eChapters

The average productivity of pulses (Table 1) is only 460 kg/ha but it ranges from 199 kg/ha (Moth bean) to 1719 kg/ha (Field pea). Year to year fluctuation in productivity of different pulses was also observed. The highest productivity i.e. 1067 kg/ha was observed during the year 2006-07 & the lowest productivity i.e. 497 kg/ha was recorded during the year 2008-09. The trend of area under pulse crop during the last ten years has also shown a wide fluctuation. Year to year and crop to crop variations are most pronounced.  The crop wise major pulse growing districts in Rajasthan are as follows.

The average productivity of pulses (Table 1) is only 460 kg/ha but it ranges from 199 kg/ha (Moth bean) to 1719 kg/ha (Field pea). Year to year fluctuation in productivity of different pulses was also observed. The highest productivity i.e. 1067 kg/ha was observed during the year 2006-07 & the lowest productivity i.e. 497 kg/ha was recorded during the year 2008-09. The trend of area under pulse crop during the last ten years has also shown a wide fluctuation. Year to year and crop to crop variations are most pronounced.  The crop wise major pulse growing districts in Rajasthan are as follows.

Endometritis is one of the leading causes of reproductive inefficiency, infertility and decreased milk yield in high yielding dairy cows and buffaloes as well as in other species of animals and are associate with severe economic loss. Indiscriminate use of antimicrobial agents has resulted in development of resistance to the synthetic antimicrobials. Plant-derived active principles have promising potential to act as an alternative to conventional antimicrobial agents. In the present study, an attempt was made to investigate the mechanism of action of Prosopis juliflora leaves (PJ) extract against clinical isolates of E. coli.. Out of 42 clinical samples of uterine discharges and 23 isolates from cattle and buffaloes having history of uterine infection, we identified two isolates as virulent E. coli based on the cultural, biochemical and genotypic characterization. Ethanolic PJ extract showed presence of large quantity of total phenolic acid and flavonoid contents as well as promising in vitro antioxidant and radical scavenging activity. PJ extract exhibited a marked in vitro antibacterial effect against S4 isolate and reference strain (ATCC 25922) as evidenced by agar well diffusion test with MIC value of 0.39 mg/ml. This antibacterial action of PJ extract was shown to initiate at 6 h post-exposure while the complete bactericidal action was achieved at 12 h post-exposure.

Endometritis is one of the leading causes of reproductive inefficiency, infertility and decreased milk yield in high yielding dairy cows and buffaloes as well as in other species of animals and are associate with severe economic loss. Indiscriminate use of antimicrobial agents has resulted in development of resistance to the available antimicrobials. Plant-derived active principles have promising potential to act as an alternative to conventional antimicrobial agents. In the present study, an attempt was made to investigate the mechanism of action of Eucalyptus robusta leaves (ER) extract against resistant bacterial isolates. Out of 70 clinical samples of uterine discharges from cattle and buffaloes having history of uterine infection, we have identified one isolate as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus. As per the CLSI guideline, this isolate (S4) was found to be catalase +ve, oxidase –ve and possess mecA and coaA genes along with shown resistance to cefoxitin and MIC breakpoint for oxacillin was >4 µg/ml. Methanolic extract of ER reconstituted in water showed presence of eucalyptol (marker compound) along with other major bioactive phytoconstituents following GC-MS analysis. ER extract exhibited marked in vitro antibacterial effect against S4 isolate and MRSA (ATCC 33591) as evidenced by agar well diffusion test with MIC value of 0.3125 mg/ml.

The Ramayana written by sage Valmiki is one of the great epics of the Sanskrit language. It is most religiously regarded and popular book in Hinduism. The book is believed to be complied between 300 B.C.E. – 200 AD. However, the original story could be as old 500 B.C.E. (Goldman, 1984). There are many other versions of the epic in various regional languages found in India and South Asia (Raghunathan, 1981; Arya,1998; Dutt, 2004; Mukherjee, 2015; Sharma and Arya, 2022).

As per literature references, the name ‘Ramanaya’ is composed of two words, ‘Rama’ and ‘Aya?a’. Rama, the name of the main character of the Epic, has two contextual meanings. In the Atharvaveda, it means 'dark’, dark-coloured, ‘black' and is related to the word ‘ratri’ (night) which means 'darkness of night'. The other meaning, which can be found in the Mahabharata, is 'pleasing’, pleasant, charming, lovely, beautiful. The word ‘Ayana’ means travel or journey. Thus, Ramaya?a means ‘Rama's Journey’ from his kingdom to various places, forests during his life time (Anonymous, 1960; Tulsidas, 1966; Murthy, 2003; Kishore, 2007; Rajagopalachari, 2013).

Ramayana contains over 24,000 couplet verses, in its full form, which are divided into following seven ‘Ka??as’ (booklets) - Balaka??a, Ayodhyaka??a, Ara?yaka??a, Ki?kindhaka??a, Sundaraka??a, Yuddhaka??a, Uttaraka??a and about 500 sargas (chapters). It is regarded as one of the longest epic poems written in history (Keshavadas, 1988; Debroy, 2017; Gupta, 2021).

morally right man in the world? Narada replied that such a man is Rama, son of King Dasharatha of Ayodhya. Valmiki wanted to know more about Rama and proceeded to take bath when he saw two birds in playful mood and was happy. Suddenly, a hunter hiding in the bush shot one of the two birds. Valmiki became painful and chanted some dialogues in curse which ultimately created a new form of sloka. This was the beginning of the main narrative (Goldman, 1984; Sachithanantham, 2004).

The rambutan is native to Malaysia and commonly cultivated throughout the archipelago and southeast Asia. Though a close relative of the lychee and an equally desirable fruit, this member of the Sapindaceae is not nearly as well-known. Botanically, it is Nephelium lappaceum L. (syns. Euphoria nephelium DC.; Dimocarpus crinita Lour.). In the vernacular, it is generally called rambutan (in French, ramboutan or ramboutanier; in Dutch, ramboetan); occasionally in India, ramboostan.

Genus : Nephelium 
Species : lappaceum L.
Family : Sapindaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 22

Rambutan is one fruit from the Malay Archipelago which has become very popular in its place of origin and is well distributed here. Besides, rambutan a number of other valuable tropical fruits are present which are yet to be cultivated extensively in other tropical and subtropical parts of the world. In Singapore and Penang the fruit grows in abundance. Though very popular in Malay Archipelago, Sri Lanka, however it is unknown in India, Madagascar, Mauritius etc. The fruits common name has been derived from Malayan word rambut referring to hairs by which the fruit surface is covered with. The fruit is also known by other names like Rambustan, rambotang, ramboetan etc. The crop is strictly tropical in climate requirements and is very sensitive to frost. For best performance it likes a hot and moist climate and is a major factor why the crop has not succeeded in most other places.

A. Diseases

1. Alternaria leaf spot

Occurrence & severity status

In the years 2012 and 2013, black leaf spot disease was observed on ramie plants in Hunan and Hubei Provinces, China (Yu et al., 2016). Yu et al. (2016) claimed that their report was the first report of Alternaria leaf spot of ramie in China.

Symptoms

In the field, the symptoms of this disease included dark green to black big spots on leaves (Fig. 20A), often resulting in upwardly curled leaf margins (Yu et al., 2016).

Ramsar sites, designated under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, play a crucial role in global biodiversity conservation by providing vital habitats for numerous species and maintaining ecological processes. These sites are often located within biodiversity hotspots, regions characterized by high levels of endemic species and significant habitat loss. The intersection of Ramsar sites and biodiversity hotspots highlights the importance of conserving wetlands, which serve as critical ecosystems for both terrestrial and aquatic life. This paper explores the ecological significance of Ramsar sites, their contributions to sustaining biodiversity, and the challenges they face due to climate change, pollution, and urbanization. Through effective management and conservation strategies, Ramsar sites can enhance global efforts to preserve biodiversity and mitigate the impacts of environmental degradation, ensuring a sustainable future for both wildlife and human communities.

RAPD stands for Random Amplification of Polymorphic DNA. It is a type of PCR reaction, but the segments of DNA that are amplified are random. The scientist performing RAPD creates several arbitrary, short primers (8-12 nucleotides), then proceeds with the PCR using a large template of genomic DNA, hoping that fragments will amplify. By resolving the resulting patterns, a semi-unique profile can be gleaned from a RAPD reaction.

No knowledge of the DNA sequence for the targeted gene is required, as the primers will bind somewhere in the sequence, but it is not certain exactly where. This makes the method popular for comparing the DNA of biological systems that have not had the attention of the scientific community, or in a system in which relatively few DNA sequences are compared (it is not suitable for forming a DNA databank). Because it relies on a large, intact DNA template sequence, it has some limitations in the use of degraded DNA samples. Its resolving power is much lower than targeted, species specific DNA comparison methods, such as short tandem repeats. In recent years, RAPD is used to characterize, and trace, the phylogeny of diverse plant and animal species.

RAPD stands for Random Amplification of Polymorphic DNA. It is a type of PCR reaction, but the segments of DNA that are amplified are random. The scientist performing RAPD creates several arbitrary, short primers (8-12 nucleotides), then proceeds with the PCR using a large template of genomic DNA, hoping that fragments will amplify. By resolving the resulting patterns, a semi-unique profile can be gleaned from a RAPD reaction.

No knowledge of the DNA sequence for the targeted gene is required, as the primers will bind somewhere in the sequence, but it is not certain exactly where. This makes the method popular for comparing the DNA of biological systems that have not had the attention of the scientific community, or in a system in which relatively few DNA sequences are compared (it is not suitable for forming a DNA databank). Because it relies on a large, intact DNA template sequence, it has some limitations in the use of degraded DNA samples. Its resolving power is much lower than targeted, species specific DNA comparison methods, such as short tandem repeats. In recent years, RAPD is used to characterize, and trace, the phylogeny of diverse plant and animal species.

Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 A random variable (r.v) is a real number x connected with the outcomes of a random experiment.

Q.2 In tossing of a balanced die at one time, the number coming on the upper most face of the die is a random variable x which takes any one out of 6 values taken as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

Q.3 Let s be the sample space associated with a given random experiment. A real valued function defned on s and taking values in R (-∞,∞) is called one dimensional random variable.

Q.4 In general a n dimensional random variable is simply a function whose domain is S and whose range is a collection of n-tuples of real members (vectors in n-space).

Introduction

In any experiment, for instance, a varietal trial or a treatment trial, the main purpose of the experimental design would be to detect the differences among the varieties or treatments. This assumes, as an obvious prerequisite that the experimental units, such as plots or animals, be as alike as possible so that differences observed in responses, such as yield in varietal trial, could be attributable to the varietal or treatment differences. But more often than not, this condition is not realized to a satisfactory degree in practice due to heterogeneity present in experimental units. In a field experiment, for instance, a big piece of land might be quite heterogeneous regarding soil fertility, moisture content, salinity, etc; so that experimental plots marked on this land would differ widely among themselves, though plots nearer to each other would be more alike or homogeneous than the plots scattered distant apart; also in the case of animal experiments, animals forming the experimental units might be heterogeneous regarding their ages , weights, genetic composition, etc. With such experimental units in the experiment, the variability produced in the observations will be comparatively high so that only large treatment differences are detectable, since small differences are obsecured by large error variability.

The randomized complete block design (RCBD), is perhaps the most widely used design of all experimental designs, mainly for its simplicity, flexibility and validity. The main objective of the design is either to control, remove or reduce the variability due to heterogeneity in experimental material, which is quite irrelevant for treatment comparisons. In CRD, the error variability as estimated from the residual sum of squares will be considerably high. The RCBD is a device introduced in this design for separating out the variability due to heterogeneity among experimental units from the variability due to all extraneous sources, thus purifying in one sense. The design is especially suitable for field experiments where the number of treatments is not large and the experimental area has a predictable productivity gradient.The primary distinguishing feature of the RCBD is the presence of blocks of equal size, each of which contains all the treatments.

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the randomized block design (RBD), detailing its theoretical concept, layout, and a detailed segment on pooled ANOVA concepts. It explains the mathematical models for RBD and how to interpret the results from ANOVA tables in this context. The chapter also offers step-by-step guidance for analyzing RBD, Factorial RBD, and pooled RBD ANOVA using R.

Randomized Block Design

The RBD is a widely used experimental design in statistics and research, particularly when dealing with certain specific conditions:

• Homogeneity within blocks: RBD is ideal when there is inherent variability in the experimental units, but this variability can be grouped into homogenous blocks. Each block contains a complete set of treatments, and the blocks themselves account for the variability.

• Principles of experimental design: RBD adheres to the core principles of experimental design, namely randomization, replication, and local control. Randomization is used within blocks to assign treatments, ensuring that the comparison of treatments is fair.

• Replication across blocks: In RBD, each treatment is replicated across different blocks. This replication enhances the reliability and robustness of the experimental results.

• Managing uncontrolled variability: RBD is particularly effective in field experiments or situations where external variability (e.g., soil type, light conditions) cannot be completely controlled. By grouping similar units into blocks, RBD effectively reduces the impact of this uncontrolled variability on the treatment effects.

• Improvement in experimental accuracy: The use of blocks to organize the experimental units usually leads to a reduction in the error variance compared to CRD. This enhances the accuracy and precision of the experiment.

Objective: To amplify DNA using RAPD primers and study on agarose gel.

Background information:

RAPD markers are decamer (10 nucleotide length) DNA fragments from PCR amplification of random segments of genomic DNA with single primer of arbitrary nucleotide sequence and which are able to differentiate between genetically distinct individuals. RAPD is applied to analyze the genetic diversity by random primers. Unlike traditional PCR analysis, RAPD does not require any prior DNA sequence information of the target organism: the identical 10-mer primers will or will not amplify a segment of DNA, depending on positions complementary with primers' sequence. For example, no fragment is produced if primers annealed too far apart or 3' ends of the primers are not facing each other. Therefore, if a mutation has occurred in the templ that was earlier complementary with primer, a PCR product will not be produced, resulting in a different pattern of amplified DNA segments on the gel. RAPD is a dominant marker means it cannot distinguish between heterozygous; single copy and homozygous; two copies. Rarely RAPD markers may be Co-dominant where different fragment length of DNA is amplified from the single locus. PCR is a molecular technique used for amplification of DNA, a complete enzyme based chemical reaction, therefore, the concentration and quality of template DNA, concentrations of PCR components, and the PCR cycling conditions may greatly influence the outcome. Thus, the RAPD technique is notoriously laboratory dependent and needs carefully developed laboratory protocols to be reproducible. Mismatches between the primer and the template may result in the total absence of PCR product or decreased amplified product. Thus, the RAPD results can be difficult to interpret.

1. ‘Agrostoogical’ refers to cultivation of_____________. (Grasses)
2. Land on which the potential plant community is composed periodically of native grass, forbs and shrubs valuable for forage and in sufficient quantity to justifying grazing use is called as_____________. (Rangeland)
3. The basic object of range management is to_____________ and_____________ the rangeland for higher production of fodder, rich in nutritive value and palatability. (Improve & maintain)
4. ICAR had carried a grassland survey of India in 1954 by Wnyte, Venkatramanan and Dabadghao had found_____________ types of grass land in different environment. (8)
5. The main reason for the enormous increase in livestock population is_____________. (Social attitude of the people)
6. All the vegetation consumed by grazing animals including fruits and twigs of trees and shrubs is called_____________. (Pasturage & forage)
7. The practice by which the gap can be bridged between the requirement and availability of animal feeds and fodder is known as_____________. (Grass land techniques)
8. The scientists_____________ have recognised five type of grass covers in India. (Dabadghao & Shankar Narayan, 1979)
9. The maximum area of about 2.8 milloin square kilometre is covered under_____________ type of grassland in India. (Phragmites Saccharum type)

14.1 Introduction

The theory of simple correlation (r_xy), regression coefficients (b_yx & b_xy) and their test of significance have been discucsed in chapter 13. The test of significance of observed partial correlation coefficient p₁₂₃(k+2) and multiple correlation coefficient R₁₂₃, have also been discussed in sections 13.4 and 13.5 respectively. Now in this chapter mainly the process of how to calculate spearman’s rank correlation coefficient, partial correlation and regression coefficients and multiple correlation coefficient using their fundamental definitions as well as appropriate statistical formule in terms of pairwise simple correlation coefficient r_ij (i = j = 1, 2, 3) in trivariate populations have been provided to make the students and its users to be familiar with basic and crystal clear concepts of the subject matter with the help of an empirical studies based on some original data on (X₁, X₂, X₃). Here X₁ has been considered as study variate and (X₂, X₃) as covariates.

This family is represented by about 62 genera and 2,252 species, chiefly distributed in the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Eastern Asia and eastern North America are the regions of their most common occurrence. The common genera, of which over 150 or more species have so far been reported, include Ranunculus (400), Aconitum (300), Delphinium (250), Clematis (250), Anemone (150) and Thalictrum (150). Some species occur in Arctic and Alpine zones. However, they are rare in tropics. Twenty genera and over 165 species of this family have so far been reported from India. Plants of this family flower mainly during winter in our country. Selected Indian Genera and Species
• Ornamentals: Many Ranunculaceae have showy flowers and are grown as ornamentals in gardens. Some of such ornamentals are Aconitum napellus (aconite), Anemone parviflora (wind flower), Aquilegia coerulea (columbine), Caltha palustris (Marsh marigold), Clematis virginiana (traveller’s joy), Delphinium ajacis (larkspur), Helleborus (Christmas rose), Nigella damascena (love-in-a-mist), Paeonia emodi (Peony), Ranunculus aquatilis, R. seleratus (cedery peaved crow foot).

ABSTRACT

Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers were used for characterizing eleven banana (Musa AAB Plantain Subgroup) clones using 40 decamer primers. Eight primers, which produced reproducible banding patterns, yielded 42 scorable bands with an average of 5.25 bands per primer. The amplification products ranged in size from 400 to 1500 bp. A genetic similarity matrix was constructed using the Jaccard’s coeffecient method. The pair wise similarity coefficient values varied between 0.3333 and 0.9355. Based on the coefficients, distances between the clones were computed using SYSTAT software package. In the dendrogram constructed by the nearest neighbour (single- link) method (Krzanowski, 1988), all the eleven clones were found grouped under five clusters. Attu Nendran, Changanasseri Nendran, Changazhikodan, Kaliethan, Koonoor Ethan and Quintal Banana formed the largest cluster. Manjeri Nendran and Myndoli formed the second cluster. Padalamurian, Mysore Ethan and Zanzibar formed three separate clusters. Zanzibar, belonging to the Horn Plantain group was different from the rest of the clones.

ABSTRACT

There is a wide variability in the contents of the commercially important chemical compounds of Centella asiatica depending on the source / ecotypes of the plants. The glycosides found in Indian plants include brahmoside, brahminoside and minor amounts of asiaticosides, which vary in their relative contents depending on the ecotypes. An RAPD marker assisted study of ten accessions, collected from different geographical locations of Kerala, viz., Parumala (Kottayam District), Kottayam, Nagercoil (Tamil Nadu), Mananthala (Trivandrum District), Vlathankara (Trivandrum District), Ponmudi (High range, Trivandrum District), Angamaly (Ernakulam District), Punalur (Kollam district), Pattambi (Palakkad district) and Calicut, was conducted. DNA amplification of the accessions was studied using forty decamer primers, involving 43 cycles. Based on the number of bands four primers were selected. The least similarity coefficient of 0.71 was shown by the Pattambi accession, which formed a separate cluster with all other accessions. Nagercoil and Ponmudi accessions showed the highest similarity coefficient of 0.88 with each other.

ABSTRACT

Hevea brasiliensis, the main source of natural rubber (NR) is commercially propagated through bud grafting. Since Hevea brasiliensis is a cross-pollinated tree crop, seeds obtained are highly heterozygous. Earlier, plantations were grown from unselected seeds. But due to poor yield and large tree - to - tree variations in growth and yield in such plantations bud grafting with desirable scions is now being adopted for commercial planting. Genetically divergent seedlings grown from open pollinated seeds are used as rootstocks to graft the selected scion. This can lead to stock - scion interactions. Large intraclonal variations observed in growth and yield of bud-grafted clones of Hevea are attributed to the genetic heterogeneity of the rootstocks. Monoclonal and polyclonal seed gardens have been established in Kanya Kumari District of Tamil Nadu for producing good quality seeds. Monoclonal seeds are collected from monoclonal seed gardens where only one clone is planted in a vast area without any interference from pollen grains from other clones. Polyclonal seeds are collected from polyclonal seed gardens where different clones are planted in an area and the seeds are fertilized by pollen grains from all the clones. It is a general assumption that seedlings grown from polyclonal seeds may be highly heterogeneous than seedlings grown from monoclonal seeds. The objective of the present study was to find out the reliability of this assumption by studying the genetic variations existing among the polyclonal and monoclonal seedlings. RAPD analysis of leaf samples from polyclonal and monoclonal viz, RRIM 600, PB 86 and GT1 seedlings was carried out using ten Operon arbitrary decamer primers that gave informative amplification. The results showed that there was no significant difference in the genetic variations among the polyclonal and monoclonal seedlings.

Rapeseed and mustard are termed in different names in different places. Sarson and toria (lahi) are generally termed as rape seeds. Rai, raya or laha are termed as mustard. Rape seed and mustard belongs to the species Brassica of the family Cruciferae. It is an annual plant or biennial herbs. Rape seed and mustard are the major rabi oilseed crops of India.

Oilseed Brassicas also referred to as rapeseed-mustard, an important group of oilseed crops in the world, comprise eight cultivated crops of tribe Brassiceae within the family Cruciferae (Brassicaceae). The word ‘rape’ and ‘mustard’ have been derived from the word rapum meaning turnip and European practice of mixing the sweet ‘must’ of old wine with crushed seeds of black mustard [Brassica nigra (L.) Koch] to form a hot paste (Hemingway, 1976).

Rapeseed
Rapeseed (Brassica napus L.), a member of the Brassicaceae family, is one of the primary oilseed crops cultivated for biodiesel production, particularly in Europe and Canada (Hoekman et al., 2012; Demirbas, 2009). Its seeds contain 40-45% oil, making it one of the most efficient oil crops for biofuel production (Ramos et al., 2009). The extracted oil is known as canola oil, which is preferred for both food and fuel applications due to its low erucic acid and glucosinolate content (Atabani et al., 2012). Rapeseed (Brassica napus L.), is one of the biofuel species that has achieved global attention, primarily due to its high yield, climatic versatility as well as its low environmental impact than fossil fuels (Singh et al., 2010). The crop is being grown all over the temperate region because its ability to resist cold temperatures and pests is a major advantage for the practice of sustainable agriculture. Moreover, the rapeseed has been positively affected by the development of biotechnology and the utilization of hybrid breeding that has been significantly increasing the oil yield and disease resistance of rapeseed, thus, facilitating the biodiesel production from this plant (Zanetti et al., 2013). Biodiesel from rapeseed has ecological advantages, significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions by up to 50% compared to regular diesel (Hill et al., 2006). It also supports rural economic development through the diversification of farmer income and diminishing reliance on imported petroleum (FAO, 2021). The increasing price of the biofuel, chiefly supported by sustainable energy policies and reducing carbon footprint policies, is one of the driving factors for increasing demand of rapeseed as global demand for renewable energy sources rises (Euopean Commission 2021).
Sunflower
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) is an important oilseed crop used for biodiesel production, especially in temperate regions like Europe and North America (Demirbas, 2009). The oil content of sunflower seeds ranges from 25-50%, making it a suitable feedstock for biofuel (Atabani et al., 2012). The characteristics of sunflower oil, such as the high content of unsaturated fatty acids, lead to better cold flow properties of its biodiesel (Ramos et al., 2009). In addition, the creation of high-oleic sunflower varieties allowed considerable improvement in oxidative stability and led to the fact that sunflower biodiesel is more suitable for storage and combustion (Dimitrijevic et al., 2017). A second

Introduction
 
Poor nutrient use efficiency result in loss of nearly 0.8 million tonnes of nitrogen, 1.8 million tonnes of phosphorus and 26.3 million tonnes of potassium annually. Soil health is further deteriorated by imbalanced application of nutrients and excessive mining of micronutrients, leading to deficiency of macro- and micronutrients in the soils (ICAR Vision 2030). Due to the imbalanced use of plant nutrients, mining of nutrients is considered as the main cause for decline in crop yield and crop response ratio.

ABSTRACT

Vitex trifolia L. (Verbenaceae) is known for its medicinal property. Micropropagation can provide the opportunity to obtain large number of homogeneous plants and there are no reports of micropropagation of this species. So, we attempted for in vitro propagation of this species and described here is an efficient and rapid propagation method. This report describes in vitro shoot induction and plant regeneration from mature nodal explants of Vitex trifolia L. on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium fortified with benzylaminopurine (BAP), kinetin (KN), thidiazuron (TDZ), adenine (ADE), and 2- isopentenyladenine (2 - iP) (0.25-10.0 mM). Multiple shoots differentiated directly without callus mediation within 3 weeks when explants were cultured on medium supplemented with cytokinins. The maximum number of shoots (9 shoots per explant) was developed on a medium supplemented with 5.0 mM BAP. Shoot cultures was established repeatedly by subculturing the original nodal explant on the same medium. Rooting of shoots was achieved on half strength MS medium supplemented with 0.5 mM naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA). Rooted plantlets were transferred to pots containing autoclaved soil and vermiculite mixture (1:1) that showed 90 % survival when transferred to outdoor. Plants transferred to the field have established themselves in the soil and are growing well. The regenerated plants did not show any immediately detectable phenotypic variation. Natural stands of Vitex trifolia are fast disappearing in India because of indiscriminate collection and over exploitation and the outlined procedure here offers a potential system for mass multiplication and conservation of Vitex trifolia.

The great Indian epic ‘Ramayana’ says that ‘Lord Rama’ has tried to cross over the Bay of Bengal so as to reach Sri Lanka from India from three points along the southeastern fringe of the Indian coast. Firstly, he is said to have tried to cross from Vedaranniyam which is mythologically called as ‘Kodiyakkarai’ Secondly from Manamelkudi and finally crossed over to Sri Lanka from Rameswaram Island (Fig.1), as the former two coastal locations were widely separated from Sri Lanka by Bay of Bengal and the Rameswaram Island was nearer to Sri Lanka during that period. But, the recently acquired satellite data shows the huge accretion of sediments and rapid land building activity off Vedaranniyam coast (Fig. 2 and 3). The geomorphic interpretations carried out using IRS 1A imagery and 14^C archaeological dating of such geomorphic features have shown that such ongoing sediment accretion phenomena off vedaranniyam nose might in future connect the Vedaranniyam part of Indian Peninsula with Jaffna Peninsula of Sri Lanka if the sediment accumulation continues unabated. The sediment accretion in this area, therefore, requires detailed studies particularly in the context of the coastal ecosystem (Fig. 1).

1. Introduction

Foods are complex biologically and chemically active systems that require close monitoring of their manufacturing, distribution and storage conditions in order to maintain their nutritive value, safety and sensory qualities by suitable chemical. The determination of trace impurities in food system presents considerable difficulties owing to complexity as it contains thousands of major and minor compounds (Nilufer and Boyacio, 2002). The choice of the method of analysis depends on the sample, the analyte to be assayed, accuracy, limit of detection, cost and time to complete the analysis (Aboul- Eneim et al., 2000). The chemical methods employed for food analysis and quality control are generally time consuming and require tedious or destructive sample preparation. For development of the new detection method, emphasis should be on development of simplified, cost-effective and efficient procedures that complies with the legislative requirements (Stroka and Anklem, 2002; Enker, 2003).

The molecular spectroscopy is a fast, accurate, easy and non-destructive technique that can be used as a replacement of time-consuming methods. Near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy has proved to be a powerful analytical tool used in the agricultural, nutritional, petrochemical, textile and pharmaceutical industries (McGlone and others, 2002; Esteban-Diez and others, 2004). Infra red spectroscopy is based on the absorption of infra red light by the substance to be measured. This absorption excites molecular vibrations and rotations, which have frequencies that are the same as those in the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum (Pande and Mishra, 2015). This application uses a fiber optic coupled FT-NIR system operating in the 10,000 – 4,000 cm^-1 region in reflectance mode. It involves the analysis and quantification of molecular responses to introduced signals of known energy or frequency. All molecules (e.g. water, glucose, protein) have a definite amount of energy. When alternate energy (e.g. infrared radiation) is introduced, an energy exchange occurs between the introduced energy and the energy contained within the molecule. This is expressed as absorbance (energy is absorbed resulting in a loss of introduced energy), attenuated (energy is scattered resulting in a loss of introduced energy) or emitted (energy is released resulting in a gain on the introduced energy). As individual molecules and molecular groups (e.g. alcohols, nucleic acids, proteins, sugars and fats) have definite energy, by applying external energy of a known amount/type, one can structurally identify, quantify and even determine the natural state of these molecules within complex samples and mixtures.

ABSTRACT

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is a woody perennial tree of tropical origin, belonging to the family Anacardiaceae. Cashew is being cultivated in India, Brazil and Africa countries. It is well known for its food, noon food and medicinal uses. In vitro clonal propagation of cashew, which is an effective method for large-scale multiplication of trees was tried. Cashew plantlets were regenerated from shoot explants of 2 - 3 year old grafted plants, which were regularly sprayed with Bavistin 0.1 per cent at weekly intervals. Among the different surface sterilization treatments used, a combination of antioxidants, antibiotics and fungicides was found to be better with around 40 per cent contamination free cultures being obtained. MS medium containing full strength macro elements supplemented with Kinetin (5 mg l ^-1), NAA (1mg l ^-1) and Brassinolide (0.1 mg l ^-1) was found to be best for shoot proliferation and shoot elongation. Micro shoots were rooted in vitro at a frequency of 70-80 per cent, when cultured for 4-8 days in quarter MS liquid medium supplemented with IBA (1mg l ^-1) after the pulse treatment with IBA (100 mg l ^-1) for two minutes. The average number of roots ranged from 3 - 5 with an average length of 1.63 cm. About 50 - 60 per cent of the rooted microshoots survived wearing and produced healthy and vigorously growing plants, which were transferred successfully to the field.

ABSTRACT

Asimple and reproducible protocol for the rapid propagation of Clitoria ternatea L., a flowering garden climber cum medicinally valuable plant, was developed through somatic embryogenesis from the leaf explants. Leaf segments excised from 12 days old in vitro raised seedlings on inducing callus by culturing in MS medium containing 0.5 mgl^-12,4-D and 0.1 mgl^-1 BAP and sub-culturing callus to MS medium containing 1.0 mgl^-1 BAP, produced numerous somatic embryos within 30 - 45 days. Embryos germinated and produced plantlets with intact shoot and root when they were cultured in MS medium devoid of any hormones and supplemented with GA₂ 0.1 to 1.0 mgl^-1. Elongation of plantlets could be achieved on hormone free MS medium in about 3 - 4 weeks. Well- grown plants on transfer to pots, containing sterile sand, in a growth chamber and three weeks later to the greenhouse gave about 40 per cent survival.

Soil testing kit is developed to determine the available nutrient status of soil by rapid test methods. With this system of soil testing, a farmer can test his own soil as often and, in as many places as he feels necessary, and after gauging the need of his soil, he can apply the fertilizers as required. The present mode of soil testing in laboratories usually takes few days and sometime weeks and the farmers may have to travel long distances to submit the soil sample.

The crop growth and productivity is conditioned by many factors of which, the nutrient status (Content) of plant parts such as leaf, stem, etc play a critical role. Moreover the leaf and stem are considered as the indicator parts of plants for assessing the nutrients content of plant. Each crop plant requires the essential element at a specific concentration at different growth stages and it is known as ‘critical level’. When the nutrient content of plant depletes below the critical level the plants may exhibit some symptoms. The requirement or otherwise the availability of nutrients can be assessed by i) plant diagnosis ii) soil analysis and iii) plant analysis by two methods a) by qualitative test and b) by quantitative estimation. Based on the plant or soil tests, the required nutrients can be applied for crops to sustain the growth and rectify the deficiency disorders. The rapid tissue test would pave way for rectifying the nutritional problems for quick recovery, however the quantitative estimation of both plant and soil for nutrients concentration will be more useful and economic for applying fertilizers either as basal or foliar and would be the long term strategy to cope up with nutritional problems.

For rapid tissue test to assess the nutrient status, different parts of plant should be taken as indicator tissue and some of the representative crops are furnished below:

Introduction

Mustard and rapeseed crops were grown since 3000 BC in the Indus valley and their use has been mentioned in the Ayurveda Simhata. Use of mustard oil is recorded in the last few centuries of the pre Christian era.

The global production of rapeseed-mustard is at 72 million tons (USDA), while that of the oil is 24 million tons. Currently China is the largest producer of mustard in the world. China, India and Pakistan grow about 90% of the world production of mustard. Rapeseed and mustard form the third important group of oilseed crops in the world after soybean (Glycine max) and palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq).

The word ‘rape’ and ‘mustard’ have been derived from the word rapum meaning turnip and European practice of mixing the sweet ‘must’ of old wine with crushed seeds of black mustard (Brassica nigra L. Koch) to form a hot paste, respectively (Hemingway 1976). Among the seven edible oilseeds cultivated in India, rapeseed-mustard (Brassica spp.) contributes 26.2% in the total production of oilseeds. In India, the rapeseed-mustard group is the third most important edible oilseed after soybean and groundnut, sharing 27.8% in the India’s oilseed economy. In India rapeseed and mustard are grown during the post-rainy winter season over an area of 7.49 million ha. Around 20% of the total area under rapeseed-mustard in India is totally under dryland cultivation subject to vagaries associated with dryland agriculture.

Introduction

The rare-earth elements (REEs) consist of a group of 17 elements that have atomic numbers between 57 (lanthanum) and 71 (lutetium). They are also known as lanthanides. The European Union banned all in-feed growth promoting antibiotics in 2006 because of public fears about the transmission and development of multi-resistant bacteria, which pose a threat to human health. Such restrictions have prompted the need to explore new safe, efficient, and inexpensive feed additives as alternative sources of growth promoters. Rare earth elements (REEs) have been used as feed additives for the last few decades due to their effectiveness in improving the body weight, feed conversion rate (FCR), and milk and egg production in various farm animals, including cattle, poultry, and swine.

ABSTRACT

The carbonatites are genetically and geochemically distinct and contain several rare earth minerals that are unknown or are very rare in other types of rocks. A useful review of the REE’s in carbonatites is given by Cullers and Graf (1984), who point out that carbonatite contains the highest concentration of REE’s and highest LREE: HREE (La:Lu) ratio of any igneous rock. High REE abundances are considered as the diagnostic character of carbonatites to discriminate them against recrystallized limestone. Rare earth mineralization in carbonatities can be classified into three categories. The first is primary magmatic crystallization (bastnaesite). The second is hydrothermal mineralization and the third is supergene mineralization produced by weathering of carbonatitie bodies. The only economic Nb mineral in carbonatite is pyrochlore. Apatite deposits constitute the largest bulk mining in carbonatites and have higher phosphate content than marine phosphorites. Pyrochlore, cubic fergusonite, eschynite, Fe-Nb rutile, monazite apatite, bastnaesite and allanite are the rare earth minerals that are enriched in Tamil Nadu carbonatites. Such enrichment of above rare earths is typical of undersaturated alkaline complexes. The lanthanides are seen associated with these minerals, mainly the light lanthanides are predominant than heavier ones. Thus the carbonatite complexes provide the locus for several metal deposits that are presently of strategic importance, containing elements, which are otherwise largely dispersed in earth crust.

Genus : Physalis 
Species : peruviana L.
Family : Solanaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 28, 48

Physalis (Greek for Bladder, as the thin calyx enlarges and encloses the fruit). Fruit is called as husk tomato or ground cherry. Is  a plant of warm and temperate  regions and is mostly cultivated for its edible fruit  which is sub acidic in taste and  the flavour resembles that of tomato hence the name tree tomato or husk tomato. The genus comprises  nearly 75 species mostly of American origin, however few species are also found in Asia and Europe. The species peruviana and pubescens are cultivated for their edible fruit whereas P. alkekengi Linn and  P Franchetii  Hort., are highly valued for their shiny large red calices. Plant is a very old garden plant grown mainly for its brilliantly coloured calices, is perennial, grows zigzag with soft pubescence  on stems. Leaves ovate, base broad and angular, petiole spreading at top. Flowers whitish with yellow anthers.

Raspberries are grown for the fresh fruit market and for commercial processing. There are many species of raspberry but the name originally referred with the red fruit to the European species Rubus idaeus. The English name comes from an old English term “raspis”, which refers to the slightly hairy or “rasping” surface of the fruit. The raspberry can be of any colour from orange, pink, red, purple to black. Rubus albescens also known as Mysore raspberry is native to India. It is also called Snowpeaks, Ceylon or Hill raspberry. 

The satellite data is available in raster format. Raster data consists of two – dimensional array of pixels or grids which stores the values representing features. All the pixels are of same size and shape with their particular coordinate location. A raster data format is shown below.

The calculation of raster data statistics is very essential before performing some geoprocessing operations. Raster data statistics involve knowing the distribution of pixel values in a band, comparing the pixel values of two bands, extracting values of all bands for a particular geographical location or point, and computing statistics like mean, median, standard deviation, etc. at pixel level across all bands of raster dataset.

In R, codes to perform raster data statistics are present in raster package. The visualisation of raster data statistics can be done by rasterVis package. So, we need to import these packages in R in order to perform this exercise.

A ratio is the comparison or simplified form of two quantities of the same kind. This relation indicates how many times one quantity is equal to the other; or in other words, ratio is a number, which expresses one quantity as a fraction of the other. For example, the ratio of 1 to 2 is 1 : 2. The numbers forming the ratio are called terms. The numerator, “1”, in this case, is known as the antecedent and the denominator, “2”, in this case, is known as the consequent.

In this article we will learn the approach applicable to solve various problems on ratios and proportions. In the next few lines you will go through some important concepts related to ratio problems and the methods you should apply to solve those problems. It is always better to solve as many problems as you can to boost your confidence. Some important points are given below to remember;

Q.1 Informations available on an auxiliary variable X which is highly correlated with the study variable y, can be utilized in improving the sampling design for the study variable y.

Q.2 Information on auxiliary variable X can be used for stratification of population for the study character y.

4.1 Introduction
In many surveys, information on an auxiliary (supplementary, ancillary or apriori) variable x, which is highly (positively or negatively)correlated with the variable y under study, is readily available and can be used for improving the sampling design. Stratified sampling and probability proportional to size (p.p.s) schemes are two examples of improved sampling designs, in which the use of data on auxiliary variable has been made. However in both the schemes, it implies that the information on auxiliary variable on individual sampling units is available prior to presentation of sampling design. In case, data on auxiliary variable for individual sampling units are not available but only the aggregate value for all units of auxiliary variable is available, the two schemes can not be used. In such a situation, the aggregate data on auxiliary variable can still be used at the time of estimation of parameters under consideration, provided the data on auxiliary variable for the sampled units can be easily obtained at the time of recording the values of the study variable. Such types of estimation are based on ratio, product, difference and regression methods of estimation.

4.1 Introduction

In many surveys, information on an auxiliary (supplementary, ancillary or apriori) variable x, which is highly (positively or negatively)correlated with the variable y under study, is readily available and can be used for improving the sampling design. Stratified sampling and probability proportional to size (p.p.s) schemes are two examples of improved sampling designs, in which the use of data on auxiliary variable has been made. However in both the schemes, it implies that the information on auxiliary variable on individual sampling units is available prior to presentation of sampling design. In case, data on auxiliary variable for individual sampling units are not available but only the aggregate value for all units of auxiliary variable is available, the two schemes can not be used. In such a situation, the aggregate data on auxiliary variable can still be used at the time of estimation of parameters under consideration, provided the data on auxiliary variable for the sampled units can be easily obtained at the time of recording the values of the study variable.

Introduction

Ration formulation is a process by which different feed ingredients are combined in a proportion necessary to provide the animal with proper amount of nutrients needed at a particular stage of production. It requires the knowledge about nutrients, feedstuffs and animal in the development of nutritionally adequate rations that will be eaten in sufficient amounts to provide the level of production at a reasonable cost. The ration should be palatable and will not cause any serious digestive disturbance or toxic effects to the animal.
 
Different species, strains or classes of animals have different requirements for energy (carbohydrates and fats), proteins, minerals and vitamins in order to maintain its various functions like maintenance, reproduction, egg production, milk production and/or growth.
  
Least-cost ration formulation for non-ruminants is being prepared by  linear computer programming. For ruminants the approach used is to maximize the use of roughage, then, concentrate is used to supply the deficient  nutrients to meet the requirement of the animals. It should be remembered that rations for ruminants are formulated on dry matter basis due to wide variations in moisture content of feeds especially roughage.