eChapters

Rabies is an ancient, dreadful disease known to mankind from the vedic ages. It is a zoonotic disease caused by Rabies virus, genus Lyssavirus family Rhabdoviridae, affecting all mammals including man. The WHO categorizes rabies as a neglected zoonotic disease that causes around 59,000 human deaths globally annually after onset of symptoms. It is a vaccine preventable disease reported from over 150 countries and territories barring the island nations like Australia, Brunei, Japan, Maldives, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Singapore, Timor Leste and the Pacific Island Countries. The Indian islands of Andaman Nicobar and Lakshadweep are rabies free so far.

On the other hand, Africa and Asia has the highest burden of human rabies including South-East Asia: Bangladesh, Bhutan, DPRK, India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. The Asia Pacific region having 60% of the world’s population includes the world’s most populous countries – India and China. Asia alone shares almost half of the global rabies deaths annually.

Synonym : Hydrophobia, Lyssa, Jalatanka

This is an acute highly fatal viral disease of all warm blooded animals including man characterized by signs of abnormal behaviour, nervous symptoms (increased excitability and irritability), impairment of consciousness, ascending paralysis and death. The disease was variously known as lytta or lyssa coming from the belief that the disease was caused by a worm under the tongue (lytta) or hydrophobia, which describes the thirst and fear of water associated with the disease. The English name rabies derived from Latin word ‘Rabere’ which has been derived from Sanskrit word ‘Rabhas’  meaning raging, furious, savage, madness or   to do violence whereas Greek term hydrophobia is now specifically used  for rabies in man. The symptom hydrophobia (fear of water) is developed due to painful spasm of muscles of deglutition.

Synonyms: Hydrophobia, Lyssa, Jalatanka

This is an acute highly fatal viral disease of all warm blooded animals including man characterized by signs of abnormal behaviour, nervous symptoms (increased excitability and irritability), impairment of consciousness ascending paralysis and death. The disease was variously known as lytta or lyssa coming from the belief that the disease was caused by a worm under the tongue (lytta) or hydrophobia, which describes the thirst and fear of water associated with the disease. The English name rabies derived from Latin word ‘Rabere’ which has been derived from Sanskrit word ‘Rabhas’ meaning raging, furious, savage, madness or to do violence whereas Greek term hydrophobia is now specifically used for rabies in man. The symptom hydrophobia (fear of water) is developed due to painful spasm of muscles of deglutition.

Distribution: The disease is known since ancient time. The disease has been recorded in various parts of the world in different species of animals. Australia, Britain, Scandinavian, New Zealand, Singapore, Hong Kong, Hawaii and some other Islands are free from rabies. This was possible due to strict quarantine measures and restriction on import of animal and animal products from disease prone areas. Lot of outbreaks are reported in India throughout the year causing 30,000 death annually and number of death toll may be higher as many cases go unnoticed. India accounts for the 80% casualties from rabies worldwide.

It is a constitutional disease of infancy and childhood, characterized by impairment of the general health, and arrested growth, abnormal proliferation of the developing bone.

Heredity is a frequent predisposing cause. Poor nutrition, poor housing facilities, want of cleanliness, want of sun light are both predisposing and exciting causes. Age plays a great part. Climate also has its influence, more prevalent in moist than in dry climates. Diathesis influences are second only to heredity.

Hyperemia of all the structures of the bone, periosteum, osseous tissue, cartilage and marrow, is the first step in the development of the rachitic lesion. As a result, we have proliferation of cartilage cells, retarded and irregular development of bone, softening of matrix, undue vascularity of the cancellous tissues, and weakness and deformity of the bones in various parts of the body. The weight of the bones is lessened. The vascularity of the bones is increased. In some cases the blue discoloration is due to the increased vascularity may be seen even through the thick scalp. Outside of the bones they may find blurring of striation of muscles, excessive fat in connective tissue between the muscle fibre and rare cases of fatty degeneration of the muscle fibres themselves. The liver is occasionally enlarged the spleen more rarely so.

Radiation Chemistry is a branch of nuclear chemistry that deals with the study of chemical effects of radiation on matter.

Radio activity is the process by which an atomic nucleus of an unstable atom loses energy by emitting ionizing radiations (a, b, g radiations). It may be of

energy plants need to convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates and oxygen. The carbohydrates produced by photosynthesis are used for vegetative and reproductive growth and to increase crop biomass. The solar energy required for photosynthesis is available during day time. In crop canopies radiation is transmitted through leaves and between leaves resulting in changes of spectral composition rapidly with depth. In the absence of vegetation, solar radiation reaches the earth surface after it gets depleted in the atmosphere due to:
• Reflection of incoming radiation by the cloud tops
• Absorption of ultraviolet radiation by the ozone present in the atmosphere and infrared radiation by the greenhouse gases and water vapour
• Scattering of radiation by the solid particles suspended in the atmosphere
The remaining parts of solar radiation called insolation i.e. incoming solar radiation reach the earth surface. After it is incident on the earth surface, a fraction of the solar radiation gets reflected back into the atmosphere. The difference between the incoming solar radiation and outgoing solar radiation is called net radiation. The net radiation can be calculated using radiation balance which takes into consideration both incoming solar radiation and outgoing solar radiation. The equation for radiation balance can be written as:

It has been well established that the risk of health problems rises as the amount of radiation exposure increases. All types of radiation produce changes in the living tissues. The resultant cellular injury causes physiological and pathological changes leading to “Radiation sickness”. The radiation effects may be somatic or genetic. Somatic effects are harmful to a person in his lifetime whereas genetic effects affect generations. Radiation may cause changes in complex molecular systems of living cells, primarily in following two ways :- 

Definition
 
Radiation poisoning, also called “radiation sickness” or a “creeping dose” is a form of damage to organ tissue due to excessive exposure to radiation. The term is generally used to refer to acute problems caused by a large dosage of radiation in a short period, though this also has occurred with long term exposure to low level radiation. Many of the symptoms of radiation poisoning occur as ionizing radiation interferes with cell division.
 
The clinical name for “radiation sickness” is acute radiation syndrome. A short exposure can result in acute radiation syndrome; chronic radiation syndrome requires a prolonged high level of exposure. A chronic radiation syndrome does exist but is very uncommon;

Definition 

Radiation poisoning, also called “radiation sickness” or a “creeping dose” is a form of damage to organ tissue due to excessive exposure to  radiation. The term is generally used to refer to acute problems caused by a large dosage of radiation in a short period, though this also has occurred with long term exposure to low level radiation. Many of the symptoms of radiation poisoning occur as ionizing radiation interferes with cell division.

The clinical name for “radiation sickness” is acute radiation syndrome . A short exposure can result in acute radiation syndrome; chronic radiation syndrome requires a prolonged high level of exposure. A chronic radiation syndrome does exist but is very uncommon; 

Radiation injury occurs when living tissues are exposed to harmful ionizing radiation. This radiation can damage cellular structures and genetic material, leading to acute and chronic health issues. Sources of ionizing radiation include nuclear accidents, radiation therapy, industrial exposure, and environmental contaminants. Radiation injury can have devastating effects on livestock and wildlife health, necessitating effective veterinary treatment and nutritional management to mitigate its consequences.
Mechanism of radiation injury
Radiation injury occurs when high-energy particles or electromagnetic waves interact with biological tissues. The mechanisms involved include:
1. Ionization of molecules:Ionizing radiation removes electrons from atoms, forming free radicals such as hydroxyl radicals (OH) that damage cellular components.
2. DNA damage: Radiation causes single- or double-strand breaks in DNA, leading to mutations, impaired replication, or cell death.
3. Lipid peroxidation: Free radicals attack lipid membranes, disrupting cellular integrity and causing oxidative stress.
4. Protein denaturation: Radiation alters the structure and function of proteins, affecting enzymatic activities and cell signalling.
5. Inflammatory response: Damaged cells release inflammatory cytokines, leading to tissue inflammation and fibrosis.

1. Introduction

Food is processed for its preservation, hygienization or value addition. To date, the food preservation technologies such as canning, dehydration, freezing, pasteurization and controlled atmosphere and modified atmosphere packaging have been the main processes employed to preserve foods, with the use of antimicrobials and microwaves also being employed more recently. In future, however, technologies such as exposure to ionizing radiation, high pressure processing, ohmic heating and pulsed electric field processing, could potentially be the new alternatives to the above food preservation technologies.

Irradiation of food involves the exposing of food, either in prepacked form or as such to controlled doses of ionizing radiation being generated either by electrically driven machines such as electron beam accelerators, x-rays or gamma rays produced by radioactive isotopes such as CS-137,CO-60, to achieve certain desirable objectives. The process of exposing a range of food stuffs to specific doses of ionizing radiation is being used to extend the shelf life of food stuffs, to improve their overall safety and quality by eliminating pathogenic bacteria, by reducing number of food spoilage organisms, to reduce the bacterial load on herbs and spices and thereby making them safe to incorporate into food stuffs, to inhibit sprouting in stored tuber and bulb crops such as potatoes, onions and garlic, to disinfest grains, grain products and tropical fruits to prevent damage to the commodity and to meet the quarantine regulations(Arun Sharma, 2004, Farkas, 2006).

Need to Preserve Food

Food is vital for human existence. Conservation and preservation of food is a prerequisite for food security and it provides economic stability and self reliance to a nation. The need to preserve food has been felt by mankind since time immemorial. The seasonal nature of production, long distances between production and consumption centers and rising gap between demand and supply have made this need even more relevant today. The hot and humid climate of a country like India is quite favorable for the growth of numerous insects and microorganisms that destroy stored crops and cause spoilage of food every year. Spoilage can also occur due to chemical and physiological changes in stored foods. Sea-foods, meat and poultry may carry harmful microbes and parasitic organisms that cause illnesses associated with their consumption. As in other parts of the world, India has also practiced various methods of food preservation such as sun drying, pickling and fermentation which were supplemented with more energy consuming techniques such as refrigeration, freezing and canning. Each of these methods has its merits and limitations. Man has always been on the search for newer methods to preserve foods with least change in sensory qualities. Radiation processing of food is one of the latest methods developed for this purpose.

1. Introduction The chapter aims to bring out the potential benefits of radiation processing technology for value-addition of millets. How the radiation processing technology can be exploited for making millets as a popular staple food would be the central theme. The key focus is to establish if irradiation (the term generally used for radiation processing of any material) can be employed for making millets for different purposes relevant to farmers and consumers. In order to understand and prove, we would list out the challenges involved in developing the market for millets. The key points that need to be considered for this go-to-market strategy for millets are : a) Millet grains have a long shelf-life, much better than the popular grains e.g., rice and wheat, consumed worldwide, but millet flour shelf life is significantly much shorter.

13.1. INTRODUCTION

Photosynthetically active radiation is a primary energy resource for terrestrial plants, necessary for the plant growth. Plants receives this photosynthetically active radiation from sunlight as a consequence, plants are also exposed to the ultraviolet (UV)-radiation. Seven percent of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun is the UV range (200-400 nm). Though representing only a small portion of the total solar electromagnetic spectrum, UV-B has a disproportionately large photobiological effect. As it passes through the atmosphere, the flux transmitted is greatly reduced, and the composition of the UV-radiation is modified. This UV-radiation is mainly divided into three classes, namely UV-A, UV-B and UV-C. The UV-A region of the spectrum (wavelengths from 320 to 400 nm) are not attenuated by ozone, so their influence will be unaffected by ozone layer reduction. This portion of the UV radiation is less damaging and important for photomorphogenic signal in plant development (Bjorn, 1994). The wavelength of UV-B portion ranges from 280 to 320 nm. This region of UV is very energetic and effectively absorbed by ozone in the stratosphere. Thus, only a very small portion, approximately 4% is transmitted to the earths. Shortwave UV-C radiation (200-280 nm) is highly energetic and strongly absorbed by atmospheric oxygen and ozone. Thus, none of this sterilizing radiation is present in terrestrial sunlight.

Radio Pharmaceuticals
Radiopharmaceuticals are a specialized class of drugs that contain radioactive isotopes and are used primarily in the fields of diagnostic imaging and therapeutic interventions in medicine. These agents can either emit radiation themselves or be used to deliver radiation to specific tissues, making them invaluable in diagnosing and treating various medical conditions, particularly cancer.
Definition and Composition
Radiopharmaceuticals consist of three main components: a radioactive molecule, a targeting molecule that selectively binds to specific cells or tissues, and a linker that connects these two components. The radioactive isotopes used in these compounds can emit different types of radiation, including gamma rays, positrons, or alpha particles, depending on their intended use—diagnostic or therapeutic. For instance, diagnostic radiopharmaceuticals are typically designed to emit low-level gamma rays that can be detected by imaging equipment such as positron emission tomography (PET) or single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) scanners. Therapeutic radiopharmaceuticals, on the other hand, deliver targeted radiation to destroy cancer cells while minimizing damage to surrounding healthy tissues.
Radiopharmaceuticals: Storage Guidelines
Radiopharmaceuticals are unique medicinal formulations containing radioisotopes that are used for both diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in nuclear medicine. Proper storage of these compounds is essential to ensure safety, maintain their effectiveness, and comply with stringent regulatory requirements. Storage protocols are designed to prevent contamination, minimize radiation exposure, and preserve the chemical stability of the radiopharmaceuticals.

Although a number of radioactive isotopes are found in nature, most of the isotopes used as radioactive tracers are produced artificially. Methods for producing radioactive isotopes include nuclear fission and the bombardment of selected materials by neutrons or positively charged particles.

6.1 Production of Radioactive Nuclides

Nuclear Reactors

In a nuclear reactor, a fissionable nuclear fuel such as ²³⁵U or ²³⁹Pu is placed in a defined geometry within the reactor core. Fast moving neutrons released as the ²³⁵U or ²³⁹Pu nuclei fission are slowed to thermal energy (0.025 eV) by a low-Z moderator such as water, heavy water, beryllium, or graphite surrounding or mixed intimately with the nuclear fuel. The slowly moving neutrons are absorbed by addition of ²³⁵U or ²³⁹Pu nuclei, and a chain reaction is maintained. The rate of absorption of slow neutrons by fissionable nuclei determines the fission rate for the reactor and is controlled by placing inert neutron absorbers in the reactor core. Typical neutron absorbers, usually termed control roads include boron and calcium. Heat generated in the reactor is removed by a coolant such as water or one of a variety of gases or liquid materials.

Radioactive pollution is largely attributable to radioactivity, a natural property of certain elements, such as radium, uranium, thorium, etc. of spontaneously emitting protons (alpha particles), electrons (beta particles), and gamma rays (short-wave electromagnetic waves) through the disintegration of their atomic nuclei (nuclides).

An alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons, which is akin to a helium nucleus. Alpha particles travel at a very slow speed, whereas gamma rays propagate at the speed of light. The alpha particles have less penetration power than the beta and gamma rays. In human tissues, alpha particles can penetrate up to a depth of about 0.005 to 0.008 cm. The gamma rays, on the other hand, are the most penetrating and can easily pass through a human body without striking anything in between. The high penetration power of gamma rays is because they have no charge; therefore, they do not interact with anything as the charged alpha particles would do

Ionization Chambers for Gases

Generally these type of instruments are known as dose-rate meter (e.g., the so called “cutie-pie”). Radiation intensity (i.e., a constant stream of particles or photons) gives rise to a continuous series of pulses, and if these are allowed to merge, they form a weak electric current, which may be amplified and registered by an electronic circuit. The final scale reading will then be a measure of the energy dissipated in the following chamber per unit of time by the ionizing particles or photons. In gas-flow counters, the radioactive samples are placed inside the detector which will be transfused by a gas at atmospheric pressure. This instrument counts particles of low energy, such as the b particles from 14C, effectively (Window-less counting).

Radioactivity

The discovery of radioactivity, in general, actually came about on a few different fonts. First was the discovery of x-ray radiation that was artificially generated in a laboratory, followed by the discovery of several elements that naturally emit radiation when the nucleus of the atoms disintegrates or decay. These are the elements that today are called radioactive elements and are said to have unstable nuclei.

Abstract

The dating of fluvial landforms by archaeological, epigraphical, historical, thermo-luminescence, radiocarbon, etc. are of greater significance because it not only provides information on the date of origin of such fluvial landforms but also isostatic, eustatic, climatic histories of the Quaternary period. Hence, the Geoscientists have always been giving greater importance to the dating of the fluvial landforms. In India, the Cauvery is one such river studied for its migratory melodrama with the help of satellite data and inferred that the river Cauvery has earlier flowed along the Hogenekkal-Chennai tract (PCS-1-Palaeo Channel System-1) during 500 thousand to 3000 YBP (years Before Present), then migrated towards southerly and flowed along the present day paths of Thoppurar, Vaniyar and Ponnaiyar rivers (PCS-2) during 2700-2300 YBP and further migrated southerly and entered into Tiruchirappalli-Thanjavur plains after 2300 YBP and finally anticlockwisely migrated in different parts of the present day Cauvery delta and stabilized as river Coleroon during 2100-750 YBP. Such broad chronological history was brought out on the basis of archaeological, epigraphical, historical, literature and few radiocarbon dating. In the present study, more number of radiocarbon dating was done in various palaeochannels of river Cauvery which has over all coincided with above observations and further provided discrete information on (1) the southerly migration of river Cauvery from PCS-1 to PCS-2 after 8000 YBP, (2) tectonic arching and splitting up of channels in Chennai region during above period, (3) gradual younging nature of palaeochannels from PCS-1 of Chennai region to PCS-3 of Tiruchirappalli – Thanjavur region, etc.

In 1896, French physicist Becquerel observed that uranium compounds affected a photographic plate that was wrapped inside a black paper. He found that all uranium compounds gave off penetrating rays. He called the production of radiation by uranium compounds “radioactivity”. Madame and Pierre Curie later identified thorium, polonium, and radium as the other radioactive elements.

Radiofrequency (RF) pasteurization is an emerging thermal processing technology that uses electromagnetic energy to generate rapid and volumetric heating within food materials. This chapter introduces the principles underlying RF heating and explains how alternating electric fields interact with polar molecules and ions to produce heat. It examines RF system configuration, electrode arrangements, packaging considerations and the operational workflow from raw-material preparation to post-treatment cooling and quality evaluation. Particular attention is given to microbial inactivation, enzyme control, uniform heating, nutrient and bioactive-compound retention, colour and structural preservation. The chapter also discusses technical limitations, hotspot formation, packaging challenges, nutritional considerations and current industrial constraints associated with RF processing.

A diagnostic radiograph is defined as one showing the tissues adequately penetrated, sharply outlined, and the variations in tissue opacity sufficiently demonstrated. An ideal diagnostic radiograph should have excellent detail, correct density and proper scale of contrast. The sharpness of the image determines the detail or definition of an image. There are two factors in radiographic quality control, viz: photographic and the geometric effect.  Density, contrast and detail are photographic aspects of radiographic quality. Detail and distortion are geometric aspects of radiographic quality. Because a radiograph is a two-dimensional (2-D) image of a three-dimensional (3-D) object, the appearance of a radiographic image varies with the patient’s orientation in relation to the primary X-ray beam. 

The radiographic appearance of various tissues is influenced by a number of factors which determine the character of X-rays.  Various exposure factors control the radiographic dentsity, detail and contrast: milliamperage (mA), time (sec), kilovoltage (kV), focal spot/film distance (FFD) and object-film distance (OFD), thickness and nature of the part radiogaphed, speed and type of film and intensifying screens, temperature and time of developing, grid type, incoming line voltage, make and type of X-ray machine. Of these, first five exposure factors (milliamperage (mA), time (sec), kilovoltage (kV), focal spot/film distance (FFD) and object-film distance (OFD) are very important as radiographic technique chart may be worked out by varying one or more of the five factors.  These exposure factors are integral to image quality and should, therefore, to be adjusted appropriately in order to achieve a diagnostic radiograph of optimal quality (image contrast, brightness and clarity).

Artifacts are any unwanted radiographic densities in the form of blemishes arising from improper handling x-ray film, exposure, processing, housekeeping or setting up a technique for an examination. Artifacts will reduce the overall quality of the radiograph and in certain cases may nullify its diagnostic outcome. An idea about the possible errors is desirable in order to adopt corrective measures.

One of the most important pieces of information in the field of  X-rays is a radiographic technique chart. If one select exposure factors from a good rating chart, consistent radiographic examinations of diagnostic quality will be obtained. In addition, there will be a saving of X-ray films because waste from repeated exposures will be avoided.

There are several types of techniques chart that can be formulated, each type must be formulated with the goat of maximum potential of a particular X-ray machine. Perhaps the most popular type of technique chart used by veterinarians is a variable kilovoltage technique chart. A variable mA second chart is probably more appropriate for the most powerful X-ray machine. However, combination of variable kilovoltage and mAs technique chart is best. Such charts take into consideration the need to adopt a technique chart for different body systems, such as a thoracic and abdominal study, as well as examination involving the musculoskeletal system. The principle of how to prepare a variable kilovoltage technique chart along with an example of such a chart is given.

Radiology has been an important diagnostic modality in exotic animals and birds (includes rodents, reptiles and fish). The radiographic equipment needed for radiography of exotic animals and birds is basically the same to that used for domestic animals. A high-milliamperage (mA) X-ray machine, having 200- or 300 mA unit is recommended to allow the use of a short exposure time (1/40 seconds) or less are preferred. Maximum kilovoltage (kVp, 40-75) is less important for avian and exotic radiography than for domestic animal radiography. As with other species, at least two radiographic views at 900 angles to each other are recommended. However, restraining and knowledge of radiographic anatomy of different species of exotic animals and birds are the prerequisite for the modality. Restrain and immobilization:

Radiographic examination of mammary tumour patients should be done prior to any treatment to detect the chances of lung metastasis. Radiographs of the thorax helped to provide information pertaining to the extent of organs involved and the presence of metastasis in the lungs. Lateral radiograph of thorax revealed absence of pulmonary metastasis in normal cases. Lung metastasis may observe in animal characterized by radioopaque soft tissue scattered in the lungs indicating pulmonary metastasis.

Sensors onboard the satellite records the intensity of emitted or reflected electromagnetic radiations in the form of digital number (DN) for each pixel. These digital numbers can be transformed to more meaningful intensity units like radiance or reflectance. This process of conversion of digital numbers to radiance or reflectance is known as radiometric calibration. Sensor specific information is required to conduct radiometric calibration.

An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The positive nuclear charge is due to the presence of protons which carry a mass of 1 and a charge of +1. Besides protons in the nucleus, there are neutrons which are heavier than protons. They carry no charge. Comparatively electrons have no mass (1836 times lesser than that of a proton) but they carry a charge of –1. Hence, the whole mass of an atom is likely to be concentrated in the nucleus.

It is a popular root crop having wide range of adaptability, grown in Japan, Koria, China, India and other European countries.

Origin and Distribution: Radish was an important food in Egypt during 2000 BC.  Fossils study reveals that, it was a food as early as 2700 BC. It spread to China during 500 BC and to Japan during AD 700. Variability of crop decreased from Europe to China and from there to Japan. Recent study indicates that East of Mediterranean, most probably China was the centre of origin of the crop. This means Europe and Asia are the probable places of origin.

Radish (Raphanus sativus, 2n = 2x = 18, family Brassicaceae or Cruciferae, cross-pollinated crop) is grown over 7 million ha where China, Japan, India, South Korea, and Europe are the main producers. As per Horticulture Statistics at a Glance-2018 (MAFW, 2018), India produced 30 lakh tons of radish from 2 lakh ha acreage with a productivity of 15 tons/ha during 2017-18. Ten top ranking states in India with acreage within the range of 6000 to 33000 ha are West Bengal, Haryana, Bihar, Assam, Punjab, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka.

Today, radishes are grown throughout the world. Different local people prefer to use various parts of the radish plants including roots, leaves, sprouts, seed pods and oil from seeds as their food according to their own custom. Radishes are low in calories and high in vitamin C, folate, and potassium. Radishes contain sulfurous compounds, such as sulforaphane, which have anti-cancer properties, and are expectorant.

Radish, Raphanus sativus under the family Brassicaceae (Crucifereae) having chromosome No. 2n = 2x =18 is grown mainly for fleshy taproot roots in both tropical and temperate regions throughout the world. Radish is cultivated widely in China, Japan, Korea, India, Europe and USA. It is grown throughout India and particularly in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Assam and Gujarat. Radish is mostly eaten raw as a crunchy salad or cooked as a vegetable. Leaves are sometimes eaten as cooked leafy vegetable. Immature pods of rat-tail radish, Raphanus sativus var. caudatus are also consumed as vegetable. Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
Radish, one of the ancient root vegetables was domesticated in Asia prior to Roman times. Varieties of radish are now broadly distributed around the world, but almost no archeological records are available to help determine their early history and domestication. However, different research works have tentatively located the origin of Raphanus sativus in Southeast Asia, as this is the only region where truly wild forms have been discovered. This radish might be Oriental or Asiatic radish. India, Central China, and Central Asia appear to have been the secondary centers where different forms were developed. However, according to other hypothesis, eastern Mediterranean region, China and middle Asia are considered to be the origin of radish where wild radish still exists.

Successful crop production both in the rainfed and irrigated ecosystems depends on timely onset of monsoon, its distribution during the crop life cycle and collection of water in various storage structures viz; tanks, reservoirs and ground water table. It is therefore important that adequate supplies of water should be developed to sustain life. Development of water supplies should, however, be undertaken in such a way as to preserve the hydrological balance and the biological function of our ecosystems.

Consequently, the human endeavour in the development of water sources must be within the capacity of nature to replenish and to sustain. If this is not done, costly mistakes can occur with serious consequences. The application of innovative technologies and the improvement of indigenous ones should therefore include management of the water resources to ensure sustainability and to safeguard the source against pollution.

As land pressure rise, cities are growing vertical and in country side more forest area encroached and being used for agriculture. In India small farmers depends on monsoon where rainfall is from June to October and much of the precious water is soon lost as surface runoff. While irrigation may be the most obvious response to drought, it has proved costly and can only benefit a fortunate few. There is now increasing interest in the low cost alternative-generally referred to as “Rain Water Harvesting (RWH)”.

Water harvesting is the activity of direct collection of rainwater, which can be stored for direct use or can be recharged into the ground water. Water harvesting is the collection of runoff for productive purposes.

Rivers, lakes and ground water are secondary source of water. In present times, we depend entirely on such secondary source of water. In the process, it is forgotten that rain is the ultimate source that feeds all these secondary sources and remain ignorant of its value. Water harvesting is to understand the value of rain, and to make optimum use of rainwater at the place where it falls.

The Gujarat state is located on the north-west of India between 20^o6' N and 24^o42' N latitude and 60^o24' E to 74^o24' longitude. The climate of Gujarat is semi-arid tropical . the summers are very hot, the winter season is uncertain and irregular. The Arabian sea and Gulf of cambay have a moderating effect on the climate of the coastal areas of the state.

The state has a coastline of 1600 km (27% of the country) out of which Saurashtra and Kutch has about 1125 km long coastal line. The total coastal cropped area of the state is 8.75 lakh ha (9.11% of total cultivated area) spread over three agro-climatic regions of the state, out of which 91% comes under arid and semiarid climate type (Table 1). The important crops of the region are groundnut, bajara, sorghum, cotton, and wheat. The ground water availability is also scare. In the state recently the soil degradation through salinity has caught hold over 1.2 m ha of land, of which, about 0.3 m ha occurs in the coastal area. About 1125 km long coastal line is in Saurashtra and Kutch which comprises about 0.1079 m ha of saline land which needs to be treated for salinity reduction.
 

Introduction

Rainfall is a crucial component of the Earth’s climatic system that affects various aspects of human life. It has a direct impact on the ecosystems, water resources, agricultural production, and overall water management. Dependence on rainfall is particularly high in regions where it is the primary source of water, making it essential to have an accurate understanding of future rainfall patterns. Given its importance, rainfall forecasting is a critical concern for a wide range of stakeholders, including governments, businesses, risk management organizations, and the scientific community. However, predicting rainfall is a complex task as it is a random occurrence influenced by numerous factors (Samantaray et al., 2020). Even in similar weather conditions, the possibility of rainfall may vary. This makes historical data and predictive analytics crucial in forecasting future rainfall and taking necessary actions to manage its effects (Avinash et al., 2022). The impact of rainfall extends beyond water management to affect various human activities, including power generation, construction, tourism, and forestry, among others. Therefore, it is crucial to accurately forecast and analyze rainfall patterns to help mitigate the risks and consequences associated with it (Hernandez et al., 2016).

Natural disasters are of meteorological or hydrometeorological origin. Disasters such as earthquakes and tsunamis are occasional, but rainfall-related hazards, flood or drought, are very frequent and thus call for proper monitoring of large-scale rainfall variation, and better manage- ment and planning to combat the problem(s). Variation in rainfall is very large spatially and temporally compared to any other atmospheric parameter, such as pressure or temperature. The large temporal variability in the Indian rainfall has produced frequent flood/ drought and periods of above/below normal rainfall for several centuries past. Areas of high rainfall and runoff are flooded in the summer monsoon season whereas others face water stress and drought conditions. The influence of global warming on rainfall variations over India is reported in numerous observational (Singh et al., 1991, 1992) and modelling studies (Lal, 1994). Though considerable rainwater enters the Indian territory from the Himalayan area, the major hydrological activities and water resources of the country are due to in situ rainfall occurrences, mostly summer monsoon rainfall during June–September. During a normal hydrological wet season the country receives 2911.064 bcm (billion cubic metres) rainwater of which 1856.947 bcm evaporates and 1054.117 bcm enters into surface hydrological processes (surface storage, streamflow/riverflow and deep aquifer storage) (Ranade et al., 2008). Rainfall events display large spatial variability due to variation in intensity, frequency and geographical location of the rain-producing weather systems, such as circular systems (low, depression, tropical cyclone and mid-tropospheric cyclone), linear systems (trough, meander, squall line and convergence zone) and wave disturbances (easterly and westerly waves). Rainfall in other seasons is equally important to monitor, though restricted to some parts of the country, such as winter rainfall over the extreme north, summer thunder showers over the southwest peninsula and northeast India, and post-monsoon rainfall over the south peninsula.

Introduction

Rainfed agriculture plays and will continue to play a dominant role in providing food and livestock for an increasing world population. Rainfed agriculture practiced on 80% of the world’ agriculture land area and generates about 70% of the world’s staple food including most of the food in poor communities in developing and least favoured areas. The most recent estimates have put global rainfed croplands at 1.75 billion ha (Bha) at the end of the last millennium, or about 5.5 times the irrigated area in the world. India ranks 1^st amongst the countries that practice rainfed agriculture both in terms of extent 86 (mha) and value production. Agriculture water management deals with the administration of a key input to agricultural production and offers to hope that land and water use will be intensified. Scarcity of water resources and growing of competition for water many sectors reduces its availability for irrigation. Effective management of water for crop production in water scarce area requires efficient approaches for increasing crop productivity and drought tolerance by genetic improvement and physiological regulation may be the means to achieve efficient and effective use of water. A single approaches would not be able to tackle the forthcoming challenge of producing more food and measures with engineering solutions (water saving technologies, irrigation methods, deficit irrigations, proper deficit sequencing, modernization of irrigation system) and agronomic and soil manipulation (seed priming, seedling age manipulation, direct or wet seeded rice. proper crop choice, integrating agriculture and aquaculture, increasing soil fertility and addition of organic matter, tillage and soil mulching). The term enhancing water productivity implies how we can most efficiently improve the outcome or yield of a crop with water currently in use, the answer lies in three main pathways of increasing water productivity with multiple use of water. Transpire most of the supplied water (minimization of unwanted loss), exchanged water for carbon dioxide more effectively inproducing biomass, and convert most of the biomass into grin or other farm of harvestable product. Many technologies to improve water productivity and the management of scarce water resource are available, amongst the most promising and efficient proven technique are limited supplemental application of irrigation for optimize the use of limited water and water harvesting for improved farm income in drier environment.Improving (water productivity, however requires exploiting not only water management but also other input such as improved cultivars, fertility management and cultural practice which influence crop productivity and yield.

Rainfed Agriculture - A historic view

Historically, famines and scarcities have been recorded from the earliest times in India. They were mentioned in the epic Mahabharata, and there is Jain legend of a 12-year famine in the fourth century A.D. During the reign of the Moghul Emperor Shah Jehan in 1630-32, The official historian recorded in ‘Badsha Namah’ that soup Kitchens were opened, a lakh and half coins were given in charity and one eleventh of land revenue was remitted in the drought effected area.

In the remote past, these famines were tided over by saving grains and fodder from years of bumper harvest and by migration of people and cattle to greener pastures. With the rise of population pressure on arable land, the effects of scarcity and famine became progressively severe because the traditional methods of tiding over were no longer adequate. The successive famines in the closing decades of the 19th century closing decades of the 19th century led to the setting up of three Famine commissions.

The Commissions made several suggestions which formed the basis of the Famine Code promulgated in 1883 onwards and adopted by the then provincial governments. Apart from the relief works to be taken up during famine, the Commission recommended protective irrigation projects in dry and scarcity area and establishment of department of agriculture at the center and in the province. Later, the Royal commission on Agriculture (1928) reiterated in its report the problem of dryland agriculture and recommended a close attention by departments of agriculture to these problems.

The first systematic approach was made in 1923 by setting up small plots at Manjri, near Poona. This was followed by a more comprehensive research scheme on dry farming sanctioned by the Imperial (then Indian) Council of Agricultural Research during 1933-35. Under the scheme, research was conducted in low rainfall areas at Rohtak, Solapur, Bijapur, Raichur and Agra. Based on the results of this scheme, a series of dry farming practices were evolved which were known as ‘ the Bombay Dry farming ‘, ‘ the Madras Dry farming ‘ and ‘ the Hyderabad Dry farming ‘ practices. These practices emphasized soil and water conservation as basic to dryland production programs. The Scheme was terminated in 1943, since it was felt that the immediate objectives had been achieved.

Rainfed agriculture constitutes 80% of global agriculture and plays a critical role in achieving global food security. However, growing world population, water scarcity, and climate change threaten rainfed farming through increased vulnerability to 1 droughts and other extreme weather events. Out of the total population of 7.3 billion, about 1 billion are food insecure and 60% of these live in South Asia and Sub Saharan Africa.

Out of 143 million hectares of net cropped area, about 75% is rainfed which contribute about 45% of food grains. These areas produce 55% rice, 25% wheat, 91% coarse cereals, 75% of pulses, 81% oilseeds and 69% cotton. More than 90% of sorghum, millet, groundnut and pulses is contributed from arid and semi-arid. The term rainfed farming (Dry farming) and dry land farming may be defined as conditions where rainwater is the only source of moisture for survival and growth of crops.

Importance of Rainfed Farming

In India, rain dependent areas are vast and they have a great contribution to make in agricultural production, with just 1/40th of the world land. Of the 141 M ha of net sown area in the country, 80 M ha is rainfed. Rainfed agriculture contributes 40% of food grain production and supports 2/3rds of the livestock population. Despite considerable progress in irrigation development over the five year plans, 85% of coarse cereals, 83% in pulses, 42% in rice, 70% in oilseeds and 65% in cotton are still cultivated as rainfed. A large portion of industrially important crops such as cotton, groundnut and castor are cultivated under dry land conditions and has a great contribution to make to the production of food, fibre, fuel and furniture timber etc. Though, impressive gains were noted in some of the rainfed crops in recent times, the gap between attainable and farmers’ yields still remain high which is a major cause of concern. Small and marginal farmers who are the backbone of rainfed farming are resource poor and risk averse. Moreover, both public and private investments in technology adoption and infrastructure have been quite low in rainfed agriculture resulting in a vicious circle of low yields-low net returns-low investments in improved technologies.

With several resource management problems emerging in irrigated regions, rainfed agriculture offers scope to contribute to the growing food needs of future particularly of pulses and edible oils. The high yield gaps between attainable yields realized by progressive farmers using improved technologies and those actually realized by the farmers at large in any given region offer scope for enhancing overall productivity of rainfed crops anywhere between 50 to 70% in the near term with the adoption of the available technologies, provided resource and institutional constraints in delivering the technology and inputs are addressed timely and adequately. With the promised break-through in yields through genetic manipulation and large scale adoption of water saving technologies through conservation agriculture, the yield gains can be further enhanced in the medium to long term.

The 80 million hectares of rainfed farming area is not uniform for resource base, opportunities and constraints. There are areas receiving high rainfall and fertile deep soils where crop yields can be enhanced significantly by double cropping combined with supplemental irrigation with water harvesting. For the relatively lower rainfall regions, the overall system productivity needs to be enhanced by integrating crops, trees and livestock. This agro-eco region based differential approach is the key for realizing the full potential of rainfed agriculture besides addressing the dimension of regional equity.

Importance of Rainfed Farming

In India, rain dependent areas are vast and they have a great contribution to make in agricultural production, with just 1/40^th of the world land. India supports over half of its buffaloes and over one seventh of its cattle and goats that also share land utilization with humans and add to the national wealth. The second largest number (after Africa) of drought victims of the world live in India, out of 143 m ha cultivated land about 43 m ha are under irrigation and the rest of the area (about 70%) is rainfed but all is not too dry. About 90% of it located in the north-west part, out of which 60% is located in Rajasthan and sustains a human population of 20 million and a total livestock population of 23 million. The dry land areas contribute about 42% of food grains, almost all the coarse grains and about 75% of pulses and oil seeds of the total production of the country. About 2/3 of rice and rapeseed mustard and 1/3 of wheat are grown in rainfed areas. A large portion of industrially important crops such as cotton, groundnut and castor are cultivated under dry land conditions and has a great contribution to make to the production of food, fibre, fuel and furniture timber etc. Dry land agriculture may be classified into three groups on the basis of annual rainfall.

a) Dry farming : Cultivation of crops in areas where annual rainfall is less then 750 mm and crop failures due to prolonged dry spells during crop period are most common. Dry farming is practiced in arid regions with the help of moisture conservation practices. Alternate land use system is suggested in this region.

b) Dryland farming: Cultivation of crops in areas where annual rainfall is more than 750 mm but less than 1150 mm is called dryland farming. Dry spells may occur, but crop failures are less frequent. Higher evapotranspiration (ET) than the total precipitation is the main reason for moisture deficit in these areas. The soil and moisture conservation measures are the key for dryland farming practice in semi-arid regions. Drainage facility may be required especially in black soils.

Introduction

India is the largest producer, importer and consumer of pulses in the world, accounting for 25 percent of the global production, 15 per cent trade and 27 per cent consumption, being an inseparable ingredient in the diet of the vast majority of population. Since time immemorial, pulses have been cultivated on marginal and sub-marginal lands, which are characterized by poor soil fertility and moisture stress, and consequently their yield potentials have not been realized. Further, more than 90 per cent areas under pulses are rainfed.

9.1 Introduction

Water is essential for all life and used in many different ways. It is an important part of the ecosystem in which the reproduction of the bio diversity also depends. Fresh water scarcity for agriculture, industry and household purpose is not only limited to the arid climatic regions, but also in areas having high rainfall. Water scarcity is caused by low water storage capacity, low infiltration rate, high evaporation demand and larger inter annual and annual fluctuations of precipitation.

1. Monsoon: Types and Behavior in India

The monsoon is a dynamic and vital climatic phenomenon in India, playing a pivotal role in shaping the country’s weather patterns, agricultural practices, and overall water resource management. This seasonal shift in wind patterns brings about distinct wet and dry periods, impacting various regions differently. Understanding the types and behavior of the monsoon is essential for effective planning and adaptation to this critical aspect of India’s climate (fig 1).

Types of Monsoon in India

1. Southwest Monsoon (June to September)

The southwest monsoon is the lifeline of India’s agriculture, bringing the much needed rainfall that supports a majority of the country’s crops.

Raising healthy and productive animals is a cornerstone of successful livestock farming. Whether the goal is milk production, meat, draught power or breeding, the foundation of a thriving animal enterprise lies in appropriate general management and feeding practices that consider the animal’s stage of growth, reproductive status and work requirements. Each class of animal—calves, heifers, pregnant and lactating females, dry animals, bulls and working animals—has unique physiological needs that must be addressed through specialized care and nutrition. Modern animal husbandry aims not just at higher productivity but also at ensuring animal welfare, sustainability and profitability. Scientific and stage-specific practices improve the animals' lifetime performance and reduce mortality, disease incidence and reproductive failure. In this context, proper rearing practices are not merely a routine, but a strategic necessity. The calf represents the future of the herd. Ensuring its survival, growth and development is crucial for long-term productivity

Introduction

The term ‘multipurpose trees’ covers all woody perennials used in agroforestry. Many authors have given many definitions of MPTs and MPTS. Burley and von Carlowitz (1984) reviewed many definitions and gave a synthesised definition which states that “multipurpose trees and shrubs (MPTS) are those which are deliberately grown and kept and managed for preferably more than one intended use, usually economically and/or ecologically motivated major products and / or services in any multipurpose land use systems, especially agroforestry systems”. The Forestry /Fuelwood Research Development Project (1992) precisely defined ‘multipurpose trees’ (MPTs) to mean tree species that are grown to provide more than one significant crop or function on the farm.

Introduction

In India, about half of the geographical area is classified as degraded and as such, these areas are not able to produce services of any value (Khan, 1988). So, there is growing concern about the serious degradation in the quality of forests, besides the significant reduction in the tree cover in the country. To answer the prevailing conditions in the current era, one needs better nursery management to produce quality planting stock.

Forest nurseries are an essential part of forestry programmes, which cover traditional or intensively managed commercial forestry with introduced species. Field plantations should do with more productive species, but of improved quality and vigour. In order to encourage the forest tree culture, the use of quality planting stock and its subsequent management is very important.