people. They are significantly contributing to the nutrition, economic security and protection from natural disasters. They are often termed as the rain forests of the sea.

Coral reefs were first appeared 485 million years ago during the early Ordovician period. They belong to the class Anthozoa of animal phylum Cnidaria, which includes sea anemones and jelly fish. Coral reef is an under water ecosystem which is characterized by reef-building corals. Unlike sea anemones, colonies of coral polyps secrete a hard exoskeletons called reef which is made up of calcium carbonate to support and protect the corals. These reefs grow best in warm, shallow, clear, sunny and agitated water.

BIODIVERSITY

The term biodiversity was coined by Walter G. Rosen in the year 1985. Biodiversity refers to the variation among living organisms that can be found in a particular area such as terrestrial, marine and desert ecosystems and the ecological complexes to which they are a part. The study of biodiversity helps to understand the ecological stability, economic and ethical importance. Coral reefs are believed to have the highest biodiversity on the planet even more than a tropical rainforest. Though the coral reefs distributed in less than one percent of the ocean floor, they provide habitat for more than 25% marine life with more than 4,000 world’s fishes. They act as protective nurseries to many fish species, and shelter small fishes to grow. Coral reefs diversity is so rich that we do not have a firm count on all the species that live within it and every year discover new species.” There are about six thousand coral species in the world, in which few are growing in warm shallow waters near coastlines while others in the dark, cold seafloor of the open ocean.

Increasing pressures exerted on the environment by humans make protection of natural areas crucial for the preservation of biological diversity. Protected areas are one of the most effective tools available for conservation of biodiversity.

The IUCN defines a Protected Area as ‘an area of land and/or sea specially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultured resources, and managed through legal or other effective means.

Since 1986, the IUCN commission on National Parks and Protected Areas (CNPPA) has been promoting the establishment and management of a global representative system of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) which play a critical role in the conservation of biodiversity. MPAs are growing in importance globally as practical and potentially effective options for the management of fisheries, the protection of biodiversity and the generation of income from eco-tourism. The effective management of MPAs to ensure that they meet their declared objectives poses many challenges.

The IUCN has defined an Marine Protected Area (MPA) as ‘Any area of the intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all the enclosed environment (Kelleher,1999).

Study done in India on various aspects of marine copepods are those of Krishnaswamy (1952), Kartha (1959), Ummerkutty (1960, 1966), Ganapathi et al. (1961), Kasturirangan (1963), Saraswathy (1966), Abraham (1970), Silas and Pillai (1973), Sarladevi (1979), Sarkar et al. (1985), Madhupratap and Haridas (1986), Wells and Rao (1987), Gajbhiye et al. (1991), Madhupratap (1999), Kesarkar and Anil (2010), Ramanibai and Shanthi (2011), Srichandan et al. (2014). Jayabarathi et al. (2015), Nishida et al. (2015), Arunpandi et al. (2017), Loka et al. (2017), Deepika et al. (2019), Kaviyarasan et al. (2019), Khandagale et al. (2022), Nawaz et al. (2023), Thangaraj and Vijayanand (2023).

Copepods are planktonic crustaceans, which occur in marine, fresh as well as brackish waters. They represent about 80% of the zooplankton in the ocean. There are more than 210 families, 2400 genera and 24000 species identified in this group. Planktonic copepods are considered to be the most abundant metazoans on earth.

The name 'copepod' is derived from the Greek words meaning 'animals with oar shaped foot' i.e., ‘kope’ means oar and ‘podos’ means foot (Stottrup,2003). Copepods are important secondary producers and primary consumers and ultimately contribute significantly to the food chain in large ecosystems.

Copepods are very hardly planktonic forms which can withstand most of the unfavourable conditions and can produce diapause eggs and resting eggs to survive in these conditions. Most of the copepods can adjust wide range of salinity and temperature levels. Due to its hardy nature, copepods can be easily introduced into all types of water bodies.

Copepods forms important food for many aquatic animals especially fishes. Certain fishes and fish larvae were evolutionary adapted to feed on copepods. Copepods have been found to be nutritionally superior to almost all other live feeds.

INTRODUCTION

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations defines aquaculture as the cultivation of aquatic organisms such as fish, mollusks, crustaceans, and aquatic plants by individuals or corporations. In aquaculture, interventions are made in the rearing process to enhance production. While aquaculture is a practice with origins dating back more than 3000 years, Aquaculture products have only recently been recognized by the United Nations Statistical Commission as distinct global commodities, despite the practice having origins dating back more than 3000 years. According to the FAO's "Global Aquaculture Production" database, the annual global production of aquaculture has increased at an average rate of around 8% over the past three decades (since 1980). Despite a recent slowing in global trends, growth remains higher than any other major animal food production sector. This rapid global increase in production is occurring alongside a slow decline in marine fisheries catches. There is a growing global focus, largely driven by demand from Western countries, on increasing the intensive production of omnivorous and carnivorous species farmed and harvested in maritime and brackish coastal environments, a practice known as mariculture. The farming of these species, such as salmon, groupers, seabasses, and prawns, typically relies heavily on inputs such as wild post-larvae and juveniles, fishmeal, fish oils, as well as significant amounts of water, land, and energy. As a result, mariculture has faced widespread criticism due to its often negative impacts on marine and coastal ecosystem health. Negative associations have been drawn between mariculture and its effects on marine capture fisheries and food security.

INTRODUCTION

The aquaculture industry is regarded as one of the most advanced food production industries globally. From 2010 to 2020, it grew at an average annual rate of 4.6%, reaching 122.6 million tonnes of live weight (FAO, 2022). Sustainable aquaculture proposes numerous profits to attain economic progress through well usage of natural resources (FAO 2017). The expansions in the sustainable aquaculture business are challenging due to the inadequate number of available natural resources and industrialized effects that released to the surround environments (Costa-Pierce et al. 2012; Verdegem 2013). Particularly in intensive system, increased higher organic matter concentrations raise several future issues, including acute harmful, chronic impacts (Piedrahita 2003). Recently, Innovative biofloc technology system (BFT) is one of the most popular methods to combat these problems.

Biofloc is a climate-smart technology that relies on mass synthesis of in situ microorganisms (Ogello et al., 2021). The BFT permits high stocking densities and higher fish productivity (Ogello et al., 2021) while requiring limited or zero water exchange in to sustain the flocs (Emerenciano et al., 2017). The power of BFT aligns with the "cradle to cradle" concept that outlined by McDonough and Braungart (2002), which omits the phrase "waste”. In BFT, nitrogen wastes that generated from feces of aquatic animals and residual feeds are transformed into the microbial protein that becomes feed for the same creatures (Minaz and Kubilay 2021). Numerous microorganisms, including bacteria, microalgae, protozoa, and zooplankton, are present in biofloc particles (Ray et al. 2010a). Hence, biofloc can incorporate the diet of aquatic species, which utilises the natural productivity in the culture system as a feed source (Wasielesky et al. 2006; Emerenciano et al. 2012a). This microorganisms are recognised for their contributions to (i) preserving high water quality (Emerenciano et al., 2017), (ii) enhancing culture efficiency by lowering feed conversion ratio (FCR) and costs of feed (Hargreaves, 2006). (iii) biosecurity (Defoirdt et al., 2004), and (iv) conserving greenhouse gases (GHG) (Manan et al., 2016). These four biological roles of microorganisms in BFT units are factors of high fish production, profitability and environmental protection (Ogello et al., 2021).

INTRODUCTION

Aquaculture is a technology driven industry which relies a lot on research to develop species diversification in culture system as well as in the appropriate technology for commercial production. The rapid development of aquaculture in the world depends largely on the availability of fish feed; which are traditionally based on fish meal as the main protein source (Hardy & Tacon, 2002; Krishnankutty, 2005; Yigit et al., 2006) but the major challenge is its availability, quality and cost (Ghazala et al., 2011; Tabinda and Butt, 2012). In the aqua feed formulation, protein is the main but expensive ingredient and its quality and quantity in fish feeds formulation plays a vital role in promoting fish growth (Pandian, 2001). Dietary protein provides essential and non essential amino acids to synthesize body protein and energy for maintenance. According to fish species, fish size, dietary protein sources and environmental conditions protein requirements ranges from 300 to 550 g /kg (NRC 1993).

In India there is a significant development in fresh water aquaculture in last few decades contributing greatly to overall fish production of the country. The fresh water aquaculture is crossing the traditional boundary of concentration on farming of major carp and entered the arena of diversification to the culture of other species like catfishes. So far in India majority of research works were concentrated on development of commercial fish feed mainly for carps and shrimps. To fulfill the objectives of large scale culture of cat fishes and development as an economic proposition, it is necessary to take up induced breeding and larval rearing of commercially important catfishes in controlled conditions and develop easily adoptable package of practices of the same to cater to the needs of interested fish entrepreneurs. Among the catfishes, Clarias magur, an air breathing species and popularly known as ‘magur’ or ‘walking catfish’ is a high valued fish in the Indian subcontinent and fetches higher price than many other fishes including major carps and it is highly revered for its nutritious flesh which is therapeutic in nature, hence, better prospects are there for developing its culture (Hussain et al., 2016). Vishwanath (2010) reported that this species is very much popular in Bangladesh due to use as important part of the diet for children and lactating mothers and also prescribed as diet for the convalescent of the patients. This fish is highly regarded for food due to its high protein (15.0%), low fat (1.0%) and high iron content (710mg/100g tissue). Paul et al. (2015) in their studies on Indian catfish namely magur (Clarias batrachus) and singhi (Heteropneustes fossilis) for proximate composition and mineral content concluded that both the fishes are rich in protein, fat and minerals content irrespective of their size and season.

INTRODUCTION

An expanding aquaculture industry that offers high incomes and job opportunities to people worldwide is ornamental fish farming. With over 2 billion live ornamental fish traded globally, the ornamental fish trade has become a very lucrative sector (Das & Biswas, 2016; Katia, 2001) with global net worth of more than 20 billion USD. According to Saxena (1994), the most significant factor influencing an ornamental fish's market value is its vibrant body colouration. Fish are incapable to synthesize carotenoids De novo (Goodwin 1951),and rely on dietary carotenoids for its body pigmentation (Hata and Hata, 1973). So, there is hence a direct correlation between pigmentation and dietary carotenoids(Halten et al., 1995). Aquatic animals' skin, meat, shell, and exoskeleton are coloured red, orange, and yellow due to a class of naturally occurring lipid-soluble organic pigments called carotenoids (Pailanet al., 2012). Fish skin and muscle colour regulation is significantly influenced by dietary carotenoids (Ahilan et al., 2008). The freshwater ornamental fish industry has encountered the issue of fadingfish body colouration, particularly in cases where the fish are reared in captivity for extended periods of time and subjected to rigorous cultivation conditions (Das and Biswas, 2016). According to Das and Biswas (2016), an ornamental fish's food should generally be nutritionally balanced, appetizing, resistant to crumbling, water stable, buoyant, and enhance or retain the fish coloration.

The phenomena of coloration in fish are quite significant and have a direct impact on its aesthetic value. If pigment-enriched feed can be prepared and used to increase coloration, the fish will undoubtedly have better quality and a cheaper price tag. Detailed research on colour enrichment in native ornamental fish using formulated feed is lacking (Das and Biswas, 2016). For the purpose of colour enrichment in fish, native plant sources have been used. Choubert (1979), Boonyaratpalin and Phromkunthong (1986), and Alagappan et al. (2004), utilized spirulina as a source of carotenoid colours for fancy carp and rainbow trout. Enhancement of pigmentation of Cyprinus carpio and Carassius auratus with microalgal biomass supplementation has demonstrated that Chlorella vulgaris is just as effective as synthetic colours (Gouveia et al., 2003). Alagappan et al. (2004) observed increased body pigmentation in Trichogaster trichopterus using Spirulina sp. algae as a source of carotenoid pigment. The body pigmentation of goldfish (Carassius auratus L.), red swordtail (Xiphophorus helleri), and tiger barb (Puntius tetrazona) was enhanced by feeding with marigold petal diet (Boonyarapatin and Lovell, 1977; Ezhil et al., 2008; Alma et al., 2013). Using natural sources of carotenoid pigments to improve the colour of ornamental fish is a cost-effective and ecofriendly solution. Due to the aforementioned information, the current study was carried out to assess how dietary natural carotenoids from source such broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) effects the development and coloration of Blue Gourami, Trichogaster trichopterus, one of the important ornamental fishes with high market value.

INTRODUCTION

Fish live in a variety of watery habitats and comprise around 50% of all vertebrate species worldwide. There are approximately 21,723 known living fish species out of a total of 39,900 vertebrate species, with 8,411 found in freshwater habitats and 11,650 in marine environments (Jayaram, 1999). Fish are used as markers of contamination and contribute significantly to the preservation of human history and welfare, either directly or indirectly. According to Mittermeier et al. (1997), India ranks eighth in the world for freshwater biodiversity, making it one of the nations with significant biodiversity. There are over 2,500 fish species in India; roughly 930 of them are found in freshwater environments, and roughly 1570 are found in marine ones (Kar et al., 2006).

Fish diversity is particularly rich in the northeastern part of the nation; studies have shown that there are 267 freshwater fish species from 114 genera distributed over 38 families and 10 orders (Mahanta et al., 2003). Fish plays a crucial role in Assam's cuisine, where a wide range of fish species may be found in the region's floodplain wetlands because of the subtropical climate, favorable ecological and topographical circumstances, and inherent capacity for stocking. Assam's waters, including its wetlands, are home to around 217 fish species, representing 104 genera, 37 families, and 10 orders, according to Goswami & Singha (2023). Assam's lakes and marshes are vital for supplying the state's domestic fish needs, fostering economic growth, and giving the general public access to fairly priced food. In Maguri Beel, several fish are in danger of going extinct because of pollution, habitat damage, and the introduction of non-native species, overexploitation and human activity (Moyle & Moyle, 1995; Malakar & Boruah, 2017). The 2020 oil spill incident might have had a major impact on the variety of the ichthyofauna's composition. To address the same, a comparison of the same with earlier research is desperately needed. As a result, the current study intends to examine the fish variety of Maguri Motapung Beel, close to Motapung Village in the Tinsukia region of Assam and Dibru-Saikhowa National Park.

INTRODUCTION

The aquatic ecosystem is highly dependent on water quality and biodiversity. The water quality parameters play an important role in the biology and physiology of fish (Dhawan and Kaur, 2002). Fish communities are an important aspect of the aquatic ecosystem. Moreover, they also serve as an indicator of the quality of the aquatic ecosystem (Sharma et al., 2014). Ramsar Convention on wetlands in 1971, characterized wetlands as "Areas of Marsh, fen, peatland, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary with water that is static or flowing, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide should not exceed". At the surface, freshwater serves as a habitat for numerous species and comprises a substantial portion of Earth's biological diversity. Wetlands cover approximately 6.4% of the Earth's total surface area. Being a large biodiverse region, India accounts for 11.72% of the world's fish diversity and 40% of fish live in freshwater ecosystems (Kar et al., 2006, Balasubramanium, 2017). Fish are key species that determine the distribution and abundance of other organisms and have a significant impact on the ecosystem and are considered good indicators of water quality in the ecosystem (Moyle and Leidy, 1992). Assam, located in the northeastern region, possesses extensive and diverse freshwater resources, earning it recognition as one of the richest biodiversity sites in India. There are 2,500 species of fish in India; 930 of them live in fresh water and 1570 in the sea (Kar, 2003). The entire northeastern region, including Assam, has large and diverse freshwater resources and is considered one of the richest biodiversity hotspots of India. The NE region has unique topographic conditions and is blessed with large and varied water resources in the form of rivers (19,150 km); swimming pools (23,792ha); lakes and marshes (143,740 ha); ponds and mini-dams (40,808 ha) and shallow spawning systems paddy with fish farming systems (2780 ha) (Mahanta et al., 2003). This region of the country is very diverse in terms of fish. So far, 267 freshwater fish species belonging to 114 genera 38 families and 10 orders have been reported from the region (Mahanta et al., 2003). A total of 266 species belonging to 114 genera under 38 genera and 10 orders have been reported from the Northeast including Assam (Sen, 2010). A survey of the fish fauna of the Brahmaputra in Assam revealed 41 commercially important species (Talwar and Jhingran, 1991). Assam has 1,392 beels in over 100,000 hectares, which constitutes 61 percent of the state's lentic water supply. Water is one of the most important compounds in the ecosystem. Better water quality is characterized by its physical, chemical and biological characteristics.

INTRODUCTION

The genus Pallisentis was erected by Van Cleave, 1928 with P. umbellatus as its type species. The other species reported under this genus are P. gaoes (Mac Callum, 1918) Van Cleave, 1928; P. cleatus Van Cleave, 1928; P. ophiocephali (Thapar, 1930) Baylis, 1933; P. nagpurensis (Bhalerao, 1931) Baylis, 1933; P. nandai Sarkar, 1953; P. colisai Sarkar, 1956; P. basiri Farooqi, 1958; P. allahabadi Agarwal, 1958; P. buckleyi Tadross, 1966; P. pandei Rai, 1967; P. guntei Sahay et al., 1967; P. garuai n. comb. Davendrosentis garuai Sahay et al., 1971; P. magnum (Saeed & Bilqees, 1971); P. tetradontae Troncy, 1978; P. clupei Gupta and Gupta, 1979; P. cavasi, P. fasciati, P. gomtii Gupta and Verma, 1980; P. indica, P. croftoni Mithal and Lal, 1981; P. kalrai Khan and Bilqees, 1985; P. guptai, P. mehrai Gupta and Fatma, 1985; P. fotedari Gupta and Sinha, 1991 and P. jagani Koul et al., 1991.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The fish hosts were collected from the study area and brought to the laboratory for parasitic examination. The external body surface as well as the internal body organs were thoroughly examined for the parasites. The collected acanthocephalan parasites were washed and relaxed in normal saline. Then the specimen was fixed and preserved in AFA (alcohol-formalin-acetic acid) solution. To facilitate identification of the worms the parasites were cleared in lactophenol and mounted in glycerine jelly. Diagrams were made with the help of camera lucida and measurements were taken with ocular micrometer. All the measurements are in millimetres. The collected parasites were identified following Yamaguti (1963) and Bhattacharya (2007).

INTRODUCTION

Lakes are of immense ecological, economic, and cultural significance, representing integral features within our planet's landscapes. Studies show that there are around 117 million lakes worldwide, constituting about 4% of the Earth's non-glaciated land surface (Verpoorter et al., 2014). These lakes play a crucial role in providing essential services to nearby communities and serve as important centres for recreation and overall well-being. However, the increasing demand for natural resources has led to widespread degradation of these lakes (Jenny et al., 2020). Despite efforts to restore lakes, there is a prevailing perception that such programs often encounter high failure rates (Søndergaard et al., 2007; Gulati et al., 2008; Poikane et al., 2024). This concern is particularly pronounced in less economically developed countries, where populations are highly exposed to the consequences of lake degradation, and monitoring, assessment, and restoration programs may be in nascent stages. Additionally, lakes play a pivotal role in climate regulation, influencing local weather patterns and contributing to global processes such as water and carbon cycles. Recognizing and preserving the significance of lakes is imperative for sustaining ecosystems, ensuring water security, and nurturing the well-being of both the natural environment and human societies. 21o 8’ 55’’ 79o 4’46’’E.

Nagpur situated at coordinates 21o 8’ 55’’ N and 79o 4’46’’E, holds the distinction of being the second capital of Maharashtra. Renowned as the "orange city" and the "city of lakes," Nagpur relies significantly on its lakes as a valuable resource base. The current water supply for the city is primarily sourced from, Kanhan River, Gorewada Lake, and Pench Dam. Futala Lake serves an irrigation purpose, benefitting 84 acres of cultivated agricultural land. Ambazari Lake, on the other hand, caters to the water needs of local residents in the MIDC colony, Hingna area, Nagpur, and supports industrial purposes. Other notable water bodies in Nagpur include Sonegaon, Gandhisagar, Naik, Sakkardara, and Lendi. However, these lakes face severe pollution due to anthropogenic activities such as bathing, washing clothes, and improperly disposing of plastic, paper, oil, and worship materials. Moreover, the lakes Gandhisagar and Lendi are now dried.

INTRODUCTION

Heterotrophic organisms, such as zooplankton, use phytoplankton as food, regenerating nutrients through metabolic processes and transferring energy to higher trophic levels. Zooplankton are involved in the conversion of waste matter into animal food that may be consumed, in addition to helping to shift food from the primary to the secondary level. These species act as a bridge in the food chain, carrying energy from the primary producers, planktonic algae, to the larger predatory invertebrates and fish that eat them (Kumari et al., 2008). Macróplankton (200–2000 μm), microplankton (20–200 μm), nanoplankton (2–20 μm), picoplankton (0.2-2 μm), and femtoplankton (0.02 0.2 μm) are the different sizes of plankton (Kumar et al., 2023).

The sensitivity of zooplankton to alterations in aquatic environments is significant. Differences in species composition, abundance, and distribution of body size can be used to identify the consequences of environmental disturbances(Joshi & Joshi, 2011). A number of variables, including temperature, sunlight, ocean currents, and nutrition availability, affect plankton populations. They are vital to ecosystems because they support carbon cycling, global biodiversity, and the general health of the oceans (Cottenie et al., 2001). An evaluation of the pollution state heavily depends on the interaction between phytoplankton diversity and environmental conditions. The diversity of algae found in the Chlorophyceae family is a key sign of the quality of the water. The differences in water quality can be attributed to a combination of natural and human-caused factors. Owing to extensive human activity, anthropogenic inputs from various sources are typically the main variables influencing the water quality of the majority of rivers, lakes, estuaries, and seas, particularly those that are next to densely populated areas(Jeyaraj et al., 2016). Living things, including plants, plankton, animals, and bacteria, are known as bioindicators, and they are used to monitor the state of the environment's natural ecosystem. They are known across the world as aquatic pollution indicator species. Every organic entity in a biological system gives information about the state of its surroundings. For example, plankton responds quickly to changes in the environment and is a valuable biomarker for determining the quality of water as well as a sign of pollution. Plankton is the best indicator of the health of aquatic flora and serves as an early warning system(Wadjikar et al., 2017). An ecosystem that is in balance is one in which beneficial interactions occur between the environment and living organisms. Since water quality is essential to maintaining an environment in balance, it is evident that it plays a crucial role in this relationship(Jeyaraj et al., 2016).

INTRODUCTION

In nature water is considered as the most important natural resource which is utilized in large quantity throughout the world for drinking, washing, bathing, recreation, irrigation, aquaculture and many industries. Water also plays a fundamental role in regulation of water cycle in nature. India is a agriculture based country totally based on different water sources. The quality of water plays a important role to mankind because it is directly linked with human health. Lake water’s are mainly used for farming and domestic activities like cloth washing. Increasing human activities continuously in lake basins is posing a great threat to all forms of life in aquatic environment. Most of the people who live in villages use irrigation facilities for farms and use excessive use fertilizers and pesticides for agriculture purposes and subsequently and degrade the aquatic ecosystems of lakes. We need to conserve water for future generations and safeguard our natural resources for sustainable development and biodiversity conservation.

Many researchers investigated the freshwater lakes and ponds in the Indian subcontinent viz. Bagde and Verma (1985), Desai (2014), Patel and Patel (2012), Nirbhavanae and Khobragade (2017), Mehta et al (2016), Gupta (2018), Bastola (2013), Raj and Sevankodiyane (2018), Rana Phul Kunwar Singh (2016), Shyamala and Hemvathy (2018), Meshram et al (2014), Fule and Nimgare (2018), Chaudhary and Sitre (2020), Pimpalshende and Sitre (2021).

INTRODUCTION

India is rich in biodiversity and possesses about 108276 species of insects. Indian subcontinent is one of the mega biodiversity countries of the world occupying ninth position in terms of freshwater mega biodiversity (Mittermeier et al., 1997) comprising 30 order (Dijkstra et al. 2013). Inland wetlands of India serve as the habitat for more than 500 species of aquatic insects which are represented predominantly by Ephemeroptera (mayflies), Odonata (dragonflies) and Trichoptera (caddisflies), (Subramanian and Sivaramakrishnan, 2007). Aquatic insects play important ecological roles in keeping freshwater ecosystems functioning properly (Choudhary and Janak, 2015). The aquatic insects are important part of aquatic ecosystem which play vital role in ecosystem functioning and are known to be representative of structure and function of freshwater ecosystem due to their high abundance, high birthrate with short generation time, large and rapid colonization (Choudhary and Ahi 2015). Aquatic insect function on multiple trophic level such as shredders, collectors, scraper and predators on animal debris, wood and leaf litter reaching the wetland from the surrounding landscape. Nutrients processed by aquatic insects are further degraded into absorbable form by fungal and bacterial action. Plants in the riparian zone absorb this nutrient soup transported through the wetlands. In addition to this significant ecosystem function, aquatic insects are also a primary source of food for fishes and amphibians (Tachet et al., 2003 ; Kumar, 2014).They interact in nutrient cycling within lentic and lotic systems and are regarded as an effective bioindicator (Lundquist and Zhu 2018) and serve as an important component of natural foodweb in aquatic ecosystem. However, the aquatic insect fauna of this part in India is inadequately documented. Therefore, present study carried out to delineate the baseline status of aquatic insects of Anandwan lakes at Warora Dist: Chandrapur.

INTRODUCTION

Wheeler bearers commonly referred to as ‘Rotifers ‘are significantly they are often taken as reliable indicators of mesotrophic characteristics in the lake ecosystems (Gannon and Stemberger, 1978). Because of their wide tolerances to varied dissolved oxygen levels and temperature distributions, they are even found to inhabit the deeper waters of aquatic ecosystems (Esparcia et al., 1989). They belong to the Kingdom Animalia, Subkingdom Eumetazoa, Phylum Rotifera (Cuvier, 1798) having three classes Monogononta, Digononta and Seisonidea (Pennak 1953). In other words these wheel animalcules named, because of the presence of their corona, which is composed of several ciliated tufts around their mouth region. This ciliated tuft helps in locomotion and resembles a wheel. These create a current that sweeps food into the mouth, where it is chewed up by a characteristic pharynx (called the mastax) containing a tiny, calcified, jaw-like structure called the trophi. The cilia functions to pull the animal, when unattached, through the water. Most free-living forms have pair of posterior toes to anchor themselves while feeding. Rotifers are bilaterally symmetrical found in various shapes. There is a well-developed cuticle, thick and rigid, providing a box-like shape, or flexible, giving the animal a worm like shape; such rotifers are respectively called loricate and illoricate.

Habitats of Rotifers are relatively easy to find. Many live in ponds, moist soil, or any stagnant water. Rotifers can be free swimming or sessile. Rotifers are mostly omnivorous and some have been observed to be cannibalistic. They normally eat algae or decomposing organic material. As they are a major food source for Cladoceran , Copepodans , juvenile fishes (fry) and fishes, therefore , an important food link of water ecosystem (Arora and Mehra 2003). Presence of abundant Rotifers in freshwaters determines them to be one of the main groups of zooplankton in limnological studies. They are permanently and obligatorily connected to aquatic habitats in all active stages and only their resting stages are drought-resistant (Chopra et al 2012). Various researchers have conducted pioneer study on the diversity and habitat of rotifers such as Anderson 1889; Sharma 1987; Sharma 1998a; Gilbert and Schreiber 1998; Arora and Mehra 2003; George et al. 2011; Tyor and Chawala 2012. However such studies on Madhuganga dam water has not been conducted, hence for assessment of Madhuganga Lentic water has been conducted for the seasonal variation in diversity and density of rotifers.

INTRODUCTION

Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) represents the treasure trove of wisdom held by indigenous communities, often overlooked yet immensely valuable. Its impact spans various domains, notably aquaculture, where it has been pivotal. Local fisher communities, drawing from their indigenous knowledge, have been crucial in safeguarding wild fish genetics and improving aquaculture yields. Moreover, their Indigenous and local knowledge (ILK) contributes multifaceted insights to fisheries and aquatic ecosystems science, underscoring the need to preserve and honor this invaluable heritage. Additionally, traditional indigenous systems like aub-anbars have historically demonstrated their effectiveness in practical applications such as passive cooling and water storage, further highlighting the relevance and efficacy of ITK.

Importance of ITK in Aquaculture

Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) is essential in aquaculture, providing valuable methods for pond preparation, water quality management, disease control, and post-harvest operations. These traditional practices, backed by scientific validation, can greatly improve fish production sustainability while being environmentally friendly. Moreover, modern biotechnological tools are increasingly used in aquaculture to enhance fish quality, disease resistance, growth rates, and genetic diversity. Additionally, the concept of intelligent fish farms, employing technologies like IoT and artificial intelligence, aims to optimize aquaculture processes for precise feeding, disease control, and harvesting, promoting green and sustainable practices. Combining ITK with modern biotechnology and intelligent technologies is crucial for advancing aquaculture practices towards efficiency, sustainability, and increased productivity.

INTRODUCTION

The expansion of aquaculture, a vital source of income for a large portion of the global population (Salam et al., 2014), has created an unforeseen challenge: increased competition for land use with traditional agriculture. This land squeeze is further intensified by a multitude of factors. Shrinking arable land due to urbanization and desertification, coupled with the relentless growth of the human population, puts immense strain on existing agricultural resources. Man-made environmental pollution from industrial waste and agricultural runoff, along with the far-reaching effects of climate change, add another layer of complexity. These combined pressures necessitate a paradigm shift towards innovative and sustainable agricultural practices.

One promising solution gaining traction is aquaponics, a system designed to cultivate plants and aquatic animals together in a carefully balanced, recirculating environment (Salam et al., 2014). This approach leverages a symbiotic relationship between fish and plants. Fish waste, rich in nitrogenous compounds, acts as a natural fertilizer for the plants growing in the system. These plants, in turn, function as biofilters, removing excess nutrients and purifying the water for the fish. In essence, aquaponics integrates two established agricultural techniques: intensive aquaculture, the practice of raising fish in controlled tank environments, and hydroponics, the cultivation of plants without soil (FAO, 2012). The aquaculture component of aquaponics utilizes eco-friendly, indoor recirculating systems that enable meticulous control over water quality and temperature year-round. This controlled environment offers significant advantages over traditional methods, minimizing dependence on external factors like weather patterns.

INTRODUCTION

The aquaculture sector expands and environmental regulations become stricter, waste management has emerged as a significant responsibility for managers of aquaculture farms. Waste generated by aquaculture facilities usually comes in the form of either effluent or sludge. Effective management and disposal of wastewater in aquaculture are becoming progressively crucial due to the strict regulations concerning the discharge of waste into natural water systems. The worldwide expansion of aquaculture industries has led to a rise in adverse environmental effects due to the release of significant quantities of polluting effluents containing uneaten feed and fecal matter (Chávez Crooker and Obreque-Contreras, 2010) Efficient management of wastewater in aquaculture is crucial for fostering sustainable practices. A variety of innovative methods have been developed to treat aquaculture wastewater effectively. These encompass eco-sensitive systems such as aquaponics and integrated multi-trophic systems, along with biofilm technologies that exploit the mutual growth of algae and fungi to remove nutrients. Furthermore, the reuse of wastewater via oxidation ponds can both provide natural sustenance for fish and treat household sewage effectively. Technologies like constructed wetlands and recirculation systems have proven highly effective in removing nutrients and recycling water, thus aiding in sustainable aquaculture practices. Additionally, specialized continuous automatic treatment equipment has been devised specifically for aquaculture wastewater, ensuring efficient purification processes. Together, these diverse strategies collectively strive to address the challenges posed by nutrient pollution and resource depletion in managing aquaculture wastewater.

INTRODUCTION

Phenolic compounds in the wastewater are harmful pollutants which originate as byproducts from several industries like pulp and paper mills, coaking plants, petroleum refineries, tanning industries, phenolic resin manufacturing units etc. Phenolic compounds impart colour and odour to water and are toxic even at a very low level of concentration. The various processes for the removal of phenolics from the wastewater can be grouped into two broad categories. In one category are those processes like microbiological degradation, chemical treatment, incineration etc. which aim at destroying the phenolics, while the other category has processes involving the recovery of phenolics e.g. solvent extraction, activated carbon treatment, uptake by porous polymeric adsorbents etc. Among these various methods polymeric adsorbents are very promising for the removal of phenolic compounds due to following reasons. The efficiency of removal of phenolics by porous polymeric adsorbents and their subsequent elution from the polymer matrix is exceptionally good. The requirement equipment is very simple and the operation is usually trouble free. The operation can be carried out at ambient temperature and the space requirements are comparatively small. Very stringent specifications regarding the quality of the effluent can be met by the use of polymeric adsorbents.

The Cladocera, commonly known as ‘waterfleas’ form a primitive group of microcrustaceans. They play an important role in the aquatic food chain and also contribute significantly to the zooplankton dynamics and secondary productivity in freshwater ecosystem. Though most cladocera is filter feeders, they also feed on detritus, algae, small rotifers and copepod nauplii. They keep a check on eutrophication for which this group is also widely used as good indicators of ecosystem health and sentinels of environmental change (Eggermont and Martens, 2011; Padhye and Dahanukar 2015). At the same time, cladocera is the favorite food prey of many invertebrates and many vertebrates. Their characteristic jerky movements make them easily visible to the predators and that is why most of fish larvae were found to prefer cladocera over the prey (Mayer and Wahl,1971).

Cladocerans have a distinct head, a single compound eye, and a large mandible for grinding food particles. Cladocerans feed on algae, small rotifers, and copepod nauplii. Cladocerans reproduce mostly asexually via parthenogenesis. But they can also reproduce sexually based on the environmental conditions.

The distribution of cladocerans is affected by different factors including temperature, rainfall, water quality, nutrients, macrophytes, flood pulse etc. (Ghidini et al.,2009; Kiss et al., 2014). Their metabolic rate is variable with water temperature.

The order cladocera belongs to the subclass Branchipoda and includes minute crustaceans generally in the size range of 0.2 to 5.0 mm.

INTRODUCTION

Aquaculture is the fastest growing food producing sector with annual growth rate of 10.34% and it play a very important role in improving the income generation as well as nutritional security of farmers in many developing countries including India. In the fresh water system, carps are the most widely cultured species throughout the country and carp culture in India is believed to be as old as carp culture in China. Although in early years, carp culture was largely restricted to the North-Eastern States of India, during the last four to five decades, it has spread to almost all parts. The traditional carp culture practice is rapidly transforming into scientific farming in several parts of India. Generally, carp culture in India is a polyculture of 3-6 species of major carps and exotic carps (Vijay Anand, 2019), namely, catla (Catla catla), rohu (Labeo rohita), mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala), silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) and common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Among six species, common carp (Cyprinus carpio) cultured in the composite fish farming system is potential species, which plays a vital role in the Inland Fish production especially for the North Eastern Hill states of India as the species has got high adaptability and tolerance towards high range of temperature and dissolved oxygen variation. The species is introduced to India in 1937 as the Prussian strain and in 1957 as the Bangkok strain. Due to their high food value, the farmers of the state have been culturing the fish in rice fields in monoculture or along with other species particularly in Apatani Plateau of Ziro area gaining an average weight 75g to 110g (Hussain et al., 2018).

INTRODUCTION

Integrated farming is an innovative approach towards increased fish production. In integrated fish farming two or more commodities are framed together on a common infra-structural base with the objective of optimizing use of available resources. It is based on the concept that “there are no wastes and waste is only a misplaced resource, which can become a valuable material for another product”. There are several advantages of integrated farming system viz. increased productivity, greater income, improved cash flow, fuller employment, a better diet for the farmer’s family and less biological and economic risk (Pillay, 1990). On the other side, there is the disadvantage that the integrated system is more complex, with a need for more knowledge and better management, since the failure of one system could adversely affect other system (Singh et al., 2014). In integrated farming system, animal manure is shed directly into a fish pond as fertilizer and supports the growth of natural fish food organisms. The fish not only utilize spilled animal feed, but also directly feed on fresh animal excreta which is partially digested and is rich in nutrients. Surplus excreta support the rich growth of planktonic fauna. Fertilizers and supplementary feed are not used, resulting in a drastic cost reduction. These farming systems are relatively confined units with little exchange of water. Manure from livestock which indirectly trigger the growth of mainly photosynthetic organisms resulting in the production high yields fish with low input and limit the dependency on supplementary feed (Saikia et al., 2020 and Sharma et al., 1979; 1998). Ugwumba et al. (2010) suggested that the higher the number of viable enterprises integrated into an agricultural system the higher the expected profit. Integrated culture system is quite compatible with the earthen pond culture and relevant to benefit the rural poor (Misra et al, 2016, Vohra et al., 2012).

INTRODUCTION

Generation of solid wastes has a universal problem which are facing by most of the countries in present scenario. These wastes are generated due to several human accomplishments as well as natural disaster. It is estimated that in India nearly 700 million tons of organic wastes is generated annually included leaves, husk, sawdust, steam bark, flowers etc. Vermicomposting is a simple biotechnological process of composting, in which certain species of earthworms are used to enhance the process of waste conversion and produce a better end product. Vermicompost is nutritionally rich natural organic fertilizer, which releases nutrients relatively slowly in the soil and improves quality of the plants along with physical and biological properties of soil. It has a more beneficial impact on plants than soil.

During vermicomposting, earthworms eat and grind substrates, convening with anaerobic micro flora to increase the surface area for microbial colonization and enzymatic action. Screening of locally available earthworm species and their suitability for vermicomposting during summer and winter seasons is very much required for effective recycling of available bio-waste for production of quality organic manure – vermicompost. Earthworm’s vermicompost is proving to be highly nutritive ‘organic fertilizer’ and more powerful ‘growth promoter’ over the conventional composts and a ‘protective’ farm input (increasing the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil, restoring and improving its natural fertility) against the ‘destructive’ chemical fertilizers which has destroyed the soil properties and decreased its natural fertility over the years.

Vermicompost is rich in NKP (nitrogen 2-3%, potassium 1.85-2.25% and phosphorus 1.55-2.25%), micronutrients, beneficial soil microbes and also contain ‘plant growth hormones and enzymes’. It is scientifically proving as ‘miracle growth promoter and also plant protector’ from pests and diseases. Vermicompost retains nutrients for long time but the conventional compost fails to deliver the required amount of macro and micronutrients including the vital NKP to plants.

Introduction to Statistics

The word statistics has been derived from Latin word “status”, the German word “statistik”, the Italian word “statistica” or the French word “statistique”. During early periods, it was used by emperors and kings only for collecting the information about state and other information which was needed about their people, their number, land, status of people, revenue of the state etc. Gradually, it meaning and uses extended and there onwards its nature changed.

Some scientist/ researchers were given definition of statistics as per time and place.

• An ancient date, A.L. Bowley gives some definitions according their use and place. He seems to be inadequate because these do not include all aspects of statistics. As per time, place or requirement, he gave three definitions of statistics:

• Statistics may be called the science of counting

• Statistics may rightly be called the science of average

• Statistics as the science of counting and average

Statistical Series: When observations of any characteristic present in the individual of a group are recorded and arranged one after the other in a systematic order, they form a series, known as statistical series. For example: milk yield of 20 cows, height of the students in a class in a systematic order, etc. These are some important types of series:

• Discrete series: In this series, observations can take up only exact values and not any fractional values, is called discrete series. That means, this type of series has whole number of counting. For example: number of the students in a class, members of a family, number of births in a certain year, etc

• Continuous series: A series which can take up any numerical value (integral/ fractional) within a certain range is called continuous series. For example: milk yield of 20 cows, height, weight, temperature, etc.

• Array series: When we arranged the observations of a series either in ascending order of their magnitude or descending order of their magnitude, then it becomes an array series.

• Spatial series: When items of a series are given according to space or place or time, then such type of series is known as spatial series. For example: month wise milk yield of a herd of cows, month wise income or expenditure of an industry, population of a country according to states, etc.

Population: The word population or universe in statistics means a set of observations relating to a phenomenon under investigation.

Sample: It is a fraction or a subset of population drawn through a valid statistical procedure so that it can be regarded as representative of the entire population.

Sampling: The statistical procedure of drawing a sample from the population is called Sampling.

Census enquiry or complete enumeration: When each and every unit of the population is investigated for the characteristic under study, known as census enquiry or complete enquiry.

Sample enquiry or sample enumeration: It is a part of the population is investigated for the characteristic under study, known as sample enquiry or sample enumeration.

Necessity of sampling: Since, the process of collecting information from all the elements of a large population may be, in general, expensive, time consuming and difficult. We help to sampling and generalise the properties of the sample to the entire population. The statistical procedures which are used for drawing inferences or conclusions about the population from sample data are covered under Inferential Statistics or Statistical inference. Thus, sampling theory is the basis of statistical inference in which we wish to obtain maximum information about the population with minimum effort and maximum precision.

Diagrammatic Presentation of Data

The quantitative data when classify are converted into averages and if the number of average is large then it is not possible to draw a conclusion from their large numbers of averages. Moreover quantitative data are dull, confusing, boring for many of us. Therefore, a statistical device to make such confusing data more attractive was developed i.e. if such complex data are presented by geometric f igures, pictures, graphs or curves then it will become more attractive and more impressive, is called as diagrammatic representation of data. These diagrams are nothing but the use of geometrical figures to improve the overall presentation and offer visual assistance for the reader.

Types of Diagrams

Generally, diagrams are made for a special series or a time series and they are divided into five different categories:

1) One dimensional diagrams

2) Two dimensional diagrams

3) Three dimensional diagrams

4) Pictograms

5) Cartograms

Need of an average

Through frequency distribution are the condensed form of raw data, but these are not sufficient for making comparison between two or more data. Therefore further condensation of frequency distribution into a single figure is made. This single f igure is always representative of the frequency distribution and such a figure is known as average.

Measure of Central Tendency

According to Croxten and Cowden “An average is a single value within the range of the data that is used to represent all the values in the series”. A statistical measure used for representing the centre of central value of a set of observations is known as “Measure of Central Tendency”. It is also called as “Measure of f irst order”.

Characteristics of an ideal Measure of Central Tendency

An ideal measure of central tendency should possess the following properties:

1) It should be rigidly defined i.e. it has a fixed and finite value

2) It should be easy to understand 3) It should be easy to calculate

4) Its calculation should be based on all the observations

5) It should be capable for further algebraic treatment

6) It should not be affected by extreme values of the observations

7) It should be least affected by fluctuations of sampling

Dispersion

Measure of central tendency tells about the central position of the series. They do not throw like on the formation of series because in some cases, two series may have a same measure of central tendency but differ in their composition. In order to study the formation, composition, structure and scatteredness of the items of the series, measure of second order are necessary. The measure of second order will give idea about the formation of the series. As the representation of a series on the basis of its measure of central tendency is not sufficient but when a series is represented on the basis of its measure of central tendency as well as its measure of dispersion, then it will give the complete adequate representation of the series. Therefore, it is defined as the extent or degree of which data tend to spread around an average is called the dispersion. It is also known as variability or measure of second order.

Characteristics of an ideal Measure of Dispersion

An ideal measure of dispersion should possess the following properties:

1) It should be rigidly defined i.e. it has a fixed and finite value

2) It should be easy to understand

3) It should be easy to calculate

4) Its calculation should be based on all the observations

5) It should be capable for further algebraic treatment

6) It should not be affected by extreme values of the observations

7) It should be least affected by fluctuations of sampling

Correlation

In a statistical analysis, when two variables are studied simultaneously, then it is called “Bivariate study’. Now, in a bivariate study, if it is found that change in the values of one variable then in sympathy with the change in the values of other variable, then these two variables are said to be associated and the association is termed as correlation. In other words, the term correlation indicates the relationship between two such variables in which with changes in the values of one variable, the values of the other variable also change. In short, the tendency of simultaneous variation between two variables is called correlation.

Types of Correlation

Correlation can be classified by-

• Positive and Negative correlation: The correlation may be classified according to the direction of change in the two variables. In this regard, correlation may be either positive or negative. Positive correlation refers to the movement of variables in the same direction. Negative correlation efers to the movement of variables in the opposite direction.

• Simple, Partial and Multiple correlations: When only two variables are studied it is a problem of simple correlation. When three or more variables are studied simultaneously, it is a problem of multiple correlations. On the other hand, in partial correlation we recognize more than two variables, but consider only two variables to be influencing each other the effect of other influencing variables being kept constant.

• Linear and non-linear correlations: In linear correlation for every unit change in the values of one variable, there is constant change in the value of other variable. The perfect positive and negative correlations are also linear correlations. In non-linear correlation the change in the values of one variable does not have a constant ratio to the change in the other variable.

The theory of probability has its origin in the games of chance related to gambling such as throwing a die, tossing a coin, drawing cards from a pack of cards etc. Jerame Cardon (1501-1576), an Italian mathematician was the first man to write a book on the subject entitled “Book on Games and Chance”, which was published after his death in 1663. The systematic and scientific foundation of the mathematical theory of probability was laid in mid-seventeenth century by two French mathematicians B. Pascal (1623-1662) and Pierre de Fermat (1601 1665).

Important terms and concepts

To understand probability, let us first get acquainted with some important terms and concepts associated with probability.

• Trial: An experiment is any natural or planned activity for which it is not possible to predict the particular result called a trial.

• Events: The possible outcomes of experiments of a trial are called events. For example: Tossing of a coin in an experiment and one toss of the coin is called trial. In tossing of a coin there are only two outcomes or events, i.e. head or tail.

Types of events

Events can be of following different types:

• Exhaustive events

• Equally likely events

• Mutually exclusive events

• Dependent events

• Independent events

• Null or impossible events

• Exhaustive events: It is the total number of all the possible outcomes of an experiment.

Theoretical Probability Distribution

Many random variables associated with statistical experiments have similar properties, and as such can be described by the same probability functions. The distribution obtained from a theoretical listing of outcomes and probabilities, which can be described by a mathematical formula representing same phenomenon of interest is called a theoretical probability distribution. The distributions of discrete and continuous random variables are accordingly called discrete or continuous probability distributions.

Discrete Probability Distribution: It can be defined as a probability distribution of discrete random variables. Such a distribution will represent data that has a f inite countable number of outcomes. If the random variable X is a discrete random variable, the probability function P(X) is called probability mass function and its distribution is called discrete probability distribution. There are two conditions that a discrete probability distribution must satisfy. These are given as follows:

Types of Discrete Probability Distributions

There are several important discrete probability distributions-

• Uniform distribution

• Binomial distribution

• Negative Binomial distribution

• Geometric distribution

• Poisson distribution

• Hyper-Geometric distribution

Time Series

A series of observations recorded over time is known as a time series. In other words, a time series is a set of observations taken at specified times, usually at equal intervals. For example: Annual retail sales, rainfall measurements, heartbeats per minute, etc. Such studies are to be based on the analysis of time series data collected over time. Thus, the analysis of time series plays an important role in an investigation of economic, social, commercial and even biological phenomenon.

Components of time series

In a long time series, generally, there are following four components:

• Secular trend or long term movements

• Seasonal variations

• Cyclic variations • Random or irregular movements

• Secular trend or long term movements: It is that characteristic of a time series which extends consistently throughout the entire period of time under consideration. It shows a long term tendency of an activity to grow or to decline. The term long period of time in a relative phenomenon and cannot be defined exactly. For some cases a period as small as a weak may be fairly long while in other cases, a period as long as two years may not be assumed long.