eChapters

The Review of literature is a systematic, explicit and reproducible method of identifying, evaluating and synthesizing the existing body of a completed and a recorded work produced by researchers, scholars and practitioners. The Review of literature is also a resource paper which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings as well as the theoretical and the methodological contributions to a particular topic. These are available mostly in academic and scholastic journals.

Review of literature provide the basics for research in nearly every academic f ield. This chapter is an extensive survey of all past studies relevant to the field of investigation which gives knowledge of what others have found out in the related field of study. In any scientific investigation or research, a comprehensive presentation of the review of literature is a statutory requirement.

The aim of review of literature is to highlight what has been done so far in the field of interest and how our findings are related to earlier research.

Its main functions are to develop a better understanding of the problem to be investigated, delineate a new area of study and avoid unnecessary duplication, decide on the tools and techniques to be adopted including developing some new ones and also to relate the present study with the previous ones by finding out the areas of agreement and disagreement.

The research setting provides specific details about the location where a study is conducted. This study area typically encompasses a particular geographical region, such as a state, district, block, or gram panchayat, chosen according to the research requirements. The researcher must have a thorough understanding of the locality, including its communication methods, in order to effectively access all parts of the region for data collection.

In social science research, a clear comprehension of the characteristics, attitudes, and behaviours of the individuals within the study area is essential. Without this understanding, accurately conceptualizing, perceiving, and interpreting data becomes challenging. To obtain a comprehensive understanding of the implications and behavioural intricacies of the local people representing a broader community in the referenced study area, researchers must have a solid grasp of these factors. Therefore, this chapter critically analyses the socio-demographic background of the residents in a rural setting.

The term “research setting” denotes the context in which research inputs and elements are absorbed, interacted with, and mutually contribute to the system’s overall performance.

The research setting is crucial because it shapes and influences the interactions of various factors and components. Therefore, conducting a study on how farmers perceive persuasive issues and other topics requires a local context that takes into account the unique natural environment, demographics, crop ecology, institutional framework, and socio-cultural factors. For example, when writing a paper about the social behaviour of chimpanzees, it is important to include details about the research setting. This may include information such as where the chimpanzees were studied (in the wild or in captivity), the number of chimpanzees that were observed, whether they were part of the same social group, the geographic location, the time of the study, the season/weather conditions, the availability of resources such as food, water, and shelter, and any environmental factors that were present.

The research methodology constitutes a comprehensive and well-structured plan of action for conducting the investigation and serves as a blueprint for the research process. Its purpose is to gain an understanding of the underlying concepts, methods, and techniques employed to define the study, gather relevant information, analyse data, and interpret the findings, thereby revealing concrete evidence and formulating theories.

In this chapter, an in-depth exploration of the research methodology is undertaken to comprehend the concepts, methods, and techniques employed for designing the study, gathering data, conducting data analysis, and interpreting the results. To facilitate clarity and ease of comprehension, the chapter has been divided into the following sub-headings:

1. Research Design

2. Locale of research

3. Pilot study

4. Sampling Design

5. Variables and their Empirical measurement 6. Methods of Data collection

7. Preparation of Interview Schedule

8. Item analysis and Expert’s rating for devising scoring technique for variables

9. Pre-testing of Interview Schedule

10. Data Processing and Analysis for FCM

11. Statistical Tools used for Data Analysis

12. Software used for Data Analysis

This chapter focuses on presenting empirical findings from data analysis to provide sufficient interpretation so to draw reliable conclusions. To enhance and complement the textual contents of the study, tables and models are frequently utilized. Additionally, the discussion serves to contextualize the study’s findings and establish connections with the research work.

Result: The Table 13 depicts the distributive characteristics of the variables for the 90 respondents under the study.

Revelation: The pattern of distribution of the variable, Age (x1 ) depicts that the maximum age of the respondents is 70 and the minimum is 26. The mean value of age of the respondents is 42.98 with standard deviation of 10.77. The distribution of the variable is strongly consistent with a CV value of 25.06 per cent.

The pattern of distribution of the variable, Education (x2 ) depicts that the maximum education of the respondents is 5 and the minimum is 2. The mean value of education of the respondents is 4.09 with standard deviation of 0.82. The Coefficient of Variation is 19.96 per cent which indicates the distribution of variable is highly consistent.

7.1 Summary

Climate change is a complex global phenomenon that poses significant challenges for agriculture including uncertainty about future weather patterns, soil conditions, and other environmental factors. Farmers are facing the difficult task of interpreting and responding to these changes in order to maintain their livelihoods and ensure food security for growing populations. In this context, mental modelling has emerged as a useful approach for understanding how farmers interpret and respond to climate change. Mental models are cognitive representations of how individuals understand and make decisions about complex systems, and can be used to identify key drivers of behaviour and decision-making.

The present study has explored the social, ecological, and economic factors that influence farmers’ mental models on perception of climate change, level of uncertainty and trend of agricultural change in the selected study area. It argues that farmers’ mental models are shaped by a range of factors, including their own experiences and observations, social networks and interactions, access to information and resources, and broader economic and political contexts. The present study has also highlighted the role of uncertainty in shaping farmers’ mental models and decision-making. Uncertainty about the future impacts of climate change can create significant challenges for farmers, as they must make decisions based on incomplete information and uncertain predictions.

Despite the meticulous methodology and extensive analysis employed throughout this research project, it is crucial to acknowledge and address the limitations that arose during the study. By recognizing these limitations, we not only ensure a transparent evaluation of the research process but also shed light on potential areas for future investigations to refine and expand upon the findings.

In this section of the chapter, the limitations encountered in this thesis are highlighted as follows:

1. Due to the complexity of the concept, obtaining quantitative responses proved to be exceedingly challenging.

2. The development of improved scales for scoring could have enhanced the research if implemented.

3. The inclusion of a greater number of relevant variables could have provided a more comprehensive and in-depth understanding of the research topic.

4. Deploying mathematical optimization and simulations could have effectively integrated and co-integrated the seemingly disparate aspects of climate change perception, uncertainty perception, and perception of agricultural dynamics.

5. Presently, farmers are hesitant to engage in conversations and provide data to individuals outside their close social circles.

As the present study draws to a close, it opens up a myriad of possibilities for future research and exploration in the field of the present study. The insights gained and the findings presented in this thesis may provide a foundation for building upon and extending the existing body of knowledge. By identifying key areas that require additional attention and offering suggestions for future studies, this section of the chapter aims to inspire and guide researchers in their pursuit of enhancing our understanding and driving progress in this dynamic and evolving field.

The present study leaves behind the following domains which may be researched out in future:

1) The present research can be replicated with varied geo-spatial situations viz., in different locations and settings, with different respondents, with spatio-temporal expansion and methodological innovation.

2) PRA tools and materials can be deployed to collect more specific data to compensate for the inadequate information to go for the classical statistical approaches.

3) Multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) techniques can be integrated with mental modelling and fuzzy logic cognitive mapping so to enhance the decision-making process.

4) To realize the full potential of these frameworks, collaboration and knowledge sharing among researchers, practitioners, policymakers, and farmers are essential. Continued research and development efforts are needed to refine and validate the models, enhance user-friendliness, and adapt them to diverse agricultural systems and contexts.

Introduction

The Government of India created a historic act, by enacting the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), the largest employment generating programme in the world, ensuring the right to work in a country with a population of over one billion. The Government of India passed the NREGA 2005, (Central Act No. 42 of 2005). NREGA was renamed as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) on October 2nd, 2009. MGNREGA is the first ever law, in the world that guarantees wage employment at an unprecedented scale. This Act gives legal guarantee of at least one hundred days of wage employment in a financial year to a rural household, whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled and manual work. The Act is applicable in the Districts notified by the Government of India, the implementation of the Act calls for the formulation of Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme by the State Governments.

The key processes in the implementation of MGNREGA are the adult members of rural households submit their name, age and address with photo to the Gram Panchayat, which in turn registers households after making enquiry and issues a job card which contains the details of adult member enrolled and his/her photo. Registered person can submit an application for work in writing (for at least fourteen days of continuous work) either to Panchayat or to Programme Officer, who will accept the valid application and issue dated receipt of application, letter providing work will be sent to the applicant and displayed at Panchayat office. The employment will be provided within a radius of 5 kilometers and if it is above 5 kilometers extra wage will be paid. If employment under the scheme is not provided within fifteen days of receipt of the application, daily unemployment allowance will be paid to the applicant.

Introduction

Gender is a topic that cuts across all subjects and should be considered. The generational dimensions of rural and agricultural growth, whether we’re talking about kids, teenagers, or the elderly, have also grown in importance in recent years. Therefore, it is not surprising that a specific focus should be given on the issues of gender and youth and their relevance to the growth of agriculture. However, it is our custom to start with a few points to lay a foundation of thoughts. Nations Like India where majority of farmers practise subsistence agriculture, rural development is the cornerstone of agricultural development. According to the type of the problem in each country, an assessment of the present global response to the food crisis has indicated that various strategies are being implemented with varying degrees of success and failure. Different tactics are being used to shield the underprivileged from the rise in price shocks. Investment in the agricultural sector is consequently important for rural development and a rise in agricultural output. The contribution of women is also essential to the overall success of initiatives aimed at rural development to boost agricultural production in India. In sub-Saharan Africa, Women engage in more agricultural work than men do and supply the bulk of the labour for a variety of agricultural tasks. Women make up around 90% of the workers directly involved in producing arable crops (Ogunlela and Aisha, 2009). Therefore, rural development will occur when different pertinent institutions are given attention, including cooperative societies, the system of land tenure, banks and credit, the creation of sustainable local governments, educational institutions, medical institutions, and agricultural marketing outlets.

Introduction

A concept focused on crop and livestock production with minimal environmental impact has emerged as a result of the paradigm shift in Indian agriculture from traditional to sustainable agriculture. This concept also supports the farm economy and helps farmers improve their tactics and quality of life. This has sparked farmers’ interest in learning traditional technology skills that draw on local knowledge that people have acquired from their ancestors to address issues in agriculture and activities associated with natural processes. Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK), which is a component of using natural products to address agricultural problems and integrate activities, has attracted interest since the concept of sustainable agriculture began to emerge in the Indian state of agriculture in the late 1980s. ITK is regional knowledge unique to a particular culture or community.

At the beginning of the 21st century, the world is facing a number of major global challenges. On the development side one of these challenges is the establishment of sustainability. In the context of agricultural development, a new agenda has been set to achieve the goals of producing and disseminating economically viable, socially acceptable and environmentally sound technologies that are geographically sound. , even local agricultural schools cannot teach such knowledge because of its size and diversity (Pereira, 1993).

Introduction

Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) have marked their presence across India by executing various scientific as well as institutional reforms for the agrarian mass of our country. Right from its beginning in 1970s, farmers were actively trained for adopting different innovative tools and methods and were also provided with proper assistance in implementing them. The farmers were adapted to technical know-how of an introduced technology and produced significant results in the real f ield conditions.

KVKs provided proper training programmes on need-based curriculum in order to cater to the local and regional needs. This has also led to need assessment of various training needs and efficacies to make improvement in policies and future interventions. KVK can be instrumental in nurturing the process of gender empowerment by inviting and involving the farm women in the process of technological adaptation, adoption and socialization. There are methodological innovations as to how we can involve the farm women by employing and applying gender-sensitive KVK technologies as suitable for their job environment and climate. Especially in areas of value addition, rural crafts, women crafts, f ishery, horticulture and micro-finance, their roles are becoming more prominent and decisive. This is positive achievement in making them free from gender discrimination and impoverishment.

The knowledge score gained by respondents after training was more satisfactory in all aspects (58.33% had medium and 48.67% had high level of knowledge). The socio-economic factors of the participants viz. Education level played a significant positive role on the knowledge gain of the participants. (Upamanya et.al., 2020) Most of the farmers, i.e., 66.67 per cent with theoretical knowledge suggested that more field visits can be arranged, 63.33 per cent of the respondents suggested the training should be conducted in their own villages because the farm women cannot able to come to KVK by leaving their children and their regular household work and around sixty per cent (60.83 per cent) of the respondents suggested that organizing continuous and frequent training programmes for effective participation and retention of knowledge. (Chakkaravarthy and Balakrishnan, 2020)

Introduction

The total population of India according to recent estimates in 2015 is 1.28 billion (Anonymous, 2011). The population in the age-group of 15-34 years in India increased from 353 million in 2001 to 430 million in 2011. More than 50 per cent of India’s current population is below the age of 25 years old and over 65 per cent below the age of 35 years old.

The total population of Chhattisgarh State is 25,545,198 of which male and female are 12,832,895 and 12,712,303. Sex ratio is 991 i.e. for each 1000 male, which is above national average of 940. Literacy rate in Chhattisgarh has seen upward trend and is 71.04 per cent (Anonymous, 2011). Out of total population of Chhattisgarh 23.24 per cent people live in urban regions and 76.76 per cent people live in the villages of rural areas.

Women are the most potent segment of the population of a country. The women of today are the hopes of tomorrow. They are the back bone of the country. The socioeconomic development and prosperity of rural areas depends to a considerable extent, on the type of women living in rural areas, because the rural women have abilities to orient themselves to go along the main stream of the development process. They reflect the national potentiality and represent the life blood of a nation. Development of women determines the development of community and country as a whole. So, the future of the country lies in their hands, what they will become, what role they will play in a democratic society and what they will do, will be dependent to a greater extent on the period between their childhood to adulthood.

In a country like India where the economy is dominant by agriculture and its allied sectors, nearly 75% of women are engaged in agriculture in comparison with their male counterparts. Among rural female workers, 50% comprises of agricultural laborer and 37% are cultivators. Not only this, around 70% of total farm work is performed by women folk. Majority of agricultural works are done by women farmers (FAO, 2011) and thus empowering them will have far-reaching effect on agricultural development. They usually operate multiple livelihood f ields, including farming, animal husbandry, and marketing along with doing the household chores and are closely involved in social issues. Among these activities when we look specifically into the agricultural tasks, it is very clear that approximately 70–80% of women are participating in all agriculture activities from raising seedlings, weeding, harvesting and, processing and value addition activities and sometimes their involvement extends to marketing their product. To compete in this fast-growing industry with others, the rural women need to be up-to-date with new technologies to foster the reach of innovations to the farm women. Training is one of the most important means by which farmers and rural women can upgrade their professional and technical skillset. This is an essential component in the area of agriculture where technology is changing day by day and the knowledge of the farming community including women needs to be upgraded at a comparatively quicker pace.

Introduction

The key to the advancement of women belong to poor background is self-help groups. Members of society with greater social influence are women. The World Bank estimates that women make up 48.0% of the population in India. Women in India are impacted by a number of economic and social variables. They are essential to any economy. Men and women must be viewed as equal participants in development if a nation is to achieve overall success and positive growth. The nation’s economic growth and social advancement depend on the independence of women. Through collective participation for growth, the empowerment of women through SHGs will benefit not just the individual women but also the family and network as a whole.

Self- Help Groups

Self-Help Groups (SHGs) have developed in order to assist underprivileged women in obtaining services and resources like loans. In 1985, the idea of SHG was first introduced in India. Self-help Groups (SHGs) are informal associations of people who come together to find ways to improve their living conditions. SHGs help in improve the lives of the poor and marginalised segments of society. They also foster financial inclusion. The self-help groups play an important role in ruler women life.India’s Self Help Group movement has emerged as the world’s largest network of community-based organizations.Under this programme, banks were allowed to open savings accounts for Self-Help Groups (SHGs). This was started in the early nineties. Empowering women is crucial to the prosperity and development of the country.

In Uttarakhand, majority of the population lives in rural areas and primarily depends on agriculture for their livelihood. In Uttarakhand, only 14.02% area is under cultivation. Out of total 7.66 lakh hectare cultivated area in the state, 4.21 lakh hectare area is rainfed i.e. more than 50 % of the cultivable area is rainfed. The average land holding is 0.68 ha that too is divided into many patches. Rainfed farming in Uttarakhand gets affected by frequent drought like situations and excessive rainfall. Food and nutritional security of people living in hill region depends more on favorable climatic conditions as agriculture and livestock farming are the main occupations. Prevailing low level of soil fertility and increased incidences of pest and disease occurrences has adversely affected the crop production and productivity in hills. Low agricultural productivity has emerged out as an important push factor for out migration of people from hill areas. Traditional hill agriculture is practiced on small and fragmented terraced fields with lack of irrigation facilities, which are uneconomical. Women constitute the main workforce in agriculture as large section of able bodied men have migrated from hills in search of livelihood. They also take care of the cattle, collect fuel wood and fodder from forests, often situated at considerable distance from the villages involving four to five hours of walking both ways, and do all household chores. Their life is an unending drudgery of hard work.

As a large population in the hill region of Uttarakhand depends on agriculture, the problem of malnutrition can be better addressed through nutrition sensitive agricultural interventions specifically designed for women in hills. Local nutritional needs can be met out locally by reviving traditional practices along with amalgamation of science and technology knowledge. Focusing on nutrition helps to build the resilience of rural households. Nutrition sensitive approach was promoted at local level with active participation of women who are mainly responsible for food security of the households.

Introduction

Agriculture denotes as the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, where by farming of domesticated species creates food surpluses that enables people to survive and showing them the way of earning. Thus our country is enhancing agro-based industries. Industrial agriculture based on large scale monoculture, which is dominated by agricultural output. Hence it is the dynamically economic improvement of our country with the help of agriculture basing on modern information technology. Information technology means the latest version of information facilities like computer, mass media and Internet. Information technology (IT) or Information communication technology (ICT) is a broad subject concerned with technology and other aspects of managing and processing information.

Information technology contributes much to agriculture and rural development. It facilitates rural activities and provides more comfortable and also saves the rural life with equivalent services to those in urban areas such as provision of distance education, tele-medicine, remote public services, remote entertainment etc. IT initiates new agricultural and rural business such as e-commerce, real estate business for satellite offices, rural tourism, and virtual corporation of small-scale farms. It also supports policy-making and evaluation on optimal farm production, disaster management, agro-environmental resource management etc using tools such as geographic information systems (GIS). It also helps in improving farm management and farming technologies by efficient farm management, risk effective information or knowledge transfer etc realizing competitive and sustainable farming with safe products.

1. Introduction

Over the years, Agriculture Extension has been at the fore front within the delivery of adequate data to the farming community not just for increasing productivity however additionally to reinforce their standard of living. Keeping in-sight of the demand for agricultural growth, evolutionary modifications had been made in transfer of technology to succeed in the farming community effectively. The Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is one among the required counterparts which made the agriculture extension more realistic and quite interesting.

Developing nations like India are though capable to get self-sufficiency in food production after green revolution however they’re in risk to keep this self sufficiency as they are possibly to face food shortage in near future due to rapid population growth. Thus, the demand of continuous increasing population is often fulfilled with the assistance of ICT as a tool of revamping extension network of the country. ICT is an emerging tool for development of farming communities.

Information and communication technologies have unique feature that provide opportunities to harness them in ways which are extraordinary from traditional media. ICT provides two-way communication between rural communities and development organizations. ICTs also improves the capacity to look for information and increase the number of information available, provide quality information, reduces uncertainty and enhance market participation.

Introduction

In Puducherry, the first KVK was founded in 1974. In the newly constructed districts and several larger districts, 106 additional KVKs will be established, bringing the total number of KVKs to 645. KVKs are approved for use by Agricultural Universities, ICAR Institutes, associated Government Departments, and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) engaged in agriculture. The KVK initiative is fully funded by the Government of India. KVK, which is a crucial component of NARS, aims to evaluate location-specific technology modules in agricultural and related companies through technology assessment, refinement, and demonstrations. As a knowledge and resource centre for agricultural technology, KVKs have supported public, private, and non-profit sector efforts aimed at enhancing the district’s agricultural economy(1).

The KVK’s mandate has changed from vocational training to technology assessment and demonstration for its application and capacity building in a district in preparation for its growing contribution to NARES in India. Though technologies were developed at ICAR Research Centres or State Agricultural Universities, KVK carried out location-specific technology assessments, micro location refinements on farms with genuine problems, and final technology certification for widespread adoption by farmers(2).

Introduction

Agriculture is a major sector in Indian economy. It is one of the biggest production sector contributing more than 20 percent of GDP for India’s economy. Its is the largest provider of employment in Rural India. Over 70 percent household depends on agriculture. Its provides raw materials to industries and market for industrial product(Kekane, 2013).

Therefore, agriculture is a main sector for the planning of social and economic development of the country. Rapid growth of agriculture is essential not only to achieve self reliance at national level but also for household food security and to bring about equity in distribution of income and wealth resulting in rapid reduction in poverty line (Shrivastava et al. 2010). Agriculture is considered as the biggest unorganized sector where large numbers of women are working for their livelihood. The farm women comprise a quarter of the word’spopulation . Women also make up 41 percent of the word’s agriculture labour force, a ratio which rises to 49 percent for low income countries (ILO,2018).

Women play an important role towards the growth of the agricultural sector and its other associated areas. They perform multifarious tasks in agriculture and its allied fields. They are playing an important role in most of the farm operation like land preparation, seed treatment, sowing, planting, weeding, intercultural operation, irrigation of crop, application of manures and fertilizers, protection of crop, harvesting, threshing, storage etc. There is hardly any activity in agricultural production, except ploughing in which women are not actively involved. In some of the farm activities like processing and storage, women are dominant so strongly those men workers numerically insignificant (Patil and Babus 2018).Naidu et al. (2020) found that 63 percent of women are engaged in sowing of seeds and transplanting followed by in harvesting operation (61%), wedding (59%), winnowing (27%), manure and fertilizer application (25%) on regular basis.

Introduction

Climate change is the long-term alteration of temperature and meteorological conditions in the Earth’s atmosphere. It is caused by unsustainable human activities such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and rampant industrialization which released massive quantities of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. These gases trap heat from the sun and cause the planet to warm, resulting in various impacts on the environment and human society. Climate change is likely to disrupt the monsoon patterns and lead to more extreme weather events such as droughts and floods. This will have a significant impact on crop yields and food security in India, which is already facing a growing population and increasing demand for food. Additionally, rising temperatures and changing rainfall patterns may also lead to the spread of new pests and diseases, further exacerbating the challenges faced by Indian farmers.

Additionally, climate change impacts are disproportionately affecting the livelihoods of smallholder and resource-poor farmers, who are more vulnerable to weather-related risks and have fewer resources to adapt. The Indian government and private sector are implementing various measures to help farmers adapt to changing conditions, but more needs to be done to ensure the long-term sustainability of the sector. The agricultural sector in India is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, as it employs a large portion of the population and is a major contributor to the country’s economy. The Indian government and various organizations are working to develop strategies and technologies to adapt to the changing climate and mitigate the effects on the agricultural sector. Time to time the Indian government have implemented various policies and programs to improve the productivity and profitability of the agricultural sector, including the transfer of technology and extension services.

Introduction

Agriculture is vital to the Indian economy in terms of job creation, with nearly half of the Indian population relying on agriculture and related activities for a living. A large proportion of the population, particularly in rural areas, is illiterate. The rural population, which is illiterate and ignorant, is unable to cope with the complexities of agricultural technology management. As a result, vocational training and technology dissemination are few viable options for increasing production efficiency and achieving rapid and sustainable agricultural development. The State of Odisha derives more than a quarter of its revenue from agriculture. More than 40% of the people in the state of Odisha depend on farming as their primary source of income and way of life, making up more than 53% of the state’s workforce. whereas agricultural technology has developed into a logical extension of the traditions, conventions, knowledge, and skills that date back to the early days of human civilization and have continued to evolve over time. It was not just agriculture that produced food or other biological means; rather, it essentially presented a wide range of traditional values to make it abundantly evident that “TECHNOLOGY and TECHNIQUE” are the cultural means to satisfy the biological as well as social demand for life. To provide the necessary acceleration to the agricultural development, Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA) Scheme was launched during 2005-06 in order to enrich farmer’s skills, knowledge and competency several developmental programmes/projects, in agriculture and allied sectors. In the state Odisha, a district level autonomous institute has taken the main responsibility of all technology dissemination activities at district level for development of farmers and farm women through its bottom –up approach. During 2010 the reforms made in ATMA project and farm persons were given due importance to its multifarious activities like training, demonstration, information support, input supply, market-oriented facilities, linking credit and exposure visit etc. These multi-purpose activities provide ample opportunities for the farm communities and makes the resources accessible for them. Additionally, ATMA served as a link between individuals in need and those with the means necessary for undergoing rapid technological change. It is also critical to evaluate various stakeholders of ATMA in order to enhance both its organisational and functional approach. This includes various parameters such as efficiency of skilled professionals of ATMA, availability of resources and feedback from farmer beneficiaries among other factors.

Introduction

The Wadi project mainly involves development of orchard (locally known as Wadi) on degraded lands. Mango, Cashew, Guava, Custard apple, Aonla, Lemon, Sapota and Drumstick are the major fruit crops that are cultivated by the tribal through Wadi project. Wadi is a comprehensive project for improving living standards and socio-economic condition of tribal families in remote areas. Acceptance of new idea is not a unit act but a complex process which involves a series of thoughts and actions. In other words, it is known as mental process through which an individual passes from first hearing about an innovation to final adoption. The components of Wadi project so far developed in recent has been for increasing the agriculture and horticulture production and productivity hence, it requires proper adoption by the tribal beneficiaries for production. Unless the components of Wadi project are properly adopted to larger extent by the tribal beneficiaries, the desired target cannot be achieved. The study was undertaken on following objectives.

Objectives

1. To study extent of adoption of components of Wadi project.

2. To study component wise adoption of Wadi project by the tribal beneficiaries.

3. To study relationship between profile of the tribal beneficiaries and adoption components.

Introduction

Mahatma Gandhi once said “India lives in its villages” and looking at the present scenario from the social, economical and political perspectives this statement seems valid even today. According to the World Bank collection of development indicators,around 65.33 percent of total population of India was reported to be Rural population in year 2019. Rural population refers to people living in rural areas as defined by National Statistical offices. Since more than half of the total population of India resides in rural areas Rural Development which is concerned with economic growth and social justice, improvement in the living standard of the rural people by providing adequate and quality social services and minimum basic needs becomes essential.

Superficially, rural development seems to be a simple task but, in reality, it is not. Rural development is based on sustainable development with available resources. Post- Independence era has seen many rural development programmes through different five-year plans. Alleviating poverty, employment generation, more opportunities for generating income, and infrastructure facilities are emphasized through the policies and programmes of the government. Along with this, the panchayat raj institutions have also been initiated by the government to strengthen the democracy at grass roots level. But in India, the scope of development is not narrow but very wide, as it includes not just the economic development but the growth on social front, quality of life, empowerment, women and child development, education and awareness of its citizens. The task of development is so huge and complicated that just implementing government plans is not sufficient to fix the problem. To achieve this, a holistic vision and collaborative efforts was needed which involves various departments, agencies and even NGOs. Owing to such a great need, the number of NGOs in India is increasing rapidly and, large number of NGOs are working for improving the livelihood of rural people.

Introduction

The term, “non-governmental organization” or NGO, came into use in 1945 because of the need for the UN to differentiate in its Charter between participation rights for intergovernmental specialized agencies and those for international private organizations. At the UN, virtually all types of private bodies can be recognized as NGOs .They only have to be independent from government control, not seeking to challenge governments either as a political party or by a narrow focus on human rights, non-profit-making and non-criminal (Ali Mostashari, 2005). On the contrary India is one the poorest countries housing one third of the total world poor population. 43% of Indian children are malnourished, a third ofthe world’s total. Over 25% of Indians are illiterate, and more than 20 million children are out of school (Asheesh Bisht et al., 2013). India is a highly populated and predominantly rural country. It is classified as a country of medium human development, ranked 128th in the United Nations Development Programme’s Human Development Index 2007. Life expectancy is 63.7 years at birth, and four fifths of the population lives on less than $2/day. The adult literacy rate is 61 percentages. India has a long history of civil society based on the concepts of daana (giving) and seva (service). Numerous organizations were established during this period, including the Friend-in-Need Society (1858), Prathana Samaj (1864), Satya Shodhan Samaj (1873), Arya Samaj (1875), the National Council for Women in India (1875), and the Indian National Conference (1887). Mahatma Gandhi’s return to India in 1916 shifted the focus of development activities to economic self sufficiency.

Introduction

Corona viruses are a huge family of viruses that cause many chronic diseases. A novel corona virus is an advanced strain of virus that has not been formerly identified in humans. Accepted recommendations to avert the spread of disease include regular hand washing, covering of mouth and nose when coughing and sneezing, avoid close contact (social distancing) with anyone showing symptoms,etc. Since majority of the people, especially children are sitting inside their home the usage of digital platforms are also increased dramatically.

COVID-19 and the associated lockdown in the country, has made a significant impact on the life of the population, across boundaries. Roughly saying, it has been near to a year since the foremost case of corona virus was reported in India, which was reported on January 30th 2020. Today that is, on 10th December 2020, 69,383,534 corona cases were reported, 1,578,707 deaths and 48,155,526 cases were recovered globally. In India 9,768,643 corona cases were reported, Of which 141,817 deaths and 9,253,388 cases were recovered. Whereas in Kerala, 2562 deaths, 658633 confirmed cases and 596593 recovered cases were reported. The only fluctuations are in the statistics, but the conditions are the same in each day. Of this study, we aim to create awareness on COVID-19 through interactive and pleasure seeking games. This helps to make them aware about the severity of the pandemic and also improves their psychological health. Lack of awareness and the passive attitude of people is the major factor of this situation. Children and the older adults are the major two communities more convenient to disseminate the information and at the same time they are the most vulnerable groups to the corona virus. Children are more enthusiastic and older people are more precaution. By providing the same games for both age groups, the interaction between both becomes closer and thereby improves the mental well-being of both in a family. So that the games were most effective in all respects. Games are activities usually undertaken for fun and enjoyment, but it not only meant for fun but also gives edutainment. Games are an effective tool to disseminate information by entertaining way.

Introduction

The present world is still dominated by the villages. In sprite of the craze towards city life majority of the people in this globe prefer to stay in their village’s n the midst of nature. Hence the world population is predominantly rural. More than 2/3 the world’s population still lives in villages. India is basically a land of villages. In spite of the increase trend towards urbanisation Indian societies become meaningful and fruitful only if the villages and there problems are studies carefully. Villages existed in India even during the Vedic period and also prior to that. Some even described these villages as self contained little republics.

Tripura is a state in North-East India which borders Bangladesh, Mizoram and Assam. It is surrounded by Bangladesh on its north, south and west: the length of its international border is 856 km. It shares a 53 km long border with Assam and a 109 km long border with Mizoram. The state is connected with the rest of India by only one road (NH-44) that runs through the hills to the border of Karimganj District in Assam and then winds through the states of Meghalaya, Assam and North Bengal to Calcutta. At the time of Tripura’s merger with effect from October 15 1949 with the Indian Union, the major mode of farming was shifting cultivation or ‘jhum’, which produced little surplus. A small proportion of the plain lands of the State were under settled agriculture undertaken by Bengalis, and the main crop was rice. Most of the plain lands of the State were not under cultivation and were covered with cane-brakes and marshes. Thus at the time of formation of the State, the economy was predominantly agricultural and forest-based, with no industrial base, a low level of urbanization and limited infrastructure.

Introduction

Introduction Woman dies as a result of the complications arising due to pregnancy such as sepsis, hemorrhage or obstructed labour. The possible reasons for high mortality and morbidity are the inadequacy of health services and ignorance regarding the need of obtaining medical care by pregnant or lactating women. ICDS has an important role to fill in this gap of knowledge and non-availing attitude of women. Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) is a prominent national program that provides package of services of children and women. Role of Anganwadi worker in ICDS scheme has to provide information to beneficiary mothers regarding reproductive health, balanced diet, pre and post maternal services , neo-natal care and family planning etc .Group discussions are often organized to impart education regarding health, breast feeding and immunization etc at AWCs. AWWs also provide information to beneficiary mothers regarding health camp, doctor’s visit and immunization day by visiting the beneficiaries at home as well as at AWCs. Present research has focused on pre-maternal services. An assessment in the present study of the frequency of availing pre maternal services and the coverage of beneficiaries can give important information regarding actual benefits to the vulnerable groups.

Introduction

Voluntary efforts are always focused on the search for an efficient extension mechanism towards a progressive rural development intervention. Extension is otherwise the organized exchange of information and purposive transfer of skills to fulfill the communication gap in transfer of technology process. The goal of extension varies between different extension organizations according to their system of administration and management. As such the voluntary organizations engaged in agriculture & rural development need an incessant backstopping of farm and allied information from the formal Government extension network, so as to complement & supplement the state sponsored extension efforts as an able stakeholder. Hence the study is an attempt to unearth the information flow in voluntary agencies for viable cooperative extension in the times ahead.

Materials and Methods

The study was conducted with 34 numbers of agro-based grass-root voluntary organizations of Kendrapara and Balasore districts of Odisha. One functionary each from the cadre of administrative, supervisory and field staffs were selected as respondents covering total sample size of 102 respondents. Random sampling technique was followed to select voluntary organizations and respondents. Responses were collected on a four point continuum with the use of mean score, pooled mean and rank order for analysis of the data. Results obtained on the information and communication behaviour of voluntary agro- extension workers towards field extension are tabulated and interpreted below.

Introduction

The concept of communication for development emerged with the Modernization theory, which developed its roots after World War II. Wilbur Schramm and Daniel Lerner, the two major proponents of this theory opined that the major obstacle to development was the psychology of the undeveloped citizens. The communication models under modernization paradigm observed communication process as the transfer of message from sender to receiver (Lasswell, 1948). It was found that communication theories like two step-flow, diffusion theory, or the early extension approaches were quite harmonious with the top-down modernization theory. After the Modernization paradigm, an another theory of communication for development emerged named as Dependency theory. Dependency theorist like Jean Servaes (1996) criticized the broadcasting and other mass-media systems as they tended to support modernization and were anti-development; also they were inclined to promote the political agenda. Solution to underdevelopment of third world countries require major changes in media structure that were dominated by commercial principles & foreign interests into media structures which are self-reliant and community oriented (Servaes, 2002). In 1970s scholars such as Paulo Freire and Nora C. Quebral started pleading in favour of bottom up development theories which led to evolution of a new development paradigm called the multiplicity paradigm. This paradigm conceptualised the basic idea that development is integral, multidimensional and dialectic process which can differ from one society to another (Okigbo and Eribo, 2004). Multiplicity paradigm led to emergence of a new form of communication called participatory communication.

Introduction

The success of green revolution strategies for raising agricultural productivity and production has depended on the development of crop varieties that are more responsive to increased applications of water, manure, fertilizer, and agrochemical means of protection against pests. For farmers to benefit from this process whereby investing in more inputs can lead to production of more outputs, they had to begin by buying and using improved seeds. The green revolution was clearly seed dependent. The system of rice intensification (SRI) and other agro ecological approaches follow a different strategy, on the other hand. They work with whatever crop varieties the farmer already has or prefers to use (recognizing that it is always most productive to start with whatever genotype is best suited to the farmers’ circumstances and goals). Agro ecological methods are more likely to reduce the use of external input than to increase this as they mobilize and capitalize upon potentials that already within plants and upon the interactions between plants and their biotic and abiotic environments, i.e., mutual influences among plants, other organisms, climate, soil and other inanimate factors (Altieri, 1995; Gliessman, 1998; Uphoff, 2002). This is a very different envisioning of the agricultural domain.

Introduction

Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) are the organizations engaged in particular plethora of activities aimed at protecting and promoting the varied interests of the people. As the name suggests, NGOs are the state independent voluntary groups working towards various social causes – ‘Charitable Purposes’. Section 2 (15) of the Income Tax Act 1961 explains charitable purpose as those activities aimed at the relief of the poor, education, yoga, medical relief, preservation of environment including the watersheds, wild life forests and preservation of monuments or places or objects of artistic or historic interest and the advancement of any other object of general public utility. These ‘Not–for Profit’ organizations differ from other business as the main aim of such ventures is charity not generating profits. These NGOs are prohibited from distributing the income generated from their working among its members. There is no single consolidated act dealing with the formation and registration of NGOs. This is because an NGO is an umbrella term for all the charitable ventures. An NGO, in itself, can have various structures. These can be registered as societies, trusts and as private limited. Non-profit companies commonly referred to as section 8 companies therefore an NGO can be registered under any of the three acts i.e., Company Act (2013), Societies Registration Act (1860) and Indian Trust Act (1862).

Methodology

In the present study, the researcher has tried to present a broad picture of the role of media with his empirical observations on news in some selected print media and TV channels. The content analysis of news along with comparative method between print and electronic, news related to problems in rural governance and other news were taken into consideration.

Introduction

As Mahatma Gandhi, the Father of Nation, rightly pointed out that “The true India is to be found not in its few cities, but in its seven hundred thousand villages. If the villages perish, India will perish too”. (GoI website) Primarily India is an agrarian society, where more than 70% people lives in countryside. As majority of our population reside in rural hinterland and their livelihood depends on agricultural and economic activities related to it. People from rural areas migrating to mega cities or urban areas or industrial townships to seek jobs in service sectors. The seasonal migration of laborers to big cities has become a regular feature in our economy. These uprooted people feel lucky to get something to earn for near and dear ones. 58 per cent of these rural households are employed in farming sector i.e. cultivation, livestock rearing and other agricultural activity, which in turn contributes less than 60 per cent to their average monthly income. These were the findings of the ‘Situation Assessment Survey of Agriculture Households’ for the 2012-2013 crop years, from July to June. A brief overview of Indian economy reveals that agriculture contributes 16.5 per cent of the GDP contribution, compared to Industry’s 29.8 per cent and service sector’s 54.4, as per the census of 2015. It is also worth to recall that despite the big claim of booming Indian economy, the share of informal employment in total employment has remained above 90 per cent throughout the period 2004-05 to 2011-12, the Economic Survey 2014-15 revealed.

1. Introduction

Micronutrients are essential nutrients required in small quantities but play a crucial role in human health and productivity. Key micronutrients include iodine, iron, zinc, and vitamins A, B6, and B12 (Godswill et al., 2020). Zinc deficiency, a common micronutrient shortfall, is prevalent not only in developed countries but particularly in impoverished nations. It can affect individuals of all ages, with young children and breastfeeding women being the most vulnerable. Addressing zinc insufficiency through zinc supplementation or diets rich in animal protein sources has shown promising results in promoting growth and reversing hypogonadism. Subsequent research has revealed that inadequate zinc consumption in the diet is the primary cause of this hypogonadism syndrome. Since the identification of zinc deficiency as a health concern in 1961, there has been a noticeable increase in interest in the biochemical and clinical aspects of zinc nutrition (King and Cousins, 2006). In this paper, we provide a comprehensive review of the physiological functions of zinc, zinc bioavailability (including inhibitors and enhancers), the human requirement for zinc, factors affecting zinc absorption, consequences and causes of zinc deficiency, evaluation of zinc status, and prevention strategies for zinc deficiency, focusing on the use of zinc-fortified foods.

Introduction

Hunger and all forms of malnutrition continue to cause widespread suffering throughout the world. Malnutrition in children commonly leads to poor growth and poor physical and mental development, increased morbidity and, all too often, death. Among adults, malnutrition leads to lethargy, frequent illness and poor health, reduced physical capacity to do work, poor pregnancy outcomes among women, decreased cognitive function and a loss of learning potential and productivity. Widespread hunger and malnutrition also serve as severe impediments to social and economic development at both community and national levels. After years of steady progress, recent setbacks in the fight against hunger and malnutrition arising from the combined effects of high food prices and the global economic downturn coupled with the continuing problems of underdevelopment, civil strife, inadequate food supplies, social discrimination and environmental stress, jeopardize the earlier hopes for achieving the poverty, hunger and nutrition-related Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

According to FAO, there were 105 million more hungry people in 2009 than in the previous year and the number of malnourished people now stands at 1.02 billion. In the worst-affected countries, individual productivity losses due to malnutrition are equivalent to 10% of lifetime earnings, resulting in gross domestic product (GDP) losses of up to 3%. Around the world close to 10 million children die before their fifth birthday every year, over one-third of which are associated with under nutrition. One in three developing-country children under the age of five - 178 million children – are stunted due to chronic under nutrition and poor health, and some 148 million children are underweight. Micronutrient deficiencies or “hidden hunger” affects around 2 billion people worldwide or about one third of the world’s population. These vitamin and mineral deficiencies, especially of iron, iodine, zinc and vitamin A, lead to poor physical growth and development, lowered mental capacities, reduced productivity, impaired immune systems, blindness and death - all of which are preventable.

Introduction

Food and nutrition security is the basic requirement of human development. Among the ten global burden of diseases, six are connected with diet related factors. Food and nutrition security is also closely related to other factors like socio economic status, geography and demography. Asia, Latin America and Africa hosts world’s most of the undernourished population. Among these regions South Asia is considered as one of the hotspots of malnutrition, in which India is the major contributor. Fifty seven percent of population cannot afford healthy diet in South Asia.

Over the centuries of remarkable economic growth in India concomitant reduction in under nutrition has not been witnessed and this dilemma is called Indian enigma (Gillespie et al 2012; Sengupta 2019). In India among the different socio economic categories, undernutrition has highly been manifested among SC and STs (Gillespie et al 2012; NNMB 2009).The reasons of food and nutrition insecurity are directly linked to remoteness, dire poverty and dysfunctional food security programmes (Khera 2011; UNICEF 2014). Poor and landless among them are mostly falling prey to chronic food insecurity. Coupled with reduction in locally available dietary inputs, rising food expenditure also compel poor to cut back the quantity and resort to low priced calorie dense food (Smyth & Sweetman; 2010). Therefore, poor people’s diet assume to fraught with starch, which leads to nutritional imbalances and resulting in to various lifestyle diseases like diabetics among them. This situation necessitates the need of local, sustainable household food production through home nutrition gardens. Many studies testify the impact of household level food crop cultivation in addressing malnutrition. Kuhnlein & Raceveur 1996; Pimbert 2009; Vira et al 2015 argues inadequate diets are associated with the “delocalization of food supply” and disruption in existed food systems. Therefore, in general literatures on agriculture and nutrition elicits the positive correlation between cultivating food crops and nutrition security (Gillespie et al 2012; Hossain et al 2016; Viswanathan et al 2015). In this context, home nutrition garden programmeassumes greater significance in countering malnutrition among Paniyan community in Western Ghats region of Wayanad district of Kerala.

Introduction

Pedagogy in higher education is often referred to as activities of educating, instructing or teaching to impart knowledge and skills (Diaz, 2013). With the onset of the Covid-19 pandemic in the year 2020, instructors worldwide faced a challenge in maintaining the teaching pedagogy suited to the online teaching environments. Many instructors with no prior experience teaching online started developing new approaches to solve the challenges in a changing landscape. The main challenges to solve was concerning creating favourable learning experiences, creating engaging classroom experiences, and meeting the expectations of all the students in the online environment (Teachonline, 2020). The internet has provided a wide range of opportunities, leading to uninterrupted education through various conferencing platforms. Since the year 2000, the proliferation of Web 2.0 was tested in the field of education with several tools such as blogs, wiki articles and use of social media channels. Web 2.0 provided increasing scope to the teachers and students to create, edit and share content which is appealing to the learners. Currently, we have entered the Web 3.0 era in which the technologies can be customized to enhance the learning environment for better facilitation of learning needs.

Introduction

Education as a process of development deals with three majors teaching, training and instruction. Its objective being to help students to achieve their highest potential and individual development which they are capable. Education needs to be tailored meaning to ensure that the information is relevant. Attitude, Knowledge and Skill “each one of them, with its inner components, prepares students to acquire and obtain different characters as means to produce a professional” Yang et al. (2015). Education is a field which is continuously growing from since long and is still growing through a phase of continuous change. To this fast changing world of higher education we need to adapt and adopt the changing environment to meet the circumstances posed by ICT. The educationists and students in particular have witnessed a tremendous change due to the changes brought in by ICT. ICT is what regarded as the efficient management of information, fostering the development of 21st century. The learner in today’s world is so much driven by technology that only traditional method of teaching does not bring satisfaction. Today, ICT is nothing but a blend of both which is yielding and having a good impact on the education scenario. ICT applications are undoubtedly improving the education system in all aspects. Escueta et al. (2017) the educational landscape has been indelibly altered over the past two decades by technological innovation.

Introduction

Enhancing productivity and profitability are two major factors of agricultural growth for the future. Over dependence on monsoon and limited scope for area expansion made agriculture development is critical to generate employment and additional income for the rural poor. Major part of agricultural population is small and marginal farmers who are economically vulnerable and poor. The consequence of inclement weather on crop production affects ultimately livelihoods of farmers. In the changing scenario improvements in farmers’ productivity and profitability, diversification of agriculture have been acknowledged to enhance profit, generate additional employment for rural masses and to conserve the natural resources.

Integration of different component at farm level is the need of hour to enhance the profitability of agriculture production system. Jharkhand state a resource rich state wheremonocroping in rainfed agriculture with small undulated upland is in practice. Rural economy is mixed type where forest produce particularly lac play important role. To enhance rural economy, integration of agriculture with forest based intervention appears to be viable option to enhance profits and productivity of upland which is almost sixty percent of total cultivable land. Even though moisture is available during Rabi free grazing made imperative cultivation of second crop. Continuous aberrant weather demand the inclusion of forest resources to be exploited in diversified and integrated manner as forest interventions require little water.

Introduction

After so many decades, the new education policy comes in its new form in 21st century. This policy seeks to offer everyone access to an equal, equitable, and fair education. The NEP 2020 represents a significant advancement in the field of education in India, with an emphasis on primary through higher education. It is based on the idea that education must foster the development of not only higher-order cognitive abilities-such as critical thinking and problem-solving skills-but also social, ethical, and emotional capacities and dispositions. These higher-order cognitive abilities include both the foundational abilities of literacy and numeracy and higher-order cognitive abilities. It includes- recognizing, identifying, and fostering each student’s individual abilities by educating parents and teachers to support a student’s overall growth in both academic and extracurricular areas, by the 3rd grade, all children will possess fundamental skills in literacy and numeracy, it will provide students multidisciplinary and holistic education to ensure the coherence and integrity of all knowledge. The policy manifested 22 guiding concept, some of them are conceptual comprehensive, flexibility and holistic development. These ideas will serve as the foundation for the whole Indian education system (Shamsu, 2021). The New Education Policy 2020 already incorporates vocational training for students’ holistic development, A study demonstrates a positive relationship between vocational choice of the subject and variables of personality, traits, parents’ involvement, achievements, motivation, and occupation information, (Kaur,1992)but including entrepreneurship in this policy would expose our students to more opportunities because entrepreneurship is the process of taking a risk to launch a new business with the intention of making a profit.

Introduction

India is an agriculture-based country and it contributes most to the economy of the country. Different types of crops are cultivated in a wide range in different ecological regions based on different seasons. So, crop residue is also generated in an extended way by cultivation (Devi et. al 2017). Crop residue is the left over part of the crop after harvesting. In India, crop residue generates around 600 Mt and from which cereals are 70%, fibres 13%, oilseeds 6%, pulses 3%, sugarcane 2%, and others 6% (Jain et al., 2014). Corn production has increased more than 15 times from 1950-51 to 2016-2017. Rice, wheat, millet, barley, and maize are important cereal crops in Uttar Pradesh (Roy and Ahmad, 2015). Traditionally, Crop residue was used as cattle feed, animal bedding, cooking fuel, organic manure, etc. and some residues were used in making handicraft products by rural women. but still, a huge amount of residue is left without management and farmers have no option left except to burn it. About 90 to 140 Mt of crop residue burning in the field or households as fuels (Jain et al., 2014). In the process of harvesting and threshing, residues are left behind in the f ield. Farmers need to clear their fields early for the planting of the next crop so they do have not enough time and it is tough to clear the field at that time. Therefore, the farmers opt for the burning of residue in harvested fields due to a lack of access to user-friendly, cost- and time-effective options. The burning of crop residue creates many issues and effects on the environment and health badly. In a report of NAAS in 2017, it was estimated that in November 2016 at the period of rice residue burning, the NASA satellite images showed the intensity of rice residue burning in Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand was very high. It is doing an additional job of increasing air pollution with vehicles, chimneys, industries, etc. Crop residues release many gases by burning them and these gases are contributing to global warming.

Introduction

Self Help Group is a voluntary and self managed group of poor people, who come together to promote savings among themselves and pool savings for activities benefiting either individuals or communities economically. Empowerment of women has now become a key issue in the Government’s Five year plans by organizing women into Self Help Groups to make the beginning of a major process of empowering women. 320 million people, out of our 1.1 billion, are steeped in abject poverty and due to their asset lessens it is difficult for them to access any kind of aid from banking / financial institutions and this state of the hopelessness and the constraints of an ineffective credit delivery system can be transcended by enhancing the self esteem and raising the feeling of human self worth. The SHGs approach is a reshaping initiative that enhances the livelihoods and ensures sustainability by enabling poor families to access effective economical and social development leading to empowerment.

In Tripura SHG’s has been introduced in the year 1999.The main objectives of this programme by mutual beneficial of social and economic activities through women mobilization. SHG’s are a way to involve rural women and men actively in the development process by means of increased income Agricultural situation of WTD differs to some extent from the other districts in regard to topography, soil, extent of rain-fall, variation in temperature and humidity which has resulted in difference in cropping pattern also from that of the other three districts. People mainly practice rice and vegetables cultivation. The plain land people also were satisfied to grow single crop preferably paddy without having any knowledge and experience of improved cultivation for growing multiple crops. Animal husbandry is another sector contributing to the economy of WTD. Cattle and poultry are the main livestock wealth of the district. (DRDA office, Agartala, 2010). Many Government and non-government organization now have come forward for helping poor communities and to energize their capacity in development activities of which Self Help Group (SHGs) is thought as the best means for improving their position in the society.

1. Introduction

The Indian government’s New Education policy (NEP 2020) is apositive improvement in this covid-19 scourge. The main NEP for India happened in 1968, trailed by NEPs in 1986 and 2020 under Narendra Modi. India passed the NEP 2020 on July 29, 2020. It tries to reform education and make the countrymoretaught. K Kasturirangan, the previousheadofISRO, led- the NEP 2020 arrangement council. The decision Government of India vowed to modernise Indian schooling in it selection pronouncement (Saha Mushkan, 2020). Educationassumes a fundamental part in building a country; it chooses the nation’s future and its kin’s fate. The effect will be sturdy concerning the development and advancement of the stateandsubject. In this day and age, schooling is urgent. Pre-freedom and post-autonomy periods show the extension and progress Indian Government. It will alter the way India studies; this is the third correction to the instruction strategy. National education policy 2020 plans changes for all gatherings (Kalyani Pawan, 2020).

1. Introduction

Sustainability embodies an ecological vision aimed at fostering enduring human coexistence on Earth. Over time, its definition has evolved in literature and context, generating ongoing debate. Generally, experts frame sustainability around three pillars: social, economic, and environmental. While environmental concerns often dominate discussions, sustainability encompasses broader challenges like pollution, land degradation, biodiversity loss, climate change, and ecosystem service decline. This concept influences decision-making globally, politically, and personally.

Sustainable development, often used interchangeably with sustainability, is distinguished by UNESCO as a long-term objective versus the diverse processes and pathways to achieve it. Within the economic dimension, the tension between welfare and environmental preservation is explored through concepts like “weak and strong sustainability,” acknowledging the necessity of trade-offs. Ideal policies would aim to decouple environmental degradation from economic growth.

Introduction

In the modern corporate landscape, the Glass Ceiling remains an enduring challenge, obstructing the path to leadership positions for qualified individuals based on gender. This study embarks on a comprehensive analysis of the persistent gender discrimination inherent in leadership roles within corporations.

With a primary focus on measurement, analysis, and assessment, the study seeks to quantify the current prevalence of the Glass Ceiling, elucidate the strategies adopted by large corporations in addressing bias, and evaluate the influence of personal factors in accelerating this phenomenon.

Grounded in empirical data and a commitment to factual precision, this research aims to contribute substantially to the ongoing discourse on gender equality in leadership. By revisiting the Glass Ceiling, this paper endeavours to not only shed light on the existing disparities but also provide nuanced insights that can inform corporate policies and societal endeavours to dismantle barriers obstructing the equitable progression of individuals within the professional realm.

1. Introduction

Sustainability embodies an ecological vision aimed at fostering enduring human coexistence on Earth. Over time, its definition has evolved in literature and context, generating ongoing debate. Generally, experts frame sustainability around three pillars: social, economic, and environmental. While environmental concerns often dominate discussions, sustainability encompasses broader challenges like pollution, land degradation, biodiversity loss, climate change, and ecosystem service decline. This concept influences decision-making globally, politically, and personally.

Sustainable development, often used interchangeably with sustainability, is distinguished by UNESCO as a long-term objective versus the diverse processes and pathways to achieve it. Within the economic dimension, the tension between welfare and environmental preservation is explored through concepts like “weak and strong sustainability,” acknowledging the necessity of trade-offs. Ideal policies would aim to decouple environmental degradation from economic growth.

Environmental sustainability is pursued through various means such as ecosystem preservation, collaborative resource management, reducing food waste, advocating plant-based diets, managing fertility rates to curb population growth, and transitioning away from fossil fuels towards clean energy and innovative green technologies.

Introduction

The foundation of agricultural productivity lies in the realm of weather and climate, a reality unaltered by technological progress. The consequences of climate change on agriculture represent a worldwide apprehension, particularly significant for India. Around 54.6% of the Indian population is engaged in agriculture and allied activities, contributing to 17.4% of the country’s total gross value added. The agriculture sector is battling a multitude of challenges, such as increasing food demand, depletion of agricultural lands and water resources, and the devastating effects of climate change. It is high time that we acknowledge and address these issues to safeguard the future of our food systems and ensure food security for all.

Climate change refers to the long-term variations in weather patterns and temperature over extended periods. Climate change occurs when earth’s climate system experiences variations in weather patterns that can last for decades or millions of years. These changes can arise naturally due to phenomena like volcanic eruptions or changes in solar activity. However, since the 1800s, human activities accelerate the natural pace of climate change, primarily due to the combustion of fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas. These activities release greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2 ), methane (CH4 ), and nitrous oxide (N2 O) into the atmosphere, trapping heat and leading to a gradual increase in global temperatures. One of the most remarkable characteristics of climate change is the increase in temperature, which is widely referred to as global warming (Houghton, 2009). According to the report of Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change, the release of greenhouse gases caused by human actions has contributed to around 1.1°C of warming since the period between1850-1900. The report also predicts that the global temperature will likely increase to 1.5°C or more in the next 20 years (IPCC, 2021).

Introduction

Soil is a silent foundation and a dynamic part of Earth’s complex ecosystem. It sustains life, influences plant growth and is involved in various environmental processes. However, the balance of this vital resource is increasingly threatened by the pervasive effects of climate change, manifested by rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns and changes in atmospheric conditions. As global temperatures rise and weather patterns change, the relationship between soil and climate poses transformative challenges with far-reaching consequences. This research addresses the complexity of this interaction and examines how climate change affects agriculture, soil health, composition and functionality. Soil health, a holistic concept that includes physical, chemical and biological aspects of soils, is closely linked to climate change. A notable consequence of climate change is the increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as droughts and floods. These events disrupt the delicate balance of soil ecosystems and lead to erosion, loss of topsoil and reduced fertility. Additionally, increased temperatures contribute to soil moisture depletion, reducing water availability for plants and microorganisms and further compromising soil health. A central issue at the interface between soil science and climate change is the role of soil as a carbon sink. Soils store large amounts of carbon in the form of organic material, thereby influencing the environment.

Introduction

Climate plays a crucial role in shaping the agricultural landscape of a region, and the changing climatic conditions pose a significant threat to global food security. In developing countries in Asia and Africa, the primary challenges to realizing optimal crop yields are declining soil fertility, particularly soil organic carbon and drought. The unchecked emission of greenhouse gases is expected to lead to a considerable rise in the average global temperature by 6°C in the next century, primarily driven by activities such as fossil burning and urbanization. Over the past centuries, there has been a noticeable increase in the concentration of CO2 and CH4 , with up to a 35% expected rise in nitrous oxide due to the improper use of nitrogenous fertilizers. Climate models predict a substantial impact on agricultural productivity in the 21st century, with rising temperatures and more frequent extreme weather events (NASA, 2022). To maintain agricultural productivity, it is imperative to understand the effects of increasing temperatures, shifting precipitation patterns, and rising CO2 levels on soil health. It is noteworthy that climate is one of the key factors influencing soil formation, alongside four other factors. Temperature and precipitation directly affect soil formation by providing the necessary conditions for weathering and biomass production. The sum of active temperature and precipitation evaporation ratio are critical parameters that determine energy consumption for soil formation, water balances in soil, organic-mineral interactions, and the transformation processes within the soil. However, human activities such as population growth, deforestation, disruption of marine ecosystems, and the greenhouse effect contribute to climate change, leading to denudation, depletion of soil organic matter, destruction of soil structure, erosion, and desertification, ultimately causing a decline in soil health and environmental degradation (IMD, 2021). Despite being a gradual process, climate change, characterized by small, long-term changes in temperature and precipitation, significantly influences various soil processes, particularly those related to soil fertility. The anticipated effects of climate change on soils primarily involve alterations in soil moisture conditions, increased soil temperature, and elevated CO2 levels. Understanding the consequences of climate change on soil health is crucial, as it has far-reaching impacts on agriculture, biodiversity, carbon cycling, and ecosystem resilience in the face of an evolving climate (Nunez et al., 2019).

Introduction

Climate change has significant adverse implications on the physiological processes and metabolic machinery of plants, potentially affecting growth, development, and overall crop productivity. The rapid increase in global population exacerbates the threat to global food security, which is further impacted by changing climate conditions. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that between 1850 and 1900 and 2011 and 2020, the global mean land surface air temperature increased by 1.6 °C. Predictions by the United Nations indicate that the global human population could reach 8.5 billion by 2023 and 9.7 billion by 2050, up from the current 8 billion. The National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) reported that 2022 was 0.86°C warmer than the average of the 20th century, making it the 6th warmest year on record. These data suggest an increased probability of unpredictable climate changes and harsh growing conditions, manifesting as various abiotic stresses on major cultivable lands. Climate change impacts CO2 concentration, temperature, precipitation, pollutants, and nutrient availability and uptake, leading to drought, salinity, irregular rainfall, f looding, high temperatures, and nutrient deficiencies in staple food crops, thereby threatening global food security. This review focuses on the effect of elevated CO2 and temperature on fundamental plant metabolic processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, and nitrogen metabolism.

Introduction

The world’s food and nutritional security are under serious threat from climate change. Climate changes have significant effects on agriculture by affecting insect pests, their natural enemies, and pollinators as illustrated in Fig 1 (Eigenbrode and Adhikari, 2023). According to Benedict (2003), 13.6% of annual crop loss worldwide is attributed to insect pest attack. Crops, crop pests, natural enemies and pollinators are directly and indirectly impacted by erratic climate. The continuous and anticipated alterations in these insects vary across species, systems, and geographical areas, impeding the development of strong generalizations and forecasts. Moreover, the implementation of “climate-smart” agricultural methods, may have additional effects on ideal management of these insects.

Direct effects on insect pests

Temperature: The most reliable, well-researched, and easily modelled component of climate change is warming. Warming affects physiology, phenology, dispersal, reproduction, development, and survival of insect pests (Bale et al., 2002) as illustrated in Fig 2 (Skendži? et al., 2021). It can be inferred that increased herbivory would be associated with rising temperatures in many cases. High temperature and high humidity are key reasons for whitefly population increase (Pathania et al., 2020). Warming can alter the number of insect generations in Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in China (Huang and Hao, 2020).