eChapters

Bio-active compounds having beneficial health effect on human beings from terrestrial and marine sources are considered as “Nutraceuticals”. Nutraceuticals from marine origin are proved to have wide range of therapeutic effects viz., anti-obesity, immune enhancement, natural antioxidant, cardio protective, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory effects. These natural products do not have any side effects contradictory to many medicines available today, hence have attracted global market. Microencapsulation technique has been considered as one of the unique methods to encapsulate the bio-active compounds for target delivery. Importance and application of nutraceuticals from marine origin are highlighted.

Introduction

World over in the recent past, research in nutraceuticals has shown continuous growth and the progressive approach is aimed at identifying the potential nutraceutical compounds which are having health benefits in human beings. Awareness among the people is the prime reason for the growing demand for nutraceuticals.Today people are more aware about the nutrition and related health problems. Recently, researchers across the globe are exploring the possibilities to extract and isolate bio-active compounds from both terrestrial and marine sources.

Fishing is the most energy-intensive food production method in the world today and depends almost completely on internal combustion engines based on oil fuels. Energy is spent during the design, construction and operation of vessels. Energy loss can take place during different stages such as design, construction, operation and maintenance of boats and at harbor.

The energy costs for a particular fishery is determined principally by the technology in use, the local economic conditions, including taxes, subsidies, labour cost and operational cost. (O. Gulbrandson, FAO, 2012)

Only about one-third of the energy generated by the engine reaches the propeller and, in the case of a small trawler, only one-third of this is actually spent on useful work such as pulling the net.

The approximate distribution of energy created from the burning of fuel.

The term nanotechnology was coined by Prof Taniguchi, Japan in 1974 during conference of the Japanese Society of Precision Engineering. Nano technology is a domain of scientific activity oriented on synthesis, characterization, application of devices and materials and technical systems which functions at nano structures having 1 to 100 nm size. Prof R. Feynman American Physicist and Nobel Prize winner was the first person pointed out the importance and promising outlook for nano particles during his lecture entitled “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom. An Invitation to Enter a New Field of Physics,” delivered on December 29th 1959 at the California Institute of Technology. He pointed out that “... when we have some control of the arrangement of things on a small scale we will get an enormously greater range of possible properties that substances can have, and of different things that we can do ... The problems of chemistry and biologycan be greatly helped if our ability to see what we are doing, and to do things on an atomic level, is ultimately developed”. Later scientists realized the potential of nano particulate materials during the last decade has tremendous advancement in nano research. Governments and private sectors of the world invested huge sums to reap the benefits from novel applications of nano materials.

Nanotechnology: The principle of nano technology is that the material with known properties and functions at normal size exhibit different behaviour and functions at nano scale. By decreasing the size of the material the surface area per unit material will increase enormously and this helps greater interactions with reactive sites. Nano technology implied that the process of fabricating and/ or controlling the material sized between 1 to 100nm.

Food is an important item in the life of consumer as it has a direct bearing on the sustenance of life. The food safety or over concern on the health hazards was not considered as an issue until recently, particularly in the developing countries. This clearly indicates the shift in citizen’s mind from availability of food to quality of food. This along with the changes in the food habits and type of products available in the market for his consumption, the incidence of food borne illness across the globe and his concern for his health contributed significantly to the development of food safety in the food arena.

Until recently food safety domain and regulation were confined to the government and its regulatory machinery. The globalisation of food and food products and the passage of food across international borders paved way for the increased food safety concern across the globe and stressed the need for ensuring quality and safety of food in international trade. The incidence of food borne illness increased with increase in the appearance of more and more derived products started in the market (Sivapalasingam, Friedman, Cohen, & Tauxe, 2004; Tauxe, Doyle, Kuchenmüller, Schlundt, & Stein, 2010). The production along the value chain, from primary production to the retailing happen in the world under different agroclimate conditions, in varied production lines from sinle handler to community production to large scale mechanised production and such a diversity led to concerns in the food safety system (McCullough, Prabhu, & Kostas, 2008). The individual operators in the chain operates a food safety management system based on the availablity and to suit his requirement based on the basic principles laid down by natinal and International bodies like Codex Alimentarius Commission. Now when you see the market at large, has plenty of FSMS system which includes both from the governmental and private sectors. Therefore, Food Safety Management System (FSMS) is the result of the implementation of available and relevant quality assurance guidelines and standards availble and in the primary production it could be the implementation of good practices including good hygienic proactices, good aquacultural priactices which have proved effective in the food sector. On the production and trade sector this may include good manufacturing practices, good hygienic practices, probably including Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) principles. In the process the FSMS may include essentially all the activites from equipment, procedures, programs, tools, organizational measures, and people necessary to execute the control and assuranceactivities aimed at ensuring chemical and microbial safety of fresh produce.

Indicator bacteria are types of bacteria that are used to provide an indication of poor hygiene, inadequate processing and or post - process contamination in seafood, water, feed, ice, equipments, workers, etc. Absence of indicator bacteria in seafood and aquaculture products provides a degree of quality assurance that the fishery products are hygienically good and have employed proper processing methods whereas their presence clearly indicates either severe problem or failure occurred during the processing, under-processing or post-process contamination. The indicator bacteria in fish and fishery products are mainly from enterobacteriaceae and coliforms group of bacteria. Traditionally, indicator micro-organisms have been used to suggest the presence of pathogens (Berg, 1978) and it includes the general microbial Process indicators, Faecal indicators, and Index and Model indicator organisms. The Process indicator is a group of organisms that indicates the efficacy of a processing and tested by Total Plate count (TPC)/ Total heterophilic count or total coliforms (MPN method). Fecal indicator is a group of organisms that indicates the presence of fecal contamination and could be tested for fecal coliforms, thermotolerant coliforms (MPN method) and E.coli (EMB and IMViC test). Index and model organisms are a group of organisms that indicates the presence of pathogens such as E.coli are an index for Salmonella and coliphages as model of human enteric viruses. The pathogenic indicator bacteria viz., Coliforms, Fecal coliforms, E.coli, Klebsiella, Enterobacter, Citrobacter, Fecal Streptococci, Sulphite reducing clostridia, Clostridium perfringens, Bifidobacteria, Bacteriophages, coliphages and Bacteroides fragilis etc., are associated with food poisoning. In addition, pathogenic viruses, protozoa and parasites are also present in fecal matter. Fecal contamination is mainly from sewage of human source, livestock, poultry manure, pets and wildlife. Infection caused by these pathogens mainly depend on the level of microbial load.

Fisheries sector plays an important role in food security and fish is now traded internationally. Shift in the trading policies (import and export) of seafood/aquatic products are happening at a rapid pace and consumption of seafood increased globally in substantial quantum. It is estimated that aquatic products export from Asian countries outcompetes earlier contributions to their importing partners year after year. Aquatic products include chordates, mollusc and arthropods from freshwater, brackish and marine system. They are nutrient rich diet and perishable too in nature and this prompted the industry to process the seafood in to different forms such as frozen, canned, cured and dried to extend its shelf life and recently value addition step being followed to improve the customer satisfaction. Nevertheless, the risk associated with the transboundary exchange of pathogens of seafood importance and its antibiotic resistance cannot be disregarded. Majority of the pathogens are not a native flora of fish. Each step in the aquatic products production chain either in the captured or cultured fisheries involves the contact of the seafood to the environment where they are grown, various implements used, contact surfaces, handlers, water etc. This post harvest handling makes the seafood contaminated with the pathogens of seafood importance such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp, Clostridium botulinum, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Vibrio cholerae, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Shigella sp, Aeromonas hydrophila, Plesiomonas shigelloides and viral pathogens such as hepatitis A virus etc. Among these pathogens, Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp, Staphylococcus aureus and Shigella spp are non-indigenous to the aquatic environment and others are indigenous to the aquatic environment. Depending on the nature of the environment (contaminated water source), feeding habits (filter feeders), season of harvest (summer season) are very crucial factors which cause seafood inherently contaminated in nature.

Since the beginning of the Planning process, efforts have been made to ensure that the tribal people were included in the growth process. However, the strategy changed with each Five-Year Plan as new lessons were learnt from various developmental efforts. The First Five Year Plan emphasized the provision of additional financial resources through a community development approach to address the problems of tribal people rather than evolving a clear-cut tribal development strategy. Towards the end of the Plan (1954), 43 Special Multipurpose Tribal Development Projects (MTDPs) were created. These MTDPs could not fully serve the interest of the tribal people since the schemes were numerous and of a general nature. This approach continued during the second Five Year Plan. In the Third Plan, a different strategy for tribal development was evolved by converting the Community Development Blocks, where the concentration of tribal population was 66% and above, into Tribal Development Blocks (TDBs). By the end of the fourth Five Year Plan, the number of Tribal Development Blocks in the country rose to 504. The strategy of development through Tribal Development Blocks had its limitations as well, as it failed to address the cause of the tribal population of the country living outside the Tribal Development Blocks, which comprised more than 60% of the total tribal population. During the th on 5 Five Year Plan period, the exercise of identification of tribal majority blocks was undertaken. These were later constituted into 194 ITDAs/ITDPs in the country.

The present Tribal Sub Plan (TSP) strategy was initially developed by an Expert Committee set up by the Ministry of Education and Social Welfare in 1972 under the Chairmanship of Prof. S.C. Dube for the rapid socio-economic development of tribal people and was adopted for the first time in the Fifth Five Year Plan. The TSP strategy, with some modifications, continues till this day and the salient features concerning TSP for States, are given below:

Fish transport is a vast area comprising the problems of purely technical design on the one hand, and the chemistry of water, biological reactions of fish and the like, on the other. The above survey could only briefly mention and evaluate the relevant literature on these problems. Because of its purpose, the book was designed not only as an analytical-synthetic survey of pertinent literature but, at the same time, as a practical manual to be used for seeking at least partial answers to practical questions concerning fish transport. The live fish trade is a rapidly expanding component of commercial fishing and aquaculture industries.

Proper sanitization of all the equipment and accessories is one of the essential steps for the determination of oxygen uptake of fishes as well as all the other steps of fish transportation in this pandemic of COVID-19.

Introduction

Yak is a main source of livelihood for the high altitude residents in Ladakh. The domestic yak (Bos grunniens) is a long haired domesticated bovine found throughout the Himalayan region of the Indian subcontinent as well as in the Tibetan plateau, Mongolia and Russia. They are originated from the wild yaks. Yaks are belonging to the genus Bos. The yak is the only bovine species (ruminant) which resides in the high hills of the Himalayas even at altitudes of 6000 meters above the mean sea level. The normal living range of yak is at 3000 to 4500 meters height from the mean sea level which are tree less uplands. Similar to domestic cattle and goat, Chromosomes number of yak is 60. Zoological name of yak is Poephagus grunniens or Bos grunniens.

Distribution

The distribution of Yak is majorly found in Northern Ladakh, the plateau of Tibet and part of the Kansu province in China. Within India, yak mostly found in Changechenmo valley in Ladak and spiti valleys of Himachal Pradesh, and also in North Eastern states, particularly in Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Nagaland. Small number of yaks is also found in Garhwal district of Uttar Pradesh. It is native in Tibet country as well as surrounding countries in Central Asia. The yak is also found in Pakistan, Northern Afghanisthan, Bhutan, Mongolia and in China.

Introduction

Dairy farming is a profitable business for every class of people. It provides an excellent opportunity for self employment for unemployed youth. It is also an important source of income generation to small/marginal farmer and agriculture laborers. India is the largest milk producers in the world and having the first rank rank in world in milk production. Per capita availability of milk in India is 394 gm/day and in Jammu and Kashmir, it is 401 gm/day (2018-2019). The demand and supply of milk and milk products are increasing rapidly. There is a vast scope of dairy farming in our country.

The increasing cost of feed ingredients and its seasonal variability can be reduced by undertaking fodder cultivation. Before starting a dairy farm, the entrepreneurs/ farmers are advised to undergo training on dairy farming. Farmers can contact Local Animal Husbandry Staff/ Veterinary colleges/ Agriculture University etc. for this purpose. Farmer should also visit progressive dairy farmers and Agricultural University in the locality. Farmer must check the following points before starting a dairy farm.

14.1. PPVFR Act

TRIPS (Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) agreement of WTO (World Trade Organization) was signed.

Enacted PPVFR act in 2001.

Regulation formulated in 2003.

Term Biotechnology was first coined in 1919 by Karl Ereky which means products are produced from raw materials with the aid of living organisms.

Bio means life.

Technology means application of knowledge for practical use.

2.1. Seed

Defined as a mature ovule or a reproductive unit formed from fertilized ovule, consisting of an embryo, reserve food and a protective cover.

4.1. Seed policy

4.1.1. Seed policies formulated for governing seed quality control system

6.1. Genetic principles

6.1.1. Maintenance of genetic purity during seed production

1. Steps suggested by Home (1953)

9.1. Plant quarantine

Legal restriction of movement of plant materials between countries and between states within the country to prevent or limit introduction and spread of pests and diseases in areas where they do not exist.

Plant quarantine regulatory measures are operative through the Destructive Insects & Pests Act, 1914 (Act 2 of 1914) in the country.

12.1. Sprayers

Atomizes spray fluid into a small droplets and eject it with little force for distributing it properly.

Regulates amount of pesticide to avoid excessive application that is wasteful or harmful.

2.1. Principles

Six basic principles.

2.1.1. Principle of variable proportions or laws of returns

Helps in deciding optimum amount of an input needs to be applied for cultivation of a particular crop or enterprise.

Law of diminishing returns will operate.

5.1. Cost concepts

Cost refers to the money value of effort extended or sacrifice made in producing an article or rendering a service or achieving a specific purpose.

Expenses incurred in organizing and carrying out production process.

Includes outlays of funds for inputs and services.

Total costs: Money value of all inputs used in the production process.

2.1. Recommendation of expert committees

Commercial banks tended to concentrate more on industrial sector than agricultural sector.

Indian Central Banking Committee (1931), Agricultural Finance Subcommittee (1945), Rural Banking Enquiry Committee (1950), All India Rural Credit survey committee (1951), All India Rural Debt and Investment Survey (1961-62) and Informal Group on Institutional Arrangements for Agricultural Credit (1964) suggested that financing agriculture by commercial banks was not significant (Until 1950).

4.1. Area approach

National Credit Council was set up in December, 1967

Study group in October, 1968 under chairmanship of Prof. D R Gadgil found that Commercial Banks had penetrated only 5000 villages as of June, 1967 and its share was 1% compared to co-operatives.

Recommended the adoption of an area approach for bridging the spatial and structural credit gaps.

All India Rural Credit Review Committee 1969 also endorsed the view the Commercial Banks should increasingly came forward to finance activities in rural areas.

RBI accepted recommendation and formulated Lead Bank Scheme (LBS) in December, 1969

Each district had been assigned to different banks (Public and private) to act as a consortium leader to coordinate branch expansion and credit planning.

Nationalization of 14 major Commercial Banks in July 1969 (Another 6 banks in 1980), paved the way for branch expansion network in unbanked rural and semi urban areas.

5.1. Emergence of Service Area Approach

During the five years ended 1985-86

Gross value added in agricultural sector: 2.70% per annum.

Share of agriculture in total net domestic product declined from 39.80% to 35.40%.

Food grains production increased from 133.30 million tons to 150.50 million tons by 18%

In contrast, there was 41% increase in outstanding level of credit for agriculture from rural lending agencies viz., Co-operatives, RRBs and CBs between June 1981 and June 1986.

Share of Haryana, Punjab and U.P. in total food grains production was around 38% accounted for 75% increase in food grains output.

However, their share in the total institutional credit was 22% only.

6.1. Principles of farm finance

6.1.1. Five Cs’

7.1. Crop insurance

Helps in stabilization of farm production and income of farming community.

Helps in optimal allocation of resources in production process.

Crop insurance is sold and bought in a market.

Has a limited role in risk management in farming.

Any limitations to scope for effective and economic crop insurance can change over time.

Speculation and hedging are important ways of minimizing price risk in business.

Speculation: Risk is taken by person specializing in business without much consideration of business trends.

Hedging: A calculated risk is taken.

7.1. Marketing institutions

Business organizations which have come up to operate the marketing machinery.

Individuals, corporate, co-operative and government institutions are operating in agricultural marketing.

12.1. Agribusiness

Concept was born in Harvard University in 1957.

John David and A. Goldberg wrote a book ‘A concept of Agri-business’.

In early 1966, University of Philippines offered an Agri-Business Management (ABM) UG program.

In 1969, first Advanced Agribusiness Management seminar held in Manila.

13.1. Forms of business organisations

Factors to be given weightage for choice of a suitable form of organization

Type of business - service, trade, manufacturing.

Selection of industry and area of operation.

Scope of operations, volume of business and market size, including its expected growth potential.

Amount of capital funds required – initial capital, working capital.

11.1. Definition

Jones: Variations or modifications of any aspect of social process, social patterns, social interaction or social organization.

Gillin and Gillin: Variations from the accepted modes of life; whether due to alteration in geographical conditions, in cultural equipment, composition on the population or ideologies and whether brought about by diffusion or inventions within the group.

Davis and Mac Iver: Change in the relationships.

Analytical chemistry is a branch of chemistry dealing with the determination of constituents of a substance or mixture of substances.

1.1 Qualitative Analysis

Qualitative analysis deals with the identification of the constituents of a substance, mixture of substances, or solutions and the way in which component element or a group of elements are constituted.

1.2 Quantitative Analysis

Quantitative analysis is concerned with the determination of quantitative contents of individual element or group of elements or compound present in the substances. This branch of analytical chemistry is of enormous scope and importance in science, industry and agriculture. The quantitative analysis can be divided into several categories based on the different methods employed for their quantitative measurements such as:

2.1 Beakers

Beakers are the one of most important vessels used in laboratory which is made up of heat resistant glass.

They are available in various capacities ranging from 10 to 3000 mL.

For convenience of pouring solution, spout is provided in the beaker.

They are used to perform titrations & for boiling solutions, etc.,

Beakers are constructed in tall and low forms.

(International/Robinson’s Pipette Method)

Principle

This method is based on Stoke’s law. According to this law, the rate of fall of a particle in liquid is directly proportional to the square of its radius.

[Bray’s Method (Bray and Kurtz, 1945) – Acid Soils]

Introduction

The term available phosphorus (P) refers to the inorganic form, occurring in the soil solution, which is almost exclusively ‘orthophosphate’. This orthophosphate occurs in several forms and combinations, and only a small fraction of the total amount present may be available to plants, which is of direct relevance in assessing the P fertility level.

The phosphate concentration in solution is governed by heterogeneous equilibria in which it takes part. This situation can be represented as follows:

P adsorbed in solid phase ↔ P in the soil solution ↔ P precipitated

The phosphorus absorbed by plants from soil solution comes from the soil solution in which it exists as inorganic orthophosphate ions viz., H₂PO₄ ^–, HPO₄ ^2– and PO₄ ^3–. The most accessible ion is H₂PO₄ ^–, with the greatest activity coefficient, followed by HPO₄ ^2–. The quantity of P accessible to the plants is influenced by a series of soil properties. The relative abundance of these ions is, however, relatively dependent on the soil pH. For soils having a pH between 4.5 and 7.5, ions of H₂PO₄ ^– as well as HPO₄ ^2– exist in soil solution. At a pH of 7.2, H₂PO₄ ^–and HPO₄ ^2– ions have an equal activity, and, when the pH is strongly alkaline (>8.3), ions of HPO₄ ^2– predominate in solution. Above pH of 9.0, the trivalent ion (PO₄ ^3–) becomes more important than H₂PO₄ ^–, but even at a pH of 12, the HPO₄ ^2– concentration is still greater than that of PO₄ ^3–. Soluble phosphorus may be adsorptively retained at the surface of colloidal particles. This retention is more marked when the higher amounts of clay and sesquioxides are present. Relatively, the available inorganic P tends to accumulate in its most stable state under prevailing conditions, thus, in calcareous soils, the available inorganic P would be acid-soluble, whereas, in acid soils the adsorbed P would be more available. In flooded soils, with low oxidation potential, certain forms of P, normally considered as unavailable, for example, iron and phosphate, can be regarded as available. In most soils, the main source of orthophosphate is organic matter unless, of course, direct fertilization, with soluble phosphate, has been made.

[Williams and Steinbergs (1959) Method]

Introduction

Sulphur (S) occurs in numerous forms in soil, viz., sulphites, sulphates, sulphides and in organic compounds. It is considered that the most accessible form is ‘sulphate’ (SO₄ ^2–). The organic forms of S compounds become assimilable, especially following, microbiological transformation into SO₄ ^2–. The mineralization of organic S in a soil depends primarily upon the N:S ratio, and any SO₄ ^2– formed may be fixed against extraction, particularly if much Fe or Ba is present or if the soil is very acid. Despite the fact that the plants absorb S almost exclusively as SO₄ ^2–, mobility of SO₄ ^2– in soil may not always yield satisfactory results in accordance with the time of sampling, while assessing SO₄ ^2– availability.

The word soil is derived from the Latin word ‘Solum’ means soil. In general the top 15-20 cm cultivated layer is referred as soil. It is a loose and unconsolidated outer layer of the earth crust that is crumbly and powdery in nature. Soil below the plough layer is called subsoil.

Soil is formed by weathering of rocks. Weathering may be physical or chemical or both. Factors of soil formation are parent material, climate, living things-plants, animals and microorganisms, topography and time. Soil formation is a function of parent material (P), climate (C), topography (T_o), life (L) and time (T) which is represented by f(P C To L T).

Soil fertility is the ability of the soil to supply all the essential nutrients in optimum amount in balanced proportion in a form readily available to plants under conditions favourable for plant growth and should be free from toxic substances.

Soil productivity: Soil productivity is defined as the capability of soil for producing a specified crop or sequence of crops under defined set of management practices. It is measured in terms of outputs or harvests in relation to the inputs of production factors for specific kinds of soils under a physically defined system of management according to USDA (1957).

Plant growth is defined as the progressive development which is irreversible. It is expressed in terms of dry weight plants, height of plants, girth or diameter of the stem or tree trunks, spread of the tree canopy, number of branches or tillers. Plant growth is a function or various factors which may be expressed as G = f (x, x₂, x₃ x_n ).Some factors may be controlled while some cannot be controlled. The following are the factors which influence the plant growth.

Cropping system is the cropping patterns used on a farm and their interaction with farm resources, other farm enterprises, available technology and environment (Physical, biological and socioeconomic) which determine their makeup (Krantz et al., 1975). Cropping system is subsystem of the farming system.

The cropping system aims at increasing the benefits derived by crop production from available physical resources (land, climate, water resources etc.) that are not readily changed through optimization of input levels for a given crop or cropping pattern. The objective of any cropping system is to increase the efficiency of utilization of resources. The efficiency in measured by the quantity of product obtained per unit resource in a unit time in cropping system.

The problematic areas for crop production may be soils affected with acidity, high concentration of salts, water logged soils or soils in steep sloppy areas. These soils have limitations or ill effects for crop growth and productivity.

Alcoholic Beverages

These are the beverages which are prepared after alcoholic fermentation of sugars by yeast, contain varying amounts of ethyl alcohol (5-42%), and are consumed directly or after dilution in water.

Wine : Product made by alcoholic fermentation of grapes or grape juice unless otherwise specified, by yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae and a subsequent ageing process. Alcohol content is 11-14 %, but may be as low as 7%.

Spoilage may be defined as the deteriorative process which renders the food inedible or results into reduction of quality.

Spoilage is Mainly of Two Types

Abiotic Spoilage: Less potential for causing health hazards to consumers. Occurs due to

With renewed interest in rainfed agriculture during 1970s, both the national (AICRPDA and CRIDA) and international institutions (ICRISAT) have studied several aspects of rainwater management. Recommendations have been made after their through testing both at the research Stations and on farmer’s fields. Initially these technologies were accepted by the farmers because of the pursuation by the Scientists and the incentives, but many of them are forgotten once the support is withdrawn. It is now time for us to examine whether the technologies themselves were weak or certain components were missing malfunctioning of the software may be due to a bug right from the beginning or it entered into the system at a later stage. It is also possible that we neglected certain critical inputs which became major constraints making the system defunct. Whatever the reason it should be identified and set right if the technology has to continue as tool for tackling the challenges of rainfed agriculture.

Main constraints of dry land agriculture to enhance the productivity are classified as follows:

A number of innovations have taken place towards ready to eat instant food mixes of traditional origin. These have helped people to eat traditional food in which ever part of the world they go.

MTR Company

In India the best example is of MTR company which manufactures a range of packaged foods which includes breakfast mixes, ready to eat meals, masalas and spices, snacks and beverages. Snacks, such as kodubale, khara boondi and masala groundnut are very popular as they are ready to eat packets and contain healthy food with less oil. The different spices used for mixes are procured from famous countries which give the perfect taste and avoid rancidity.As a summer launch, milkshake with canned chikoo, banana and cold filter coffee are available. MTR Foods Pvt. Ltd. is a subsidiary of Norwegian conglomerate Orkla and is an acronym of Mavalli Tiffin Rooms. According to the company, India is on the verge of explosive growth in packaged instant foods. MTR has an aim to target a market of Rs 30, 000 crore with their products of traditional meals, breakfast, snacks and desserts. The Nielsen India study has shown that in 2020, the number of consumers in this category will be 2.7 times than the current base.

Mother’s Recipe is a brand which make traditional pickles in bottles with a distribution network to 20 states in India and exporting the products globally. The manufacturing is done in-house and the raw materials are procured seasonally in large quantities. After cleaning they are cut according to the recipe. Each variety of mango pickle has its own cutting process. Some are automatically cut, while others need manual work. The use of right oils, spices roasted inhouse, and marination of the pickles according to the practices of the particular region allow many consumers to relish them. Bottling and packaging are done only when the orders come.

Concept of nutrient availability: The ions in the soil solution are available to plant provided they can reach an active root or it can reach them. The concentration of ions in the soil solution at any given moment is however; usually low, except immediately after the application of water soluble fertilizers.

Most of the nutrients are taken up by the plant in the form of cations which are positively charged. Available cations either in the soil solution or held against leaching by negatively charged clay or humus particles are easily taken up by the plants. Other plant nutrients notably phosphorus, boron and molybdenum are taken up by the plant as anions which are negatively charged. The concentration of anions in the soil solution is usually low because they become converted to new less soluble forms e.g., soluble phosphate ions forms less soluble iron or aluminium phosphates. Minerals upon weathering and organic matter upon mineralization release nutrient ions.

Physical factors

However, much readily available nutrients a soil may contain various physical features of the soil make it impossible for the plant roots to absorb it. It then becomes positionally unavailable. These features include hard pans, undesirable soil structures, presence of hard clods, dry soil horizons and water logged situation.

Low soil cation exchange capacity leads to less retention of calcium, magnesium, potassium, copper and zinc.

Soil microorganisms (Flora & Fauna) are just like higher plants depends entirely on soil for their nutrition, growth and activity. The major soil factors which influence the microbial population, distribution and their activity in the soil

Soil microbial biomass is an important parameter linking the plants to soil. It comprises about 2-3% of the total organic carbon in the soil and recognized as an important source of nutrients to plants. It is also a dynamic component of the soil associated with several functional properties of the terrestrial ecosystem. It represents the fraction of the soil responsible for the energy and nutrient cycling and the regulation of organic matter transformation.

Microbial biomass is a small but labile and living component of soil organic matter that is involved in most bio-geo-chemical processes in the terrestrial ecosystem. It interacts with crop productivity by regulating nutrient availability as a source; determining soil carbon storage- sink; and contributing to the atmospheric CO₂ from respiration. Thus it is the main agent that controls the flow of carbon and cycling of nutrient elements.

There is a close relationship between soil microbial biomass, decomposition rate, and nitrogen mineralization. It is also positively correlated with grain yield in organic farming and also contributes to soil structure and stabilization. Thus, there is the immense importance of microbial biomass in soil fertility as well as in agriculture.

Industrial microbiology is an important area of applied microbiology. In a broader sense, industrial microbiology is concerned with all aspects of business that relate to microbiology. It refers to the use of microorganisms in commercial enterprise. Cheap raw materials are converted to valuable products through the metabolism of microbes. Microbes for this purpose could be exploited in different ways.

Various commercial products of economic value made by microbes are :